17 kaizen with models

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Lean Kaizen Motivational Influence Explained Utilizing

Expectancy-Value Motivation TheoryBradley D. Miller, P.E.

Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA

Abstract

To implement the lean manufacturing philosophy, engineers utilize kaizen: a structured process for continuousimprovement that heavily involves the floor operator. The successful implementation of lean requires kaizen tomotivate floor operators to both learn and apply industrial engineering principles to their individual tasks. Theimplied motivational power of the kaizen process has not been studied using modern psychological motivationtheories. This paper describes expectancy-value motivation theory from a social-cognitive perspective and proposeshow the kaizen process fits within this theoretical framework to increase worker motivation.

Keywords: Kaizen, Lean Manufacturing, Psychology, Expectancy-Value Theory, Motivation

1.0 IntroductionLean manufacturing has attracted increased attention in the industrial engineering community over the past decade.

In order to implement the lean manufacturing philosophy, engineers utilize kaizen blitz: a structured process forcontinuous improvement that heavily involves floor operators [8, 29]. The successful implementation of leanrequires the kaizen blitz process to motivate floor operators to both learn and apply industrial engineering principlesto their individual tasks [1, 15 25, 31]. Industrial engineering researchers have extensively studied the utility andfrequency of the use of lean tools [21, 22]. These researchers have assumed the motivational influences withinkaizen blitz to change employee behavior. This assumed and implied motivational power of the kaizen process hasnot been studied using modern psychological motivation theories.

Psychologists have studied motivation extensively over the past 100 years [28]. Expectancy-value theory has beenrobustly tested and recently explored within the context of academic motivation. This theory proposes thatexpectancy and task value beliefs predict and correlate with persistence, effort, choice, and performance at a goal-directed task. Expectancy-value motivation theory from a social-cognitive perspective provides a framework fordescribing the motivational process involved during a kaizen blitz.

2.0 Kaizen blitz requires employee motivationOne of the human components that researchers identify as fundamental to the effectiveness of an organizationalchange is the motivation of employees [23, 25]. Specifically, lean manufacturing is a change process that requiresthe motivated participation of employees [24]. Researchers believe that the implementation of lean manufacturing isrelated to enhanced motivation of employees [24]. To achieve its improvements, the lean manufacturing processrelies on the purposeful use of teams, which is believed to motivate employees [25]. Kaizen blitz is one of theprimary team-based tools that lean manufacturing utilizes to design and implement improvements in an organization[8, 29]. Berger [4] asserts that Kaizen blitz is associated with employee motivation.

Lean manufacturing uses ordinary workers who have limited exposure and knowledge of industrial engineeringconcepts to design creative manufacturing improvements. A specialized knowledge of material flow, processevaluation, analytical tools, and improvement techniques is required for lean manufacturing to be effective [25].

Therefore, the implementation of lean manufacturing requires extensive employee training in these concepts [14].For this training to be effective, employees must be motivated to learn these new topics.

Simply learning the necessary topics is not enough, however. Employees must also be motivated to apply theprinciples they have learned to improve actual work processes [1, 15, 25, 31]. The lean manufacturing processrequires motivated employees to improve processes by using their skills and knowledge [8]. Unfortunately, specificcomponents of motivation have not been explored in the lean manufacturing literature. While acknowledging theneed for employee motivation, especially within a kaizen blitz, empirical research has examined neither how thatmotivation is created nor its impact on the success of a kaizen blitz.


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3.0 The connection between kaizen blitz and expectancy-value theoryTo understand why kaizen blitz is effective when implementing Lean Manufacturing, the mathematical andanalytical tools used in a kaizen blitz have been extensively reviewed and studied [21, 22]. However, in order forresearchers to fully explain the variance in the implementation effectiveness of kaizen blitz, it may be even moreimportant to consider the cognitive and motivational variables that influence workers to make organizationalimprovements [8, 30]. A review of related literature reveals that very little research has been focused on the

psychology of human resources within lean manufacturing [18, 30]. The current study begins to fill this research gapby describing the motivation of employees during kaizen blitz from an expectancy-value theoretical perspective.

4.0 Expectancy-value model of motivation4.1 Overview of the theorys main variablesModern motivation theories approach motivation from a social-cognitive viewpoint [28]. Social-cognitive theoriesassume human behavior is influenced by a triadic reciprocity [2] whereby three determinants, (1) environmentalforces, (2) personal beliefs and perceptions, and (3) the results of a persons behavior, interact to influence each ofthe other determinants. Taking a social-cognitive perspective, expectancy-value theorists also view behavior asultimately being influenced by an individuals perceptions of their environment, personal beliefs, and their behavior[37]. Because motivation is an internal process that cannot be observed directly, expectancy-value theorists definean observable and measurable set of achievement behaviors that are assumed to result from motivation to enact a

behavior. Psychologists define and observe achievement behaviors as exerting effort at a particular task, persistenceat difficult tasks, choosing to participate in task-related behaviors, and actual successful performance at the task[28].

Eccles and Wigfield and their colleagues both assume and verify from their research that two major categories ofindividual perceptions directly influence achievement behaviors as seen in figure 1: expectancy beliefs and taskvalue beliefs[11, 12, 13, 28, 35, 36, 37]. A survey instrument to detect and measure the presence of these variableshas been tested in educational settings, producing robust and consistent results [10, 11]. The influence of these twomotivational beliefs on achievement behaviors are the focus of Eccles and Wigfields research and establish afoundation upon which to build the current research.

Achievement BehaviorPersistenceEffortChoice of activityPerformance

Task Value BeliefsImportance/attainment

Enjoyment/interestUsefulness/utilityPerceived cost

Expectancy Beliefs

Expectation for successSelf-perception of ability

figure 1

4.2 Expectancy beliefsEccles and Wigfield define two primary expectancy beliefs: (1) expectation for success at an activity and (2) self-

perception of competence at performing that task [11, 12, 13, 35, 36]. Expectation for success refers to anindividuals belief that their behavior will result in favorable outcomes. An example of a statement of expectationfor success in a kaizen blitz event would be I am certain that kaizen blitz events I am a part of will be successful.Self-perception of competence refers to an individuals belief that they are capable and competent to exhibit aparticular behavior successfully [35, 37]. An example of a statement of self-perception of competence in a kaizenblitz event would be I am capable of doing the work involved in a kaizen event.

In studies involving these two beliefs, they consistently emerge as a single statistical construct [10, 11]. The singleconstruct of expectancy beliefs relates closely to Banduras [2] concept of self-efficacy [12, 13, 28]. Self-efficacy,


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the belief individuals have of themselves that they can competently learn and complete a task successfully [2, 23],has been associated with the achievement behaviors persistence, effort, and actual performance [9, 28]. Educationalpsychologists also assume that expectancy beliefs are positively correlated with an individuals effort, persistence,and performance in specific academic subjects [9].

In Eccles and Wigfields expectancy-value model of motivation, expectancy beliefs are directly associated withachievement behaviors [28]. However, expectancy beliefs have been shown to exist in conjunction with and parallelto task value beliefs to influence achievement behavior and motivation [11, 12, 13, 35, 36].

4.3 Task value beliefsTask value beliefs refer to an individuals beliefs that a specific task or behavior will be worthwhile [11, 12, 13, 35,36]. These researchers describe task value beliefs as falling into four separate [10, 11] categories: (1) importance orattainment value, (2) enjoyment or interest value, (3) usefulness and utility value, and (4) perceived cost. Importanceor attainment value is defined as the importance of performing well or achieving success on a task. An example ofan importance value belief related to kaizen blitz events would be When I am participating in a kaizen blitz event, itis important for that event to be successful. Enjoyment or interest value is defined as how enjoyable or satisfyingthe individual finds the experience of performing a task. An example of an interest value belief related to kaizenblitz events would be I enjoy working on a kaizen blitz team. Usefulness and utility value refers to how useful thetask is perceived to be in enabling the individual to reach future personal goals. An example of a usefulness valuebelief related to kaizen blitz would be Participating in kaizen blitz events is useful for improving my job. Finally,

the cost of participating in an activity refers to the negative emotional, mental, and physical effort that is perceivedto be associated with the task. In previous research, the cost component has not been evaluated empirically but areassumed to play a role in determining the overall value an individual attributes to a task [28].

Unlike expectancy beliefs, the constructs of importance, enjoyment, and usefulness emerge statistically as separateand distinct variables [10, 11]. Researchers assume that the importance, enjoyment, and usefulness values are relatedsomewhat to an individuals effort, persistence, and performance in specific academic subjects [9]. This same studyrevealed that importance, enjoyment, and usefulness values are strongly related to the intended and actual choice ofacademic enrollment decisions. Additionally, expectancy beliefs tend to correlate positively with task value beliefs[11].

5.0 A synthesis of motivation in kaizen blitz within an expectancy-value frameworkMany of the characteristic activities of a kaizen blitz have direct connection with the expectancy-value model. The

expectancy-value theory is a model of motivation for achievement task values. Appropriately, the kaizen blitzpractitioners and researchers assert that motivation of employees is necessary for successful participation [5, 27].Additionally, they use other terms that may be closely associated with the need for employee motivation such asownership [16, 19] and empowerment [5, 7, 16, 19, 20, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34]. This motivation for participation inkaizen blitz can be explained using the expectancy-value model.

5.1 Achievement behaviors in kaizen blitzManagers and researchers assert the human behaviors necessary for achievement in kaizen blitz. Expectancy-valuetheory suggests that persistence is an achievement behavior; kaizen blitz authors also state that employees must bededicated, devoted, and persist at kaizen blitz problem solving [5, 14, 20, 26, 34]. The expectancy-value modelposes effort as an achievement behavior and kaizen blitz authors agree by stating that employees must work hardand be actively involved in these events [4, 5, 6, 16, 27, 33]. Finally, cognitive engagement is seen as important inthe expectancy-value model as well as in kaizen blitz [3, 33].

5.2 Task value beliefs in kaizen blitzExpectancy-value research has shown a direct correlation between various task value beliefs and achievementbehaviors. Expectancy-value researchers have shown that the belief that the task is important relates positively toperformance [9, 17]. In the same way, kaizen blitz authors stress that employees must understand the importance ofthe kaizen blitz for it to be successful [3, 5, 16, 26, 33, 34]. Another task value belief associated with achievementbehaviors is the belief that the task will be useful [17]. Similarly, literature asserts that employees must understandthe benefits of the kaizen blitz [6, 16, 19, 26]. Just as students are more likely to exhibit achievement behaviorswhen they find a task enjoyable [17], anecdotal evidence suggests that successful kaizen blitz involves enthusiasticemployees that enjoy the kaizen process and look forward to participating in more events [3, 6, 7, 26, 32].


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5.3 Expectancy beliefs in kaizen blitzExpectancy-value research demonstrates that the expectancy beliefs of students expectation for success and theirconfidence in their own abilities are strongly related to achievement behaviors [28]. Likewise, kaizen blitz researchsuggests that in order for kaizen blitz events to be successful, employees must be confident in their abilities [19, 33]as well as trust in the kaizen process to work [16, 19].

6.0 ConclusionThe expectancy-value model has been robustly tested in educational settings to explain students motivation forexhibiting academic achievement behaviors. Using a survey measurement instrument, psychologists measureexpectancy and task value beliefs and demonstrate correlations between these beliefs and persistence, effort, choiceand performance at academic tasks. These same primary variables involved in motivation from an expectancy-valueperspective are clearly advocated by kaizen proponents, albeit anecdotally. A survey of lean manufacturing literaturedemonstrates that researchers believe that high expectancy and task value beliefs are necessary for successful kaizenblitz events. Future research should measure these psychological variables within employees involved in kaizen blitzevents to discover if they relate. Once tested empirically, the expectancy-value theory could be used to explain whykaizen tends to motivate line workers to improve their own work areas. Determining that expectancy and task valuebeliefs predict achievement behaviors within kaizen blitz events may encourage further research to explore ways toinfluence the antecedents to these key beliefs.

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