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FOCUSING QUESTIONS

1 What is a career? What is the difference between a career and a job?

2 Are there typical career stages a school administrator passes through? Whatare the key issues at each stage?

3 Is stress a part of the school administrator’s job? What are the causes,symptoms, and effects of career stress in educational administration?

4 What are some individual and organizational techniques for coping withadministrative stress?

5 Is career development important for both individuals and organizations?

6 What are the components of a comprehensive career development program?

7 What are the special problems women and minorities face in careers ineducational administration?

8 Do programs exist to enhance the careers of women and minorities in schooladministration?

In this chapter, we attempt to answer these questions concerning careers in educa-tional administration. We begin our discussion by exploring the concept of a career.Then we discuss career stages in the context of an administrative career. Next, weexamine the role stress plays in educational administration, including causes, symp-toms, and effects. We also examine individual and organizational strategies for cop-ing with stress and discuss career development in terms of individual andorganizational processes. Finally, we examine the potential administrative careeropportunities for women and minorities, including barriers to career ascendanceand specific programs for overcoming these barriers.

The Concept of CareerLong hours at an unremitting pace, varied and fragmented tasks, and heavy relianceon verbal communication are all part of a career in educational administration. Goodpay and benefits, status, prestige, power, and challenging and interesting work are also

16■

Careers in EducationalAdministration

characteristic of an administrative career in educa-tion. Does this profile appeal to you? If so, then acareer in school administration may be for you.

What is a career? To some people, a careermeans moving upward in an organization, makingmore money, having more responsibility, andacquiring more status and power. Others view a ca-reer as a specific line of work or a profession. Stillothers believe that a career is more than movementin an organization or a specific line of work. Tothem a career means psychological involvement inone’s work regardless of the salary, responsibility,or status.1

A more formal definition of a career is a life-long sequence of work-related positions integratedwith the attitudes and motives of the person as sheengages in these positions.2 This definition empha-sizes that the concept of career does not imply suc-cess or failure, that a career consists of bothbehaviors and attitudes, and that it is a lifelongsequence of work-related experiences. As such,careers are important to people and to the organi-zation. Careers inevitably integrate the needs ofpeople and organizations. Noted management the-orists on careers suggest that organizations aredependent on people to perform jobs, and peopleare dependent on organizations to provide jobsand career opportunities.3 Thus, school adminis-trators should consider career-related issues (e.g.,salary schedules and merit pay, job opportunities,and chances for promotion) in establishing admin-istrative policies and procedures.

Career StagesIt is important for school administrators to under-stand how careers evolve over time. That informa-tion will help administrators to better plan their

Chapter 16 ■ Careers in Educational Administration 617

own careers and help organizations to better un-derstand employees’ concerns as they move throughcareer stages. Most careers evolve through severalstages during a person’s working life.

Among the numerous career stage models thathave been proposed, one framework, which is par-ticularly applicable to school administrators, hasbeen developed by Gene Dalton and Paul Thomp-son. Based on their study of 550 professionallytrained people, they propose that careers evolvethrough four distinct stages. According to Daltonand Thompson, their model applies to people theycall “knowledge workers,” or people in such pro-fessions as engineering, accounting, business man-agement, and science. The principles apply toother employees as well, particularly those whoclimb the organizational ladder, such as schooladministrators who must rise through the teachingranks.

Dalton and Thompson propose that the fourdistinct career stages differ in terms of the activitiesemployees are expected to perform, the relation-ships they are expected to develop, and the psycho-logical adjustments they are expected to make.4

Stage 1: Apprentice

Stage 1, the apprentice stage, begins at the outset ofa person’s career. During this stage, beginning pro-fessionals must work closely with more experiencedpersons. The relationship that develops betweenbeginning professionals and their supervisors is anapprenticeship. The major activities in which begin-ning professionals are to show competence includelearning and following directions. To move suc-cessfully and effectively through the apprenticestage, beginning professionals must be able toaccept the psychological state of dependence. Theapprentice stage continues through the first, orentry-level, job, which is usually nonadministra-tive, even for those who have an administrative1Patrice Cassedy, Education (Farmington Hills, MI:

Gale Group, 2002).2Glen W. Cutlip et al., Careers in Teaching (New York:Rosen Publishing Group, 2000).3Patrick Forsyth, Career Management (New York:Wiley, 2002).

4Gene Dalton and Paul F. Thompson, Novations: Strate-gies for Career Management (Glenview, IL: Scott, Fores-man, 1986).

career in mind. For example, in most states severalyears of teaching experience is required before aperson is eligible for certification as a principal.

Activities Stage 1 involves three types of learn-ing. First, the beginning professional must learn toperform at least some of the organization’s taskscompetently and determine which tasks are crucialand which require less emphasis. For example, anew teacher must learn to prepare lessons, presentinformation, diagnose learning, reinforce and cor-rect students, and evaluate learning. Second, theteacher must learn how to get tasks done, usingboth formal and informal channels of communica-tion. Finally, the teacher must perform these taskswhile being closely observed for competence andfuture potential by one or more supervisors. First-year teachers in Texas, for example, are called“intern teachers” and are assigned a committee ofthree supervisors: the building principal, a resourceteacher, and a university educator who act as men-tors to the novice teacher. A similar procedureexists in the same state for first-year principals,except that the three-member committee consists ofthe superintendent or designee, an experiencedprincipal, and a university educator.

Relationships The primary relationship a begin-ning teacher experiences in stage 1 is that of subor-dinate. Ideally, the beginning teacher is assigned a mentor who knows the school, is a successfulteacher, and has been trained to work with noviceteachers. A mentor is a person who provides sup-port and guidance to a beginning professional.5

The mentor helps with the learning necessary todevelop skills for advancement and tenure in theorganization.

Psychological Adjustments Some professionalscannot cope with being placed in a subordinatestate. They feel that they are still being directed andguided by a supervisor, somewhat similar to theprofessor-student relationship in college. They hadanticipated that their first job would provide themwith considerably more autonomy. Beginning pro-

fessionals often find this situation frustrating.However, effectively handling the subordinate-supervisor relationship and the tasks assigned maybe crucial to advancement, to achieving tenure, andultimately in building a successful career.

Stage 2: Independent Contributor

Once through the dependent relationship charac-teristic of stage 1, the teacher moves into stage 2,the independent contributor stage, which is char-acterized by greater independence. The teacher hasdemonstrated technical competence in the fieldand can work independently to produce results.These people understand the requirements for suc-cess in their profession and need less direction,support, and guidance. The first real administra-tive position is usually acquired during this stage.

Activities The focus of activities during stage 2is on gaining exposure within the organization andthe profession and on continued competent perfor-mance. Because many school districts practice hir-ing their administrative personnel from theoutside, some aspiring administrators may holdseveral administrative positions during this periodwhile learning more about the occupationalchoices available to them. In fact, many profes-sionals find that they can move up faster and earnmore money by moving from one administrativeposition to another. Typically, the aspiring admin-istrator might begin as a counselor in one schooldistrict and then secure several successively higher-level administrative positions in other school dis-tricts, including assistant principal, director ofinstruction, and the like.

Relationships The primary relationship in thisstage is with peers. In fact, some refer to thisperiod as the colleague stage. As mentor relation-ships begin to diminish, networking becomesimportant. Networking can be seen as an alterna-tive to mentoring. It is a process by which employ-ees gain peer support through a network ofcollegial associations.6 Collectively, these associa-

618 Part IV ■ Administration of Programs and Services

5Hal Portner, Being Mentored: A Guide for Protégés(Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2002).

6Betsy Sheldon, The Smart Woman’s Guide to Network-ing (Broomall, PA: Chelsea House Publishers, 1996).

tions form a broad pool of resources. For women,both networking and mentoring relationships aremore important than they are for men. Manywomen are unable to move into administrativepositions because of culture, “the good old boysnetwork,” or other barriers.7 (These barriers arediscussed later in this chapter.) Networking andmentoring relationships can provide professionalswith insights concerning how the organizationworks and exposure to top-level school executives.

Psychological Adjustments During stage 2, theprofessional is expected to rely on much lessdirection from supervisors. This psychologicalstate of independence may pose some problemsfor the independent contributor because it is anextreme contrast to the state of dependencerequired in apprenticeship. The independent con-tributor stage is extremely important for the pro-fessional’s career advancement. Those who fail atthis stage do so because they lack the technicaladministrative skills to perform independently orbecause they lack the necessary self-confidence toproject the proper image of an administrator.

Dalton and Thompson note that many profes-sionals remain in stage 2 throughout their careers.For example, a principal is able to make a substan-tial contribution and experience a great deal ofpersonal satisfaction through the administration ofa single school building. Many have no desire tomove up the organizational ladder to higher-leveladministrative positions. However, the authorsalso note that high-performance appraisals tend todiminish with time for those who remain in stage 2too long. Others focus their thoughts on the nextcareer stage.

Stage 3: Mentor

During stage 3, the mentor stage, professionalsturn their energies to mentoring less experiencedprofessionals. They broaden their interests andwork increasingly more with people outside the

organization. Mentoring professionals assume thework of others, and this activity can cause psycho-logical stress.

Activities Stage 3 professionals perform threeroles, which tend to be somewhat overlapping.First, people who enter stage 3 are expected tobecome mentors of those in stage 1. To accomplishthis added responsibility, they secure help fromthose in stage 2. For example, in a school setting,the assistant superintendent of instruction ordirector of secondary education will seek the helpof the principal in mentoring a beginning teacheror a newly appointed assistant principal.

The second role performed by stage 3 profes-sionals is that of consultant for small groups bothinside and outside the organization. From theirpast experience and success in stage 2, they havethe ability to pull together the information andresources needed to solve problems. For example,the assistant superintendent may work with vari-ous school and community committees to revampthe curriculum, plan new bus routes, or develop adistrictwide testing program.

The third role, that of manager, is the mostcommon role found in the mentoring stage. A pro-fessional in stage 2 is typically one or two levelsaway from the work itself. For example, a principalof an elementary school is probably the teacher’sdirect supervisor. In a high school, there may beone or two levels (department head and assistantprincipal) between the teacher and the principal. Amentoring professional, on the other hand, is moredistant from the work and, consequently, adminis-ters at a more conceptual level. She deals morewith concepts than with technical activities. Nev-ertheless, she assumes responsibility for the techni-cal work done by others. Note the similarity hereto Robert Katz’s three-skill model.8

Relationships The administrator in stage 3 hastaken on more responsibility. Relationships includenot only directional activities but also mentorshipand the training of others. The professional in this


7Beverly J. Irby and Genevieve Brown, Women Leaders:Structuring Success (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1998).

8Robert L. Katz, “Skills of an Effective Administrator,”Harvard Business Review, 52 (1974): 90–102.

stage needs to demonstrate a high level of humanskills in setting objectives, coordinating, delegating,supervising, and making decisions. The stage 3professional must satisfy many people above him inthe organization’s hierarchy. An assistant superin-tendent, for example, must have an influence on the superintendent in order to obtain the neces-sary resources for principals to perform their roleseffectively.

Psychological Adjustments As mentioned previ-ously, stage 3 professionals assume responsibilityfor the work of others. This role can result in con-siderable psychological adjustment. In previousstages, the professional was responsible for her ownwork, but now she is concerned with the work ofothers. Professionals who are not capable of accept-ing this requirement may move back to stage 2. Forexample, many central office administrators missthe autonomy and sense of satisfaction derived frombeing responsible for their own building when theywere principals. However, those who derive satis-faction from seeing others move ahead may remainin stage 3 for the remainder of their careers. Othersmove on to the next career stage.

Stage 4: Sponsor

Not all professionals experience stage 4, the spon-sor stage. Those who enter this stage are involvedin shaping the organization itself. This influence ismanifested by interfacing with key people insideand outside the organization; by developing newways of achieving the goals of the organization;and by directing people, material, and financial re-sources toward specific organizational goals. Be-cause these activities are so critical to the successand continued growth of an organization, peoplewho perform them are highly valued. For exam-ple, public school superintendents and universitypresidents are paid salaries many times higher thantheir subordinates.

Activities Stage 4 professionals direct theirattention to long-range strategic planning. To ful-

fill this function, they perform three roles: leader,entrepreneur, and idea innovator. Leaders formu-late policy and initiate and implement broad pro-grams. Entrepreneurs have a strong sense ofdirection for the future. It is what one authorrefers to as the visionary leader.9 Idea innovatorsare people with new ideas for accomplishing theorganization’s goals. These people have gained areputation outside their organization through pro-fessional achievements and publications. This out-side reputation enhances their credibility andallows them to play key roles in organizationaldevelopment. Although we generally think of suchactivities as being performed by one person — theorganization’s chief executive officer— they maybe performed by others. For example, in a schoolsetting, key administrators in the divisions ofinstruction, finance, personnel, and research anddevelopment may be sponsors depending on theamount of authority and responsibility that hasbeen delegated to them.

Relationships Stage 4 professionals find them-selves involved in two major relationships. First,these professionals are responsible for setting thedirection of the organization. Thus, they have ahigh degree of control over important organiza-tional resources. Selection and development of keypeople is one of the basic ways of shaping thedirection of the organization. The second majorresponsibility is contact with people and organiza-tions outside their own. This relationship is criticalbecause it brings current information about eventsand trends into an organization. Such a relation-ship can be seen in public schools and universitiesas sponsor professionals interact with federal,state, and local governments.

Psychological Adjustments Depending on thesize of the organization, stage 4 professionals areat least three or more levels removed from the


9Burt Nanus, Visionary Leadership: Creating a Com-pelling Sense of Direction for Your Organization, rev.ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995).

technical work. Because of this distance from the“�ring line,” they must resist second-guessing theirsubordinates on operating decisions. Sponsorsmust learn to in�uence others through more indi-rect means such as idea planting, personnel selec-tion, program evaluation, resource allocation,changes in organizational design, and the like.These shifts in leadership style can be a dif�cultpsychological adjustment for stage 4 professionalswho may have used a more direct leadership stylein the past.

Managing Career Stress Earlier we characterized the school administrator’ swork as varied, fragmented, and continuous. Inprevious chapters, we have seen that schooladministrators are responsible for organizing theworkforce, motivating subordinates, making deci-sions, communicating with others, facilitatingchange, deploying resources, and leading the orga-nization. School administrators are responsible for high performance. Considering the nature ofthe school administrator’ s work, stress is part ofthe job.

Stress is the physiological and psychologicalresponse of an individual to demands, constraints,or opportunities involving uncertainty and impor-tant outcomes.10 Prolonged exposure to stress canproduce dysfunctional e�ects that may a�ect jobperformance. In particular , in studies of the needsof women leaders, stress management was re-ported as an important concern.11 In this section,we examine the sources of stress, e�ects of stress,and techniques for coping with stress.

Sources of Stress

Stressors are environmental conditions that havethe potential to cause stress. It is important for aschool administrator to recognize stressors becausethey induce job-related stress, which may in�uencework attitudes, behavior , and performance.

Figure 16 –1 depicts three categories of stress-ors: organizational, personal, and nonorganiza-tional factors. Of the three, organizational factorshave the greatest potential to induce job-relatedstress. Factors such as excessively high or low jobdemands, role con�icts and ambiguities, and poorinterpersonal relations can in�uence the stress level school administrators experience. Adminis-trators also feel stress in the transition from onecareer stage to the next, which is due to the uncer-tainty often associated with new job experiencesand expectations. A somewhat related factor iscareer development. An administrator can feelstress from underpromotion (failure to advance asrapidly as one desires) or overpromotion (beingplaced in a job that exceeds one’s capabilities).These organizational factors, independently or inconcert, can induce job stress.

Several personal factors are sources of stress foradministrators in the workplace. Such individualcharacteristics as need for achievement, aptitudesand skills, task understanding, and personality canin�uence how individuals experience and react tostress and stressors. For example, personality traitssuch as authoritarianism, introversion/extrover-sion, tolerance for ambiguity, locus of control, andself-esteem have been found to be related to jobstress.12 Attention has focused, however, on theT ype A personality, which seems to relate to theways in which individuals experience stress. Char-acteristics of this personality structure include:

A chronic sense of time urgency

A constant involvement in multiple projects sub-ject to deadlines

Chapter 16 Careers in Educational Administration 621

10 Cary L. Cooper (ed.), Theories of OrganizationalStress (New Y ork: Oxford University Press, 2000).11 Genevieve Brown and Beverly J. Irby, “W omen inEducational Leadership: A Research-Based Model forCourse Development,” in J. Burdin (ed.), PrioritizingInstruction (Lancaster , PA: Technomic, 1996), pp.131 – 138; C. Cryss Brunner (ed.), Sacred Dreams:Women and the Superintendency (Albany , NY : StateUniversity of New Y ork Press, 1999).

12Cary L. Cooper, Managerial, Occupational and Orga-nizational Stress Research (Brook�eld, VT : Ashgate,2001).

A neglect of all aspects of life except work

A highly competitive, aggressive, almost hostileorientation

An impatience with barriers to goal achievement

A tendency to measure success by quantity 13

The time urgency, competitiveness and hostility,multiphasic behavior , and achievement orientationcharacteristic of Type A personalities predisposethese individuals to certain physical disorders suchas heart attacks. Much of the stress they feel is oftheir own making rather than the product of theirenvironment.

Finally , nonorganizational factors can alsoimpact the stress a school administrator experi-ences in the work setting. Such things as lifechanges (the birth of a child, death of a spouse,divorce), career changes (loss of extra income),and dual careers can in�uence a person’s healthand job performance. Dual-career problems typi-cally arise when a married couple attempts to bal-ance two individual careers. Major concerns forcouples with dual careers include sharing house-hold chores, child care, and job relocation. Nonor-ganizational factors can result in a “spillover” of

stress, which may in�uence attitudes, behavior,and job performance.

Time Management School administrators feelmore job pressures and time constraints than everbefore according to a recent survey.14 Typically,administrators log in between 51 and 60 hours a week, and additional weekend work is notunusual.

School administrators report that they do nothave suf�cient time to do everything that needs tobe done. The variety of problems administratorsface and the large spans of control found in mostschool organizations make it dif�cult for them togive all aspects of the school program suf�cientattention. Not being able to do all that they wouldlike to do in the time available is a continuingsource of stress.

According to two management consultants,proper time management is more than a tidy deskand an orderly schedule: It is a career strategy thatcan help turn any school executive into a highachiever. Furthermore, they assert that when schooladministrators allow time to control them, it canresult in the kind of stress linked with high blood

622 Part IV Administration of Programs and Services

Figur e 16 –1

Sour ces of Job Stress

13 Cary L. Cooper et al., Organizational Stress: AReview and Critique of Theory , Research, and Applica-tions (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001).

14 Valerie Sutherland et al., Strategic Stress Manage-ment: An Organizational Approach (New York: Pol-grave Macmillan, 2002).

pressure, heart attacks, excessive irritability, andgeneral anxiety.15

Stress and Performance Stress can either help orhinder job performance, depending on the amountof it.16 Figure 16 –2 shows the relationshipbetween stress and job performance. The verticalaxis represents the level of performance from lowto high. The horizontal axis represents the amountof stress experienced. At very low levels of stress,job challenges are absent, and performance tendsto be low. As stress increases, performance tendsto increase because stress helps an individual acti-vate physiological and psychological resources tomeet job requirements. Eventually, stress reaches apoint — the optimum stress level — that corre-sponds roughly with a person’s maximum dailyperformance capability. Past this point, perfor-mance begins to decline. Excessive levels andextended periods of stress can be dysfunctional tothe organization because stress interferes with per-formance. Employees manifest erratic behavior,lose the ability to cope, and cannot make deci-sions. The key is to balance stress so that an opti-mum level is reached for each individual.

As noted, schools, by their very nature, arefertile grounds for conflict. The conflicts that occurfrequently result in stress for principals, particu-larly secondary principals. Research on stress in theprincipalship indicates that much of it is caused bysuch sources as role conflict, instructional leader-ship demands, problem-solving role, high activitylevel, time-management demand, and external pol-itics. (See Administrative Advice 16 –1.)

Effects of Stress

As noted previously, stress is not all bad. In fact,low-level stress can enhance job performance.High-level, prolonged stress, on the other hand,can be dysfunctional to both the individual’s healthand organizational performance. The effects of jobstress can be manifested physiologically, psycholog-ically, and behaviorally by the individual.

On the physiological level, all types of stressproduce a chemical reaction in the body. These in-clude changes in metabolism, increased heart andbreathing rates, increased blood pressure, andincreased perspiration, skin temperature, bloodglucose level, and blood clotting. If stress persistsand is accompanied by these physiological changes,certain annoying and serious health conditionscan result. Among them are heart disease, hyper-tension, increased blood cholesterol levels, ulcers,arthritis, allergies, gastrointestinal problems, andeven cancer.17 It should be noted, however, thatstress is not the only cause of these ailments. Thegenetic predisposition, diet, and lifestyle of anindividual can also contribute to various healthconditions.

While not as much attention has been given tothe impact of stress on mental health as on physi-cal health, psychological problems at work can beequally dysfunctional to job performance. Among


15Debra Allcock Tyler, Time Management (London:Spiro Press, 2003).16Don Hellriegel, John W. Slocum, and Richard W.Woodman, Organizational Behavior, 8th ed. (Belmont,CA: South-Western Thomson Learning, 2000).

Figure 16–2

Relationship of Stress and Performance

17Dianna T. Kenny, et al., Stress and Health: Researchand Clinical Applications (Florence, KY: Gordon andBreach Publishing Group, 2000).

the more common psychological outcomes ofstress are anxiety, tension, depression, boredom,and mental fatigue. The effects of these psycho-logical states on employee job performance arelowered self-esteem and poorer intellectual func-tioning, including the inability to concentrate andmake decisions, irritability, forgetfulness, nega-tivism, apathy, and job dissatisfaction. These out-comes of stress can be costly to an organization.For example, there have been an increasing num-ber of workers’ compensation awards granted to

employees based on job-related psychologicalstress.18

The physiological and psychological effects ofstress relate to how employees feel, whereas thebehavioral effects indicate what employees actu-ally do under stress. Consequently, an analysis ofthe behavioral effects of job stress may be mosthelpful to the school administrator. Any sudden


Administrative Advice 16–1

Managing Stress in the Principalship

Here are the major sources of stress that school principals face in performing theirduties and techniques to manage stress.

■ Role Conflict. Principals serve as members of thesuperintendent’s administrative team and areexpected to accomplish district goals. Simultane-ously, they serve as leader of the school instruc-tional team and its staff. Frequently, the goals,policies, and directives from the central office arein conflict with the goals, wishes, and expectationsof staff members. When such conflicts occur, prin-cipals may experience stress.

■ Instructional Leadership. Most principals know theyare expected to be instructional leaders in theirschools. However, most secondary principals findthat the administrative role tends to dominate theinstructional leadership role. The inability todevote sufficient attention to the instructionalleadership role is a source of stress.

■ Problem-Solving Role. The principal’s office is fre-quently a collection point for problems. The over-all effectiveness of the principal hinges on hisability to resolve these conflicts. Resolving theseproblems carries a price. The process is time-consuming and stressful.

■ High Activity Level. The principal’s day is busy,rapid-fire, and fragmented with numerous inter-ruptions. There is little time for careful thought,

reflection, and long-range planning. The “on-the-spot” interactions require “on-the-spot” answersand decisions. This causes stress.

■ External Politics. Increased accountability resultingfrom national and state reform mandates, recentSupreme Court decisions, and issues such as AIDS,special education, sex education, drug education,and vocational education have added to the work-load and stress level of principals.Some suggestions for managing the level of

stress follow:1. Do not allow work problems brought to you to

become your problem.

2. Learn to delegate responsibilities and duties.

3. Give careful attention to your role as supervisor.

4. Find and maintain a network of trusted profes-sional and personal friends.

5. Develop some activities that can reduce your anxi-eties and stress.

Source: Adapted from James E. Lyons, “Managing Stress in the Princi-palship,” NASSP Bulletin, 74 (1990): 42– 49. Used by permission.

18Alex J. Zauta, Emotions, Stress, and Health (Cary,NC: Oxford University Press, 2003).

change in behavioral patterns may suggest that anemployee is experiencing a high-level stress.Among the more common indicators are extremesin appetite, drug abuse, impulsive behavior, speechdifficulties, accident proneness, higher tardinessand absenteeism, and decreased performance.19

Coping with Stress

As noted earlier, school administrators, in particu-lar, are prone to high levels of job stress. Althoughstress cannot be completely eliminated from theirwork environments, it can be managed. That is,steps can be taken to minimize its harmful effectsnot only for themselves but for their employees aswell. Several techniques for coping with stresshave been proposed. Most fall into two categories:strategies that individuals can apply themselvesand procedures that the organization can provideto minimize the onset of stress for employees.

Some specific techniques that individuals canuse to manage stress are the following:20

■ Exercise. A growing body of research indicatesthat individuals who exercise regularly are muchless prone to heart disease and hypertensionthan those who do not exercise regularly. Exer-cise produces chemical responses within thebody that diminish many of the physiologicalsymptoms of stress discussed earlier (e.g., heartrate, breathing rate, blood pressure).

■ Lifestyle Changes. The best way to reduce andprevent stress is to lead a better life. The individ-ual who has a proper diet, gets adequate sleep,exercises regularly, and avoids smoking, alcohol,and illegal drugs is likely to minimize the harm-ful effects of stress.

■ Meditation. Some research findings suggest thatmeditation affects basic bodily functions in amanner equivalent to deep rest. This state has

been described as one of four major states ofconsciousness; the other three are wakefulness,dreaming, and deep sleep. Such relaxation tech-niques can reduce the symptoms of stress.

■ Biofeedback. People under medical guidancecan learn through electronic machines how todevelop an awareness of muscle sensationsthroughout the body. With this knowledge comesthe ability to exercise control over their involun-tary nervous system, which in turn controls inter-nal processes such as heartbeat, breathing, brainwaves, and the like. Thus, biofeedback may behelpful in reducing some undesirable effects ofstress.

■ Visualization. These techniques are frequentlyused in combination with other stress reductiontechniques, such as meditation or biofeedback,but they can also be used effectively alone.Methods of visualization can range from con-centrating on a soothing color or focusing on apeaceful scene to imagining yourself performingthe steps needed to achieve a goal.

■ Networking. One means of coping with jobstress is through a network of social support.This would involve building close associationswith sympathetic others, especially coworkersand colleagues, who are good listeners and canbuild confidence.

■ Mental Health Professionals. Trained profes-sionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists,social workers, or mental health counselors canhelp reduce feelings of stress and anxiety. Anumber of major medical centers throughout thecountry offer formal stress management pro-grams. Most programs emphasize a holisticapproach to wellness, teaching stress reductionand relaxation techniques and offering nutri-tional counseling.

Organizational programs to help employees copewith stress are extremely popular. Such programsoften include one or more of the following:21


19Mardi J. Horowitz, Stress Response Syndrome, 4thed. (Northvale, NJ: Aronson, 2001).20Brian L. Seaward, Managing Stress: Principles andStrategies for Health and Wellbeing (Sudbury, MA:Jones & Bartlett, 2001).

21John Farquhar et al., Preventing and Managing Stress(Mill Valley, CA: Kantola Productions, 2001).

■ Job redesign (Chapters 2 and 4)■ Supportive organizational climate (Chapter 3)■ Goal setting (Chapter 4)■ Leadership styles (Chapter 5)■ Decision-making skills (Chapter 6)■ Communication skills (Chapter 7)■ Management of change and organizational

development (Chapter 8)■ Workshops dealing with role clarity and role

analysis (Chapter 8)■ Career development (Chapter 16)

Career development, which helps employees planand manage their careers, has become increasinglypopular.

Career DevelopmentCareer development refers to the methods andprocedures used to plan and implement a career bymeans of education, training, job search, and workexperiences.22 Career development consists of twoimportant elements: career planning and careermanagement. Career planning is the personal pro-cess of planning an individual’s career path. Careermanagement focuses on plans and activities per-formed by the organization to enhance its em-

ployees’ careers. Because the organization’s abilityto help meet the needs of its employees influencesorganizational effectiveness, effective career devel-opment requires a long-term fit between the indi-vidual and the organization. Figure 16 –3 depictsthe content of career planning and career manage-ment and shows both the interrelationship of thesetwo processes and their relationship to careerdevelopment.

Career Planning

The steps in the career-planning process includeself-appraisal, exploring opportunities, settinggoals, preparing plans, and implementing plans.23

Self-Appraisal The first step in the career-planningprocess is to gather data about one’s self. What skillsdo I possess? What are my aptitudes? What are myvalues and interests? What are my internal strengthsand weaknesses? What do I enjoy doing? What doI dislike doing?

Books and various tests are available to helppeople assess themselves.24 Various tests — such asthe FIRO–B; Myers-Briggs Type Indicator; All-port, Vernon, Lindsey Study of Values — measureone’s behaviors, interests, and values. Table 16 –1


Figure 16–3

Career Planning and CareerManagement as Elements ofCareer Development

22Monica E. Breidenbach, Career Development: Life andCareer Strategies and Technologies, 4th ed. (Upper Sad-dle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2000).

23Aggie White, Career Planning and Networking (Bel-mont, CA: South-Western Thomson Learning, 2001).24James G. Clawson, Self-Assessment and Career Devel-opment, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1991).


Table 16–1 Profile of Self-Assessment Instruments

Instrument Description

FIRO–B Available through Consulting Psychologists Press (CPP), this hand-scored instrumentmeasures an individual’s characteristic behavior toward other people along thedimensions of inclusion, control, and affection (openness).

Myers-Briggs Type The MBTI provides a measure of personality dispositions and interests based on Jung’sIndicator theory of types. These personality types can be reported according to four bipolar scales:

introversion–extroversion, sensing–intuition, thinking–feeling, and judging–perceptive.This instrument can be hand scored.

Allport, Vernon, The values indexed are theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, and religious.Lindsey Study ofValues

Test of Imagination Based on the TAT approach developed by David McClelland, this instrument uses a seriesof pictures to measure an individual’s behavioral motivations in terms of need for achievement, affiliation, and power. Participants respond to each picture by writing a brief,imaginative story indicating what they think is happening, who the people are, what hasled up to the situation being portrayed, what is being thought by whom in the picture, what will happen, etc. This instrument must be scored by a trained psychologist, and the sample organizations that use this approach have all retained McBer and Company for this service.

Work Analysis This is another McBer instrument whereby individuals respond to a series of structured Questionnaire statements about the characteristics of their day-to-day work experience:

My job requires Example My job does notskills on which require skills onI have to which I have topractice and practice andimprove improve

For each pair of statements, individuals decide which is more appropriate and indicate the point on the scale that shows their relative agreement with each. Following this assessment of the characteristics of their current job situation, individuals respond to each pair of statements in terms of the characteristics of an “ideal” work situation. This instrument must be returned to McBer for scoring and profiling.

Self-Directed This is a self-administered, self-scored instrument that individuals can use to explore their Search occupational interests. It is available through CPP.

Strong-Campbell This is a machine-scored instrument, available through CPP, that evaluates an individual’sInterest Inventory career interests. One unique feature of this instrument is that it allows for comparisons

with persons happily employed in a wide variety of occupations.

Skill Search This instrument, developed by Richard Gopen, helps individuals rate their social, language,math, clerical, scientific, creative, mechanical/manual, and abstract-reasoning skills along a scale from 0 (no experience, no interest) to X (no experience but interest) through F (fair) and G (good) to VG (very good). Individuals then circle those skills they would most like to use on an ideal job and categorize them according to whether they represent data, people, things, or personal experience.

Source: Adapted from Thomas G. Gutteridge and Fred L. Otto, Organizational Career Development (Washington, DC: ASTD Press, 1983), pp.41– 42.


PAUL L. VANCE Superintendent, District ofColumbia Public Schools, Washington, D.C.

Previous Positions: Superintendent of Schools,Montgomery County, Maryland; Deputy Superin-tendent of Schools, Montgomery County, Mary-land; Deputy Superintendent of Schools, BaltimorePublic Schools.

Latest Degree and Affiliation: Ed.D., University ofPennsylvania.

Number One Influence on Career: My parentswere the primary influence on my life and on mycareer. From them I learned the very importantlesson that hard work leads to success andachievement.

Number One Achievement: The development oftwo urban school district reform plans, the Successfor Every Student Plan and The Business Plan forStrategic Reform. The plans were designed to sys-tematically transform the way learning and teach-ing were done in two very different schooldistricts.

Number One Regret: Due to serious health prob-lems, I had to delay more than a year the transfor-mation of the District of Columbia Public Schools.

Favorite Education-Related Book or Text: TheSouls of Black Folk by W.E.B. DuBois.

Additional Interests: Recreational reading, travel,the theatre.

Leadership Style: My leadership style is flexible,my career experience transformational. As anagent of change, I seek to develop a clear vision ofwhat the future of a school system should be andactively encourage every employee to share or buyinto that vision and to bring this vision into real-ity. A large part of my style is based on personalmotivation.

Professional Vision: An educational leader cannoteffectively do the job by simply being a manager

or administrator. Leadership involves becomingpersonally invested in other people. At the heart ofleadership in education is empowerment, liftingothers up to do their best because they sense thatyou believe in them. That is the heart of instruc-tional leadership.

Words of Advice: Genuine concern has set inregarding the future of public education in Amer-ica. Taxpayers at the local, state, and federal levelswonder if the resources allocated to public educa-tion will ever produce successful learners in suffi-cient numbers.

Many school systems respond by appointing tosuperintendencies and leadership positions “CEO-types” from the business and corporate world toassume the leadership of faltering school systems.

Such a construct entirely misses the point. Whileschool systems feel pressured to respond to publiccriticism and the constant drumbeat of threatsregarding diminished resources through the quickfix of managerial expertise, they often neglect thesimple truth that educational leaders must be, firstand foremost, instructional leaders.

While elements of the corporate paradigm maycontribute to the genuine reform of school systems,the paradigm itself is no substitute for years of firsthand, hands-on experience in the ecology of learn-ing. Educational leader must come from within theculture of education, the climate of the entire learn-ing process. They must understand the nuances oflearning and differentiated instruction.

The corporate model, while perceived to be thepanacea for certain managerial and organizationalinefficiencies in a school system, lacks the soul ofthe learning process. No matter how efficiently aschool system functions from a managerial point ofview, unless its leaders understand the pedagogicalprocess and its many variables, ultimate successwill be elusive.

■ Exemplary Educational Administrators in Action

provides a number of the more common paper-and-pencil tests.

Exploring Opportunities The next step involvesgathering data concerning one’s job opportunitiesboth within and outside the organization. In largeschool districts, the personnel department typicallypublishes information regarding jobs within theorganization, together with qualifications for eachjob. Opportunities within one’s organization areinfluenced by such factors as student enrollments,separations of various kinds, district policy regard-ing promotions from within, and internal politics.Economic conditions, the labor market, occupa-tional choices outside the organization, and train-ing and development programs offered by theorganization should be evaluated as well.

Setting Goals After you have assessed yourselfand determined job opportunities, the next step isto establish long-term and short-term career goals.A goal is a statement of an outcome to be accom-plished. A goal may involve salary, position, orother factors. For example, a long-term career goalmight include the position of superintendent ofschools by age forty-five and an annual salary of$150,000 or higher by the same age. These long-term targets can serve as useful guidelines. Theyspecify minimum standards to achieve within a def-inite timeline. However, shorter-range goals shouldbe established. A person developing a career plan atage twenty-five should set some short-term targetsin order to move to the long-range career objec-tives. For example, the twenty-five-year-old mightset the following targets for age thirty-five: (1) com-pletion of a doctorate degree in educational admin-istration, (2) the position of high school principal,and (3) an annual salary of $75,000. In short,career plans involve many goals, which includelong-range and short-range objectives.

Preparing Plans When preparing plans, each in-dividual should take into account his own skills,abilities, characteristics, and experiences. That is,goals are planned individually. Specifically, prepar-ing plans involves setting timelines, defining

resources needed, and constructing procedures toavert barriers to goal achievement. For example, aprincipal who is unable to secure a promotionwithin his own school district should seek thedesired position in another school district.

Implementing Plans Noted personnel theoristJohn Ivancevich recommends several guidelinesthat can increase the success of achieving one’scareer goals:25

1. Maintain the Greatest Number of JobOptions Possible. Avoid getting stereotyped inone role. While staff experience may be neces-sary when climbing the organizational ladder,line experience is also important for futurecareer success.

2. Don’t Waste Your Time in a Dead-End Job.Evaluate the school district’s promotion policy.Are administrators promoted from within, orare they hired from outside the school district?If there is no upward mobility in the organiza-tion, begin looking outside the school district.

3. Become a Crucial Subordinate to YourDirect Supervisor. A crucial subordinate is aperson whom your supervisor needs as much asyou need her. Then you will move when yoursupervisor moves.

4. Make Yourself Visible to Your Superiors.Visibility is how often you are seen by yoursuperiors. Some writers rank visibility as themost critical component for career advance-ment. The thinking here is that because excel-lent job performance is commonplace,advancement depends more on how many peo-ple know you and how important they are inthe organization’s hierarchy.

5. Nominate Yourself for Jobs. Let your superi-ors know when you want a promotion. Don’t wait for your superiors to determine your joboptions.


25John Ivancevich, Human Resource Management:Foundations of Personnel, 7th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000).

6. If You Decide to Leave a Job, Do It at YourConvenience. Don’t wait for a situation to getbad or for a dismissal to occur. Quit whileyou’re ahead.

7. Rehearse Before Leaving a Job. Write yourletter of resignation and wait a week. Thinkthe decision through carefully. Discuss the mat-ter with your family. Take a vacation. Bringyour vita up to date. After one week, decidewhether or not to leave the job. Once youdecide, act.

8. Don’t Let Success in a Job Preempt YourCareer Plans. Take charge of your career.Consider alternative careers. Movement from acareer path in public school administration toa professorship in educational administrationis an example.

These guidelines are easier to follow if you havemade a good self-appraisal, know about jobopportunities, have prepared alternative careerplans, and have set clear and concise career goalsto pursue.

According to one writer, school administratorsare made, not born. He claims that achieving emi-nence is a careful step-by-step process. It’s a cam-paign that can be planned. (See AdministrativeAdvice 16 –2.)

Career Management

Career management refers to organizational activi-ties designed to promote employees’ career devel-opment. A career-management system consists ofcoordinating various personnel functions, such asrecruitment, selection, performance appraisal, andtraining and development, with programs designedspecifically for employee-career development. Thekey components of career management includecareer counseling, career pathing, career resourcesplanning, and career-information systems.26

Career Counseling Career counseling can beinformal or formal. The most widely used infor-mal counseling approaches are services providedby the school district’s personnel department andcareer counseling provided by supervisors. Moreformal career counseling includes workshops, seminars, assessment centers, and professionaldevelopment academies.

The personnel departments of large school dis-tricts often include counseling services for person-nel who want to assess their skills, abilities, values,and interests. Career counseling by supervisorsoccurs during the employment interview, duringperformance appraisal conferences, and as part ofthe day-to-day supervisor-subordinate relation-ship. Career counseling may also occur prior tohorizontal and downward transfers of personnelwithin the organization.

Workshops, seminars, assessment centers, andprofessional development academies are being usedincreasingly in school districts. Administrators andpersonnel with administrative potential havereceived most of the attention to date. Recently,women and minorities have been given attention.Efforts by school districts to train, develop, andpromote women and minorities is a sign of theorganization’s commitment to affirmative action.

Career Pathing An important aspect of careermanagement is career pathing, or a coherent pro-gression of jobs, tracks, or routes that can be ex-pected to lead to career goals and the ways ofpreparing for and moving into those jobs.27 Forexample, in a university, the job sequence involvesmovement from instructor to assistant professor toassociate professor to professor. In many publicschool districts, the progression toward becominga superintendent is from counselor to assistantprincipal to principal to assistant superintendentto superintendent. Certainly, there are variationsto this model.


26Forsyth, Career Management.

27Jana Johnson, 360 Degree Hiring, Retention andCareer Pathing (Colorado Springs, CO: Help Desk Insti-tute, 2000).

Career pathing is useful for planning purposesbut should not be administered inflexibly. Forexample, in the past, most school administratorsprogressed to the top of the school district byworking in only one organization. Today manyadministrators have worked in several organiza-tions before reaching the top. Furthermore, theincrease in the number of women and minorities inadministrative positions and an organization’scommitment to affirmative action require changesin traditional career pathing. A system that is not

flexible enough to permit this will prevent talentedpeople from progressing to high positions in theorganization.28

Regardless of the chosen career path, the basicconcepts of educational administration presentedin this book should be helpful. Administrativesuccess depends, to a great extent, on masteringthese concepts. School administrators should have



Plan Your Strategy to Get That Desired Position

If you’re just starting the campaign, here is a strategy that can help you land an attractive job offer.

■ Getting the Knowledge. Here are must-do’s for any-one with eyes on the superintendency: Learn allyou can about instruction and school improvement;get a solid grounding in strategic planning; familiar-ize yourself with reliable employee evaluation systems and methods of supervision; study group dynamics and ways of helping people worktogether; learn about the research on change inorganizations; look into ways of giving responsibil-ity and power to others while maintaining accounta-bility; study what’s meant by school culture andschool climate and find out how to improve them;and learn about curriculum and management atboth the elementary and secondary levels.

■ Climbing the Ladder. Hitch your wagon to a star.Look for a job in a school system led by an out-standing school chief. Observe everything thissuperintendent does and offer your help wheneverappropriate. Assuming the two of you hit it offwell, ask the superintendent to be your mentor.This arrangement will put you in an excellent posi-tion of landing a superintendency.

■ Beginning the Search. Use your resources includingfriends and acquaintances, national and state

search consultants with whom you are acquainted,professors who know you and the job market well,administrators and board members in other sys-tems, commercial search firms, professional jour-nals and newspapers, and specific school systemsin preferred areas.

■ Getting the Interview. Once you’ve found a vacancy,the next challenge is to get the interview. Here aresome tips: Make sure your credentials and vita areup to date; write an impressive letter of applica-tion; proofread your letter and all other materialscarefully; ask somebody who works in the schoolsystem to which you are applying to nominateyou.

■ Getting Ready for the Interview. Here are some sug-gestions: Gather all information you can about theschool system; get out and talk with local citizens;formulate questions you might be asked in theinterview and prepare your answers; if possible,get photographs and background informationabout the board members before the interview.

Source: Adapted from Jerry J. Herman, “Craft a Canny Strategy inYour Battle for the Superintendency,” Executive Educator, 11 (1989):pp. 16 –17, 31. Copyright 1989, the National School Boards Associa-tion. Used by permission.

28Ibid.

the necessary information concerning the follow-ing areas:

■ Development of theory: The social sciences —psychology, social psychology, sociology, anthro-pology, and economics, and the relationshipbetween theory and practice

■ Management: Organizational structure; culture;relations with federal, state, and local govern-ments; and public relations

■ Administrative processes: Knowledge of moti-vation, leadership, decision making, communi-cations, and organizational change

■ Human resource management: Recruitment,selection, professional development, perfor-mance appraisal, compensation, and collectivebargaining

■ Legal: Tort liability, contract liability, certifica-tion and contracts of faculty, discharge andretirement, and student personnel

■ Finance: Federal, state, and local relationships;sources of school revenue; apportionment ofstate school funds; budgetary procedures; andfiscal responsibilities of school administrators

■ Curriculum: Instructional leadership, curricu-lum theories and models, curriculum develop-ment, implementation, evaluation, and change

Career Resources Planning Effective career-management systems depend on data, which usu-ally come from a human resource audit or inven-tory, job analysis, and forecasts of personnelneeds. An analysis of the projected needs (demand)and supply of personnel in the field then follows.Career resources planning develops programs to meet human resource needs. These programsinclude professional development programs ofvarious kinds and experience through work as-signments. An attempt is made to match existingemployees with career opportunities within theorganization.

Career Information Systems Job postings withinthe organization and formal career counseling areexamples of career information systems. Some

organizations maintain a career information cen-ter for their employees. Career information sys-tems can motivate and develop talented personnelwithin the organization.

Administrator PreparationProgramsEvery educational reform report since the 1980shas concluded that schools are only as good astheir administrators. The prospect of inadequatelytrained school leaders is serious when one consid-ers the public schools’ struggle with such problemsas drug abuse, school violence and vandalism, at-risk youngsters, and AIDS. It is not surprisingtherefore that calls for reform of university pro-grams for the preparation of school administratorshave resounded throughout the nation.

Criticism of administrator preparation pro-grams has been going on for some time. In 1987the National Commission on Excellence in Educa-tional Administration made eight specific recom-mendations for the improvement of universityprograms for the preparation of school administra-tors, including the establishment of a National Pol-icy Board for Educational Administration,abolishment of educational administration pro-grams at 300 institutions offering such programs,and reformation of state licensure programs forschool administrators.29

The latest criticism came in a report releasedby the National Policy Board for EducationalAdministration, a coalition of ten national educa-tional organizations including the American Asso-ciation of School Administrators, National SchoolBoards Association, and University Council forEducational Administration. The National PolicyBoard for Educational Administration asserted itscommitment to the improvement of the prepara-tion of administrators who will lead our nation’s


29National Commission on Excellence in EducationalAdministration, Leaders for America’s Schools (Tempe,AZ: University Council for Educational Administration,1987).

elementary and secondary schools and school dis-tricts in the future.

An Agenda for Reform

The National Policy Board for Educational Admin-istration recommends a nine-item agenda forreform in the preparation of school administrators.These nine items include the following:30

1. Mount vigorous recruitment strategies to attractthe brightest and most capable candidates ofdiverse race, ethnicity, and gender, including aminority enrollment at least comparable to theregion’s minority public school enrollment.

2. Dramatically raise entrance standards toadministrator preparation programs to ensurethat all candidates possess strong analytic abil-ity (assessed by a standardized national test,with admission to preparation programs lim-ited to individual scoring in the top quartile),high administrative potential, and demon-strated success in teaching, including a master’sdegree.

3. Ensure the quality of faculty in administratorpreparation programs by strengthening facultyrecruitment, selection, and staff development;maintaining at least five full-time faculty mem-bers who do the bulk of teaching, advising,and mentoring; and ensuring a student-facultyratio comparable to other graduate programs.

4. Make the doctorate in educational administra-tion (Ed.D.) a prerequisite to national certifica-tion and state licensure for full-timeadministrators who are in charge of a schoolor school system and abolish specialist andmaster’s degree programs in educationaladministration altogether.

5. Include one full-time year of academic residencyand one full-time year of field residency in the

Ed.D. preparation program. Permit modifica-tions in the type or duration of the clinical resi-dency for candidates with full-timeadministrative experience in education.

6. Develop the elements of the curriculum totransmit a common core of knowledge andskills, grounded in the problems of practice,including societal and cultural influences, teach-ing and learning processes, organizational the-ory, methodologies of organizational studies,leadership and management processes, policystudies, and moral and ethical dimensions ofschooling.

7. Establish long-term, formal relationshipsbetween universities and school districts to cre-ate partnership sites for clinical study, field res-idency, and applied research.

8. Establish a national professional standardsboard to develop and administer a nationalcertification examination and encourage statesto require candidates for licensure to pass thisexamination.

9. Withhold national accreditation of administra-tor preparation programs unless programsmeet the standards specified in the NationalPolicy Board’s report and require that criteriafor state accreditation and program approvalinclude these standards.

The reform proposals of the National PolicyBoard include some controversial ideas, such asthe recommendations that prospective schooladministrators be required to complete two yearsof full-time study (including one full-time year offieldwork), obtain a doctorate degree before beingpermitted to administer a school or school district,and pass a national certification examination.These three recommendations, in particular, mayneed to be modified somewhat in order to be moreacceptable to university officials, legislators, stateschool officers, and practitioners.

The National Policy Board for EducationalAdministration (NPBEA) recently released a com-prehensive program for the preparation of schoolprincipals, which marked the culmination of threeyears of research on the knowledge and skills


30National Policy Board for Educational Administra-tion, “Improving the Preparation of School Administra-tors: An Agenda for Reform,” May 1989.

required to lead schools into the twenty-first cen-tury. Over one hundred principals, professors ofeducation, and private sector training officialswere involved in the effort, which was financed bygrants from the Danforth and Geraldine R. DodgeFoundation and the Lilly Endowment. The 570-page document31 was designed as a new structureby which to organize the principalship and takesas its departure point twenty-one performance“domains.” The domains are the key behaviors,skills, and areas of knowledge that provide thefoundation for the principalship.

The National Policy Board for EducationalAdministration together with the American Associ-ation of School Administrators (AASA) recentlydeveloped Standards for the American Superinten-dency.32 The draft standards encompass elevendomains in four broad areas of leadership: strategic,organizational, instructional, and political and com-munity. The draft guidelines include a requirementthat institutions have a six-month structured intern-ship experience as part of their superintendentpreparation programs. Other areas receivingincreased attention are leadership, skill develop-ment, planning and evaluating instructional pro-grams, and ethics. In 1996, the Interstate SchoolLeaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC), a programof the Council of Chief State School Officers(CCSSO) created standards for school principalsand an examination for the state licensure for ele-mentary and secondary principals. The six stan-dards present a common core of knowledge,dispositions, and performances very similar to the1993 AASA Professional Standards for the Superin-tendency and the National Council for the Accredi-

tation of Colleges of Education’s (NCATE’s) Cur-riculum Guidelines for School Administrators.Approximately thirty-six states require the exam togain the principal’s credential. And in 2002, theEducational Leadership Constituent Council(ELCC) updated the ISLLC standards for the prepa-ration of school administrators to include anadministrative internship.

Restructuring Efforts Under Way

Several efforts are under way across the UnitedStates to restructure preparation programs forschool administrators. Universities, school districts,and state boards of education are at work revamp-ing curricula, forging stronger relationshipsbetween universities and local school systems, andinsisting on practical exercises, fieldwork, andinternships for prospective administrators.33

National Alliance for Developing School LeadersThe National Alliance came into existence in 1990.This project represents a response to the call forchange in preparation programs for school admin-istrators. The Alliance consists of four universities:Brigham Young University, East Tennessee Univer-sity, Florida State University, and Virginia Polytech-nic Institute, and the National Association ofSecondary School Principals (NASSP). The primaryfunding source for the project is the DanforthFoundation.

Three major objectives provide the frameworkfor the Alliance initiative: (1) to change the wayprincipal preparation occurs; (2) to determine theapplicability of NASSP administrator training mate-rials in restructured program models; and (3) toshare the findings and results of the project withother universities as a means of modifying principalpreparation programs throughout the country.34


31National Policy Board for Educational Administra-tion, Principals for Our Changing Schools: Knowledgeand Skill Base (Fairfax, VA: NPBEA, 1993).32American Association of School Administrators, Pro-fessional Standards for the Superintendency (Arlington,VA: AASA, 1993); Council of Chief State School Offi-cers, Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium:Standards for School Leaders (Washington, DC: Author,1996); Educational Leadership Constituent Council,Standards for Advanced Programs in Educational Lead-ership (Fairfax, VA: National Policy Board for Educa-tional Administration, 2002).

33Joseph Murphy and Amanda Datnow, LeadershipLessons from Comprehensive School Reforms (Thou-sand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2002).34National Association of Secondary School Principals,“Introduction: The National Alliance Project for Devel-oping School Leaders,” NASSP Bulletin, 78 (1994): 1.

Stanford University: Problem-Based ProgramThe School of Education at Stanford Universityrecently began a new principal preparation pro-gram rooted in three basic assumptions about theinstructional process: (1) instruction should beproblem-based; (2) it should emphasize the viewthat leadership entails getting results through oth-ers; and (3) it should encourage self-directedlearning.35

Stanford’s program is composed of three distinctinstructional components, including regular courses,problem-based practicums, and an internship. Thecoursework comprises 60 percent of the students’university-based program of study. Students spendthe remaining 40 percent of their time at the uni-versity in a practicum.

The practicums are organized into instructionalblocks made up of problems frequently encoun-tered by elementary, middle, and high school prin-cipals. Students work in small groups, duringflexible time blocks of instruction, to solve a partic-ular problem. Some are assigned to group processroles of project leader, facilitator, or recorder. Therole of each student varies from block to block.The small groups are provided a wide range ofphysical and human resources, including partici-pating professors as well as practicing principalsfrom the area. Summer classes provide an opportu-nity for full-time study in cohort groups of twelveto eighteen students.

University of Colorado at Denver: Problem-Based Program The School of Education at theUniversity of Colorado at Denver (UCD) also hasdeveloped a problem-based program for thepreparation of principals. The program was devel-oped collaboratively with school administratorsthrough a partnership of UCD faculty in the divi-sions of administration, curriculum, and supervi-sion; local school district principals; and privatesector executives from IBM, Hewlett Packard, U.S.West, and Storage Tek.

UCD’s program is innovative in that universityfaculty from several divisions, practicing schoolprincipals, and private sector executives coteachand supervise problem-solving experiences in sev-eral modules. Traditional coursework is limited,and much of the learning occurs in “problemblocks” in which faculty/administrator/executivecoaches assist students in developing solutions todifficult administrative practice problems.

Stanford’s and UCD’s problem-based programswere inspired by recent developments in medicaleducation in Europe and the United States. At Har-vard University, for example, medical students nolonger begin their training with two years of theo-retical studies. Instead, they are formed into smallteams and, under the supervision of regular andclinical faculty, tackle medical problems from thebeginning. Research indicates that students inproblem-based medical programs such as this learnbetter and can access knowledge more readily.36

Duquesne University: Interdisciplinary ProgramIn the summer of 1994 Duquesne’s Interdiscipli-nary Doctoral Program for Educational Leadersenrolled its first cohort of thirty-six.37 The cohort isdivided into smaller groups of approximately sixmembers each, plus an advisor. Advisors visitcohort members in their work settings twice a year.In addition, each member of the cohort selects amentor who works with the participant for a three-year period, judging the student’s success or failurein meeting practicum requirements. In developingits practicum, Duquesne’s program relies heavilyon the advice of local education leaders and AASA’sStandards for the American Superintendency.

Duquesne faculty as well as mentors are trainedto use electronic networks to facilitate regular com-munication. Cross-disciplinary study (in psychol-ogy, sociology, social psychology, economics, andeducation) includes instruction via practitioner


35Edwin M. Bridges, Problem Based Learning forAdministrators (Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse onEducational Management, 1992).

36National Policy Board for Educational Administra-tion, “Focus on Innovation,” Design for Leadership, 1(1990): 1–12.37American Association of School Administrators,Leadership News, 139 (1994): 3.

seminars, simulations, case studies, and �eld stud-ies. Course content focuses on leadership anddistrict culture; policy and governance; communi-cations and community relations; organizationalmanagement; curriculum planning and develop-ment; instructional management; human resourcesmanagement; and values and ethics of leadership.In learning content, heavy emphasis is placed onteam building, shared leadership, collaboration,and instructional improvement.

Sam Houston State University: Integrated Leader-ship Pr ogram Wi th the support of the TexasHigher Education Coordinating Board and theTexas State University System Board of Regents, theDepartment of Educational Leadership and Coun-seling in the College of Education and AppliedScience at Sam Houston State University developedthe Center for Research and Doctoral Studies inEducational Leadership (CRDSEL). The purpose ofCRDSEL is to serve as a support structure that inte-grates scholarship, teaching, research, mentoring,and �eld service in educational leadership.

Faculty, students, and area school leaders workcollaboratively to create linkages among facultyresearch, dissertation research, and re�ective prac-tice through the design of collaborative researchprojects and the dissemination of the results. Thecenter will advance the re�ective practitioner modelof the doctoral program. The goals of CRDSEL areto support a climate of inquiry and research for thestudents, faculty, and mentors participating in thedoctoral program; seek �nancial and collaborativesupport from governmental agencies, businesses,and professional organizations for the center’s activ-ities; build mentoring resources of school leaders(local, state, national, and international) to supportthe students enrolled in the doctoral program; pro-vide support for faculty within the university whoare not teaching in the doctoral program; buildresearch and support resources in speci�c areas; andestablish and maintain communication networksthrough databases, technological support services,newsletters, workshops, professional associations,and job-alike networks.

CRDSEL provides a support structure for thenewly created doctoral program in educational

leadership at Sam Houston State University . Theintegrated doctoral program requires a concentra-tion in educational leadership consisting of fourcomponents: at least 18 hours in a leadership core,15 hours in a research component, 21 hours in aspecialization area (instructional leadership and/or content �elds), and 12 hours in cognate electives(selected from graduate courses in business, crimi-nal justice, humanities, library science, professionaleducation, mathematics, sciences, and relatedareas). The completion of a dissertation and a one-year supervised internship are also required.

The doctoral program in educational leadershipis designed for a cohort group. This means thateach year twelve to �fteen students are admitted toa speci�c cohort group and are required to take thefour curricular program components at the sametime. These are spaced over a three-year periodduring three trimesters: summer , fall, and spring.

Women and Minorities inEducational AdministrationConcerns about career development for womenand minorities is a direct outgrowth of equal em-ployment opportunity and af�rmative action legis-lation. Although women and minorities areadvancing within the private sector, they are stillunderrepresented in educational administration.When the pool of leadership talent is arti�ciallyand arbitrarily reduced, it deprives society of unre-alized potential. The inequity of in�uence based ongender and race in our school systems is the focusof this section.

Women in Educational Administration

It is unusual to �nd women running our nation’sschool systems. About 13.2 percent of America’ sschool districts have women superintendents.38

636 Part IV Administration of Programs and Services

38Thomas Glass, Lars B. Björk, and C. Cryss Brunner,The 2000 Study of the American Superintendency: ALook at the Superintendent of Education in the NewMillenium (Arlington, VA: American Association ofSchool Administrators, 2000).

This is surprising when one considers that the edu-cation field since the beginning of the twentiethcentury has been predominantly female. At present,women constitute 72 percent of the nation’s teach-ers and 43 percent of the principals.39

Several studies have suggested that there arecareer differences between male and female schooladministrators. Women have more years of teach-ing experience than men (fifteen years versus fiveyears) and are older when appointed to administra-tive positions (median age forty for women, thirty-two for men). Hence, women are deprived of equalaccess to administrative positions. In addition, onestudy found that both groups worked approxi-mately fifty-five hours per week, although thewomen earned substantially less than men.

Discrimination continues to plague women, notonly in terms of salary but also in terms of accessinto administrative positions and sexual harassmentonce they make their way into the administrativehierarchy. In fact, by the mid-1980s, women weredropping out of administrative positions more fre-quently than men. Dissatisfaction with institutionaldecisions, decision-making processes, current lead-ership, limited upward mobility, lack of mentoringor sponsorship, sexual harassment, and feelings ofisolation were cited as contributing factors.40

Numerous frameworks for explaining theunderrepresentation of women in educationaladministration have been proposed.41 These aretypically placed within the domains of internal andexternal barriers.42

Internal Barriers Internal barriers include long-established beliefs that are frequently referred to asstereotypes or myths. These barriers includesocialization patterns and background experiencesthat typify many women and gender-role stereo-types about the abilities of women, their motiva-tions, and their career aspirations.

The concept of socialization focuses on the ideathat women have been trained to fill nurturingroles rather than leadership roles in society. Tradi-tional cultural definitions of femininity emphasizeattributes such as sensitivity, conformity, lack ofassertiveness, and dependency. However, schooladministrators are expected to be aggressive,assertive, and competitive; but, at the same time,these traits manifested in women are perceived asnegative. For this reason, society conditions bothmen and women to believe that women are not ascapable of holding leadership positions as men.This notion is not supported by research.43

Perhaps partly as a function of their socializa-tion and role conflict is the myth that women tend to have lower career aspirations than mendo. Genevieve Brown and Beverly Irby concludefrom their research that, contrary to popularbelief, women do aspire to administrative careers.These authors suggest that although women havethe same career ambitions as men, they do not have the same opportunities. Furthermore,women are denied access to the administrationhierarchy, not because of lack of aspirations, butbecause of “faulty characteristics” unintentionallyascribed to them—characteristics that assumetheir responsibility to perform effectively as schooladministrators.44

External Barriers External barriers are inherentin the employing organizations. School districtsare often designed in ways that help preserve theexisting structure. These structures are createdeither unconsciously or consciously, to ensure the


39Charol Shakeshaft, “The Struggle to Create a MoreGender-Inclusive Profession, in J. Murphy and K. Louis(eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Adminis-tration (San Francisco: Jossey-Boss, 1999), p. 100.40Irby and Brown, Women Leaders; Margaret Grogan,Voices of Women Aspiring to the Superintendency(Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1996).41For a comprehensive treatment of women in educa-tional administration, see Shakeshaft, “The Struggle to Include a More Gender Inclusive Profession,” pp. 99–118.42Glass, Björk, and Brunner, The 2000 Study of theAmerican Superintendency: A Look at the Superinten-dent of Education in the New Millenium.

43Ibid.44Genevieve Brown and Beverly Irby, Women and Lead-ership: Creating Balance in Your Life (Commack, NY:Nova Science Publishers, 1998).

continued participation of the dominant group —that is, white males — and restrict entry and careeradvancement of other groups — for example,women and minorities. External barriers includesuch factors as recruitment and selection strate-gies, evaluation and reward systems, power andauthority systems, and other norms and expecta-tions of the organization.45

Probably the most far-reaching barrier denyingwomen entrance and advancement in public schooladministration is role discrimination. These aresocietal perceptions of traditional and appropriatefemale and male roles. Society views administra-tion as a predominantly male job. As nurturersand caregivers, women are supposed to be contentin instructional roles. That is, men are supposed tobe the leaders, and women are supposed to be thefollowers.46

As a result, those who hire school administra-tors, the majority of whom are male, expect hireesto be male as well. Artificial and arbitrary non-job-related limitations are placed on women whena position is filled. Examples are failure to recruit;the use of criteria that favor men, such as adminis-trative experience in finance, physical facilities,and contract negotiations; encouragement andsponsorship of male applicants; and excludingfemales from the power and authority structuresof the organization. One author notes that spon-sors or mentors encourage and select their pro-tégés and these protégés are selected in the likenessof the mentors. Because men are in the dominantposition in most administrative positions, womenare less likely to be selected because they do notshare the “white male norms” of male mentors.47

What results, in essence, is a circular socializationprocess. Men ensure the continued perpetuation ofthe dominant group, that is, white males.

Racial/Ethnic Minorities in Educational Administration

Members of minority groups are even rarer thanwomen in public school administration. At thefour surveyed levels—superintendent, assistantsuperintendent, principal, and assistant principal —the breakdown is as follows: 6.5 percent of thenation’s superintendents, 17.3 percent of the assis-tant superintendents, 20.6 percent of the princi-pals, and 28.5 percent of the assistant principalsare individuals from racial or ethnic minoritygroups.48

These results can be contrasted with the findingsof an earlier study that profiled superintendents andprincipals nationwide, based on a random sampleof 1704 public school superintendents, 1349 publicschool principals, and 524 principals in privateschools fifteen years ago.49 The major difference inthe results from the two studies was the percentageof racial minorities in the principalship. TheFeistritzer study reported that 90 percent of thepublic school principals were white. The Institutefor Educational Leadership (IEL) survey found that79 percent of the principals were white, while 21percent belonged to racial minorities.

Analyzing black representation in school admin-istration separately, Feistritzer found that 1 percentof the nation’s superintendents are black. IEL’smore recent study found that 2.8 percent of thenation’s superintendents are black. Furthermore,Feistritzer found that 6 percent of the nation’s prin-cipals are black. IEL reported 12 percent blackprincipals. This compares with 16 percent of blacksin the U.S. population, 14 percent of all employedpersons, 8 percent of all college graduates, 9 percentof workers in professional occupations, 8 percentof executives and managers in the private sector,


45C. Cryss Brunner, Principles of Power: Women Super-intendents and Riddles of the Heart (Ithaca, NY: StateUniversity of New York Press, 2000).46Grogan, Voices of Women Aspiring to the Superinten-dency.47Shakeshaft, “The Struggle to Create a More Gender-Inclusive Profession.”

48Harold Hodgkinson and Xena Montenegro, The U.S.Superintendent: The Invisible CEO (Washington, DC:Institute for Educational Leadership, 1999).49Emily Feistritzer, Profile of School Administrators inthe United States (Washington, DC: The National Cen-ter for Education Information, 1988).

and 8 percent of the nation’s teachers.50 These sta-tistics reveal that racial minorities, includingblacks, are still disproportionately represented inschool administration.

We speculate that many of the same internaland external barriers cited with respect to therestricted access of women into educationaladministration apply to minorities as well. Oneadditional concern is the number of blacks in

teaching. Unless there is a sudden increase in thenumber of black teachers, the number of blackschool administrators in the United States couldbegin to decline during the twenty-first century.

Every time a talented minority or female studentopts for a “job” rather than a “career,” societyloses. School districts need the brightest and bestpeople — whatever their race or gender — in leader-ship positions. (See Administrative Advice 16 –3.)

Programs for Women and Minorities

Programs exist in a variety of forms to help womenand racial minorities who are interested in careers


50Current Population Reports (Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Office, 2004); 1998 Status Reporton Minorities in Higher Education (Washington, DC:U.S. Government Printing Office, 2004).


Positive Role Models Can Combat Stereotyping

Helping students encounter positive role models is one way to diminish career stereo-typing. Another way is to provide bias-free programs and curriculum materials. Hereare some steps school administrators and teachers can take:

■ Use Unbiased Materials. Select textbooks and otherclassroom resources that fairly represent all kindsof people.

■ Offer Career-Awareness Programs. Career aware-ness should begin in the early elementary schoolyears. Such programs should introduce studentsto a wide range of appealing role models; at highergrade levels, the programs could introduce theidea of building a long-term career plan that allowsfor flexibility and mobility.

■ Give Academic Guidance. Students need to knowwhy rigorous study and high-level courses areimportant to their future careers. This academicguidance should begin at an early age becausemany people commit to a field as early as middleschool.

■ Counsel Students on Higher Education. All students,even those who don’t expect to go to college, can

benefit from guidance on continuing their educa-tion after high school. Consider, also, the possibil-ity of women’s colleges: Some believe that suchinstitutions can give young women a healthy self-image and a head start in the work world.

■ Use Role Models. Invite women and minority com-munity members to school to “model” specificcareers, especially those in which women andminorities are underrepresented. School-businesspartnerships can be a source of such role models.Or you might use videotapes and films that pres-ent images of women and minorities doing suc-cessful, satisfying work in the middle and upperlevels in their fields.

Source: Adapted from Dianne Pevonka, Sharon Griffin, and Joan L.Curcio, “Positive Role Models Combat Race and Sex Stereotypes,”Executive Educator, 10 (1988): 26 –28. Copyright 1988, the NationalSchool Boards Association. Used by permission.

in educational administration. The programs aredesigned specifically to address their problems:socialization patterns, low aspirational levels, dis-crimination, and limited access of both groups intopositions in educational administration. Some pro-grams still exist; others have been discontinued.The following are highlights of these programs.

Administrative Intern Program (AIP) Since 1980the Duval County (Jacksonville, Florida) SchoolDistrict has been operating AIP for women andracial minorities. Its purpose is threefold: to addressthe need for securing a balance of women and racialminority staff within each of the district’s seven divi-sions that approximates the general composition ofthe relevant external labor market, to broaden thebase from which female and racial minority futureadministrators might be identified, and to renderthe women and racial minorities more competitivewith respect to the hiring process.

Leadership Experience Opportunity for Teachers(LEO-T) In 1986 the Dade County (Florida)schools instituted a program that offers qualifiedteachers an opportunity to become assistant prin-cipals and principals. Dade County places specialemphasis on recruiting from groups that tradition-ally have been underrepresented in the principal-ship: ethnic and language minorities and women.Each year, after the applicants are carefullyscreened, twenty-six candidates participate in twonine-week school assignments supervised andmentored by carefully selected, experienced princi-pals. The LEO-T program has been remarkablysuccessful. Approximately three-quarters of theteachers who have completed the program arenow assistant principals or principals in the DadeCounty schools.

Minority Administrator’s Program (MAP) Begunin 1986, the University of South Carolina’s MAP isdesigned specifically for prospective black minor-ity school administrators. Its purpose is threefold:to identify a cadre of minority educators to serveas public school administrators, to enhance theproblem-solving skills of prospective black school

administrators, and to place black minorities inadministrative positions.

Lyman T. Johnson Fellows Minority LeadershipDevelopment Program In 1989 the University ofLouisville and the Jefferson County (Kentucky)Public Schools developed the Lyman T. JohnsonFellows Leadership Development Program. Its pur-pose is twofold: to identify specific needs of minor-ity candidates for the principalship and to providedevelopmental preparation activities that maximizeeach participant’s potential. The program focuseson the individual through collegial support groups,mentoring activities, simulations, field experiences,and course offerings in educational administrationat the University of Louisville. It is funded by theUniversity of Louisville’s Center for Excellence.

Women in Educational Leadership (WIEL) Toprovide aspiring women leaders with relevantcoursework, Genevieve Brown and Beverly Irbyhave designed a course specifically to address theneeds of women. The original course, “Women inEducational Leadership,” was sponsored as a pilotcourse by the Texas Council of Women SchoolExecutives in 1992. Since then, more than 500women have participated in the course. The courseis designed to address three broad categories ofwomen’s needs: socialization into the profession,leadership identity, and career advancement. Inaddition to presentations by successful womenleaders and readings in professional journals andtextbooks, students are taught and required to pre-pare a professional portfolio and later a careeradvancement portfolio.51 Students are also pro-vided with a resource manual describing provenstrategies for increasing women’s access to leader-ship positions, and annual reunions have beenscheduled on a regular basis. Numerous female


51Genevieve Brown and Beverly J. Irby, The PrincipalPortfolio (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 1997);Beverly J. Irby and Genevieve Brown, The CareerAdvancement Portfolio (Thousand Oaks, CA: CorwinPress, 2000).

graduates from the program have been placed inleadership positions in Houston (Texas) areaschools and elsewhere.

Women’s Educational Equity Act Program(WEEAP) Several programs for women in edu-cational administration are funded by WEEAP.They include Women in Administration Institute(WAI) developed at the University of SouthernFlorida; Sex Equity in Educational Leadership(SEEL) developed in Oregon; Internships, Certifi-cation Equity/Leadership and Support (ICES)developed in Kansas; Assisting Women toAdvance through Resources and Encouragement(AWARE) sponsored by AASA; Women in SchoolAdministration (WISA) sponsored by AASA’srural school district’s consortium; and FemaleLeaders for Administration and Management inEducation (FLAME). These six programs providefemale aspirants to positions in educationaladministration with entry-level strategies. Theprograms offer workshops on topics such as net-working, self-concept, enlisting sponsors, conflictmanagement, assertiveness training, and inter-viewing techniques.

Other programs for women and minorities in-clude the Northwest Women in Educational Ad-ministration (NWEA), the Oregon Network, theNew England Coalition of Educational Leadership(NECEL), the Women’s Caucus of the Pennsylva-nia School Administrator’s Association (PASA),the Institute for Administrative Advancement atthe University of Wisconsin–Madison, the SanDiego Minority and Women Administrators’Training Project at San Diego State University, andthe Leadership Skills for Women Administrators atthe University of South Carolina.

Summary

1. A career can be defined as a series of move-ments in an organization, a profession, or asequence of work-related experiences during aperson’s lifetime.

2. Careers in educational administration followpredictable stages that include apprenticeship,independent contributor, mentor, and sponsor.

3. School administrators are subject to high levelsof personal and job-related stress.

4. Stress is the physiological and psychologicalresponse of an individual to demands, con-straints, and opportunities involving uncer-tainty and important outcomes.

5. Stress comes from many sources, includingorganizational, personal, and nonorganiza-tional factors. Organizational factors areexcessively high or low job demands, role con-flicts and ambiguities, poor interpersonal rela-tions, transition from one career stage toanother, and overpromotion or underpromo-tion. Personal factors include need for achieve-ment, capabilities, and personality.Nonorganizational factors are life and careerchanges and dual-career problems.

6. Career development is another importantresponsibility of school administrators. Schooladministrators must take charge of their owncareers in order to maximize their success.Because school administrators supervise others,they will also be involved in assisting subordi-nates in their career development.

7. Career development from both the individual’sand the organization’s standpoint involves sev-eral techniques. Individual strategies includeself-appraisal, exploring opportunities, settinggoals, preparing plans, and implementingplans. Organizational techniques includecareer counseling, career pathing, careerresources planning, and career informationsystems.

8. Career development for women and minoritiesis extremely important. In the past, thesegroups have been subjected to reduced careeropportunities in educational administration.This situation is changing as a result of pro-grams designed specifically to help women andminorities to become more integrated intoeducational administration.


Key Termscareercareer stageapprentice stageindependent contributor stagenetworkingmentoringmentor stagesponsor stagestressstressorsType A personalitymeditationbiofeedbackcareer developmentcareer planningcareer managementcareer counselingcareer pathingcareer resources planningcareer information systems

Discussion Questions

1. What is a career? How does it differ from a job?

2. What are the stages identified in Dalton andThompson’s career stages framework? Whatthings can individuals and organizations dothat might enhance the development of individ-uals at various stages in their careers?

3. What are the sources, symptoms, and effects ofadministrative stress?

4. What are some individual and organizationalstrategies for coping with administrative stress?

5. What are the special problems women andminorities face in their careers in educationaladministration? What programs exist to helpthem overcome these problems?

Suggested Readings

Blackmore, Jill. Troubling Women: Feminism,Leadership, and Educational Change (Bristol,

PA: Taylor and Francis, 1999). The booktraces women managers’ experiences using awide-ranging, interdisciplinary analysis byexamining historical and global perspectives;individuals and organizational issues; andfuture trends in the issues of job discrimina-tion, legal realities and remedies, and therestructuring of organizations from a feministperspective.

Brown, Genevieve, and Beverly J. Irby. Womenand Leadership: Creating Balance in Your Life(Commack, NY: Nova Science, 1998). In thisbook of readings, the authors discuss commonbarriers for women including low confidence,perceived lack of advancement opportunities,poor self-image, and weak determination andmotivation. The authors point out that suchbarriers can persuade some women to relin-quish their aspirations for a career in adminis-tration. For some, who weather the difficulties,the results can be highly confirming and moti-vating. Although cultural sexism is a consistenttheme in these women’s stories, so are strength,determination, and inspiration.

Brunner, C. Cryss (ed.). Sacred Dreams: Womenand the Superintendency (Albany, NY: StateUniversity of New York Press, 1999). Aspir-ing, as well as current, female superintendentswill benefit immeasurably from a careful read-ing of this treatise that addresses internal andexternal barriers to positions in educationaladministration, networking, mentoring, jobhunting, managing time and stress, and bal-ancing one’s life.

Grogan, Margaret. Voices of Women Aspiring tothe Superintendency (Albany, NY: StateUniversity of New York Press, 1996). Theauthor used both quantitative and qualitativeresearch methods to discover what a largecross-section of women superintendents arereally thinking and experiencing in the work-place.

Irby, Beverly J., and Genevieve Brown. WomenLeaders: Structuring Success (Dubuque, IA:Kendall/Hunt, 1998). The authors, mentorsto the women who aspire to school leadership


positions, recognize the importance of thepreparation of strong leaders who can suc-cessfully impact and reform schools. By shar-ing advice and lessons learned from their

wealth of research and experience, the authorsenable aspiring women administrators tobroaden their panoramas, illuminate theirpathways, and inform their practice.


Arguments PRO

1. Power brokers limit the upward mobility ofwomen and minorities. Few people make it to thetop without the imprimatur of the handful of menwho open doors and smooth the path.

2. Those in power mentor protégés with promise.The criteria mentors use are the same that wereused to identify them. Their personal prejudicesdo not allow them to envision women and minori-ties as the next generation of leaders. They selectwhite protégés who look and act as they do.

3. The establishment decides how to portray schoolleadership and develops the strategies to ensurethat their profile of a good leader is accepted asthe norm. The people who name the top educa-tional leaders of the year perpetuate their profileof white male leadership.

4. Boards routinely consult experts in the educa-tional establishment to guide them as they makedecisions. Boards are influenced by the “oldboys” who seek to maintain the status quobecause it is the source of their power.

5. Able women and minorities have always been inthe pipeline. Their careers are unsupported bythe power brokers, so they remain in secondarypositions.

Arguments CON

1. Upward mobility is the result of many factors: indi-viduals’ dispositions and talents, the needs of a par-ticular school or district, the boards’ willingness toconsider atypical candidates, timing, and luck.

2. Today, many current administrators try to mentorcapable women and minorities. However, internalbarriers inhibit women and minorities fromassuming important roles. They lack a sense ofcareer, fear power, and do not know how to playthe system.

3. Administrators chosen for top positions areselected on the basis of their ability to transmitthe culture of the organization. They are symbolicleaders. Many communities and organizations arenot ready yet for women and minority leaders.

4. Search consultants have encouraged boards to consider protected-class candidates with little success. For example, until recently fe-male board members usually appointed malesuperintendents.

5. Women and minorities do not have the prerequi-site career experience for top administration.There are promising candidates in the pipeline.

PRO/CON Debate

Old Boy Network

Women and minorities are underrepresented in administrative ranks. For women, theproblem is related to placement. Since the mid-1970s, at least 50 percent of the stu-dents in educational administration programs have been women. The pool of femaleadministrative candidates is available, but it is only moderately tapped. For minorities,the problem is recruitment and placement. Minority enrollment in certification pro-grams is insufficient to meet projected needs. Like women, many ethnic minorities arestalled in low and middle management posts. Why do these situations persist?

Question: Does the existence of an old boy network prevent able women and minori-ties from assuming administrative positions?

Julia, Margaret. Multiculturalism and Gender(Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1999). Theauthor does a good job of blending the latesttheory and research on gender with soundpractical recommendations for addressing criti-cal issues for women in today’s workplace.

Portner, Hal. Being Mentored: A Guide forProtégés (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press,2002). This timely, instructive, and importantbook on mentoring new teachers providesdirection and guidance and clearly outlineshow to be a mentor.


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