16 chapter the tax system in the united states public sector economics: the role of government in...
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16CHAPTER
The Tax System in the United States
PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American Economy
Randall Holcombe
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
U.S. Tax SystemU.S. Tax System
Effects of tax depend upon how it Effects of tax depend upon how it interacts with other taxesinteracts with other taxes
U.S. has federal tax systemU.S. has federal tax system 3 major categories of U.S. tax 3 major categories of U.S. tax
system:system: Federal taxesFederal taxes State taxesState taxes Local taxesLocal taxes
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Federalism and the Tax Federalism and the Tax SystemSystem
Federal government collects more in Federal government collects more in revenues than all other U.S. revenues than all other U.S. governments combinedgovernments combined
Income tax primarily a federal taxIncome tax primarily a federal tax Property tax primarily a local taxProperty tax primarily a local tax Sales taxes primarily state taxesSales taxes primarily state taxes
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Federalism and the Tax Federalism and the Tax SystemSystem
Federal State Local
All taxes 61.8% 21.7% 16.5%
Individual income and payroll 88.7% 10.4% 1.0%
Corporate Income 85.2% 13.4% 1.5%
Sales and gross receipts 18.2% 66.7% 15.1%
Property NA 4.4% 95.6%
Tax BaseGovernment Level
Table 16.1 The Distribution of Government Revenue Sources Among Levels of Governments, 2000
Source: Calculated from data in the Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2003 edition.
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Federal TaxesFederal Taxes
Personal income tax most significant Personal income tax most significant source of federal government source of federal government revenuerevenue
Social insurance payroll taxesSocial insurance payroll taxes Social security tax structure is Social security tax structure is
regressiveregressive
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Federal TaxesFederal Taxes
Revenue Source 1980 1990 2000
Individual income taxes 47.2% 45.2% 49.6%
Corporate income taxes 12.5% 9.1% 10.2%
Social insurance payroll taxes 30.5% 36.8% 32.2%
Excise taxes 4.7% 3.4% 3.4%
Table 16.2 The Distribution of Federal Government Revenue, 1980, 1990, 2000
Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, various issues
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Intergovernmental Intergovernmental RevenuesRevenues
Major revenue source for lower-level Major revenue source for lower-level governmentsgovernments
Most significant intergovernmental Most significant intergovernmental revenues consist of federal aid to revenues consist of federal aid to state/local governmentsstate/local governments
State governments provide State governments provide assistance to local governmentsassistance to local governments
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Intergovernmental Intergovernmental RevenuesRevenues
Can have significant effects on Can have significant effects on government financegovernment finance
Can substitute for own-government Can substitute for own-government taxationtaxation
Most come from higher-level Most come from higher-level governments to lower-level governments to lower-level governmentsgovernments
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Intergovernmental Intergovernmental RevenuesRevenues
Reasons to establish Reasons to establish intergovernmental programs:intergovernmental programs: Higher-level governments provide Higher-level governments provide
money to encourage certain programs money to encourage certain programs by lower-level governmentsby lower-level governments
Taxation for lower-level governments Taxation for lower-level governments can be shifted to higher-level can be shifted to higher-level governmentsgovernments
Equity Equity
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
State and Local TaxesState and Local Taxes
States rely on sales and income States rely on sales and income taxestaxes
Local governments rely on property Local governments rely on property taxestaxes
Sales and income taxes have risen Sales and income taxes have risen faster than property taxesfaster than property taxes
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
State and Local TaxesState and Local Taxes
Tax Base 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Individual income 0.28% 0.49% 1.08% 2.08% 2.51% 2.20%
Sales and gross receipts 1.81% 2.36% 3.13% 3.06% 3.32% 3.22%
Property 2.39% 3.52% 3.63% 2.54% 2.81% 2.49%
Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, various issues.
Table 16.3 Revenues from Three Major State and Local Tax Bases as a Percentage of GDP
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Progressivity of Tax Progressivity of Tax SystemSystem
Important to consider lifetime income Important to consider lifetime income as well as income in a particular yearas well as income in a particular year
Progressivity of tax system as a Progressivity of tax system as a whole more important than whole more important than progressivity of any particular taxprogressivity of any particular tax
Importance of nonmonetary incomeImportance of nonmonetary income
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Progressivity of Tax Progressivity of Tax SystemSystem
Tax system is slightly progressive Tax system is slightly progressive overalloverall
Most progressive tax is income tax Most progressive tax is income tax Sales and excise taxes generally Sales and excise taxes generally
regressiveregressive Property tax exhibits U-shaped Property tax exhibits U-shaped
pattern with respect to incomepattern with respect to income
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Progressivity of Tax Progressivity of Tax SystemSystem
Problems with considering Problems with considering progressivity of tax system over a progressivity of tax system over a lifetime:lifetime: People do not have lifetime income People do not have lifetime income
available to pay tax at any one point in available to pay tax at any one point in timetime
Tax structure can change substantially Tax structure can change substantially over timeover time
Does not consider how tax money is Does not consider how tax money is spentspent
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Political Influences on Political Influences on Tax SystemTax System
Tax policy made through political Tax policy made through political processprocess
Economic analysis:Economic analysis: Provides arguments both sides useProvides arguments both sides use Estimates effects of tax changesEstimates effects of tax changes
Special interests tend to dominate Special interests tend to dominate political debatepolitical debate
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Tax ReformTax Reform
Most changes in tax law small and Most changes in tax law small and affect few taxpayersaffect few taxpayers
Many changes in the form of Many changes in the form of loopholesloopholes Allow some taxpayers to reduce tax Allow some taxpayers to reduce tax
paymentspayments 1986 tax reform1986 tax reform
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Comprehensive Versus Comprehensive Versus Piecemeal Tax ReformPiecemeal Tax Reform
Piecemeal tax reformPiecemeal tax reform Benefit special interestsBenefit special interests Tax code becomes more complexTax code becomes more complex
Comprehensive tax reformComprehensive tax reform More efficient tax codeMore efficient tax code Lower overall tax ratesLower overall tax rates
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Revenue-Neutral Tax Revenue-Neutral Tax ReformReform
Change tax system in some ways Change tax system in some ways Leave amount of tax revenues to be Leave amount of tax revenues to be
collected unchanged collected unchanged Allows efficiency and equity issues to Allows efficiency and equity issues to
be considered separately from be considered separately from amount of tax revenuesamount of tax revenues
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PUBLIC SECTOR ECONOMICS: The Role of Government in the American EconomyRandall Holcombe
Taxes in Isolation and Taxes in Isolation and the Tax Systemthe Tax System
Optimal provision of one tax depend Optimal provision of one tax depend on other taxeson other taxes
Taxes must be viewed as individual Taxes must be viewed as individual components of overall tax systemcomponents of overall tax system