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Cambridge University Press978-1-108-49589-9 — The Rights of Refugees under International LawJames C. Hathaway IndexMore Information

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INDEX

absolute rights, 19, 263, 308access to courts. See courts, access to (CRSR Art. 16); courts, access to (equality

before) (ICCPR Art. 14(1))acquired rights dependent on personal status (CRSR Art. 12(2))

as absolute right, 264compliance with formalities required by the law, 2541933 and 1938 Conventions and, 254

drafting history, 248–255married women, 248matrimonial status, 248potential abuse of provision, 250public policy and, 252–253separation of refugee from law of country of nationality as objective, 253succession and inheritance, 250–252

adequate standard of living. See necessities of life, right toadministrative assistance (CRSR Art. 25). See also consular protection; protection of

refugees (UNHCR Statute Art. 8)as absolute right, 264affirmative action, need for, 785documents or certifications, 792–797. See also documentation (identity papers)

(CRSR Art. 27); documentation (travel documents) (CRSR Art. 28);personal status (applicable law) (CRSR Art. 12(1))

“credence in absence of proof to contrary” (Art. 25(3)), 795“documents,” 795drafting history/rationale, 792–797obligation to deliver (Art. 25(2)), 792, 796travel and identity documents (CRSR Arts. 27 and 28) distinguished, 793

drafting history, 785–787, 790non-anticipation of UNHCR role, 785, 789

as mandatory obligation, 785, 793physical presence, relevance/sufficiency, 790refugees outside the territory, 790, 793

responsibilitydelegation to an international agency, 785, 789delegation to national agency, 789state parties (Art. 25(1)), 785

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admission. See illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art. 31(1)); non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33)

admittance. See non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), avoidance of obligationAfghan refugeesarbitrary detention, freedom from, 532border closures, 314, 434education, access to, 732, 738food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 584, 600freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 697freedoms of expression and association, 1052healthcare, access to, 631, 633housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1033non-discrimination, 268, 270, 280physical harming of, 557public or private assistance, access to, 606right to work, 927voluntary repatriation, 328, 1185

Afghanistanaccess to courts, 918freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 699

African Union (AU)Refugee Problems in Africa, Convention Governing Specific Aspects of (AU)

(1969)conflict with Member States’ practices, 71invocation and interpretation of, 70non-refoulement, 69Refugee Convention (1951) in relation to, 68

age discriminationmandatory retirement, 109non-refoulement, avoidance of obligation and, 363

aid and development. See international aid/relief, dependence onaid workersproselytization by, 697, 720rape committed by, 555, 577

Albania, rationing or denial of shelter, 603Algeriaaccess to courts, 917expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 814, 834food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 598summary ejection of refugees, 324

aliens law, internationalas acknowledgment of link between national self-interest and treatment of aliens,

10, 15ancient Greece, 11bilateral/FCN treaty regime, 11–14

absolute and contingent rights, as mixture, 13, 16absolute standards, disadvantages

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contingent rights, 12difficulty of interpretation, 12inequality of treatment, 12inflexibility, 12

general principles of law and, 11. See also general principles of law belowmost-favored-national or national treatment, 13non-discrimination provision as benchmark, 16reciprocity, need for, 19

contingent rights, 12, 13evolution of regime, 10–16general principles of law, 11enumeration of rights covered by, 11supplementary rights, 12

law merchant, 11American States, Organization of. See Organization of American StatesAngola

dispute settlement provisions, reservation, 55freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 704physical harming of refugees, 555

Angolan refugeesarmed attacks by border guards, 317food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 595freedoms of expression and association, 1050self-sufficiency, 582water, rationing or denial of, 602

appeal and review. See judicial review/appeal against determination of status, right ofArab States, League of. See League of Arab Statesarbitrariness. See “objectively reasonable suspicion”arbitrary detention. See detention, freedom from arbitrary (ICCPR Art. 9)Argentina

detention of refugees, 466exemption from penalization, 513

armed attack. See security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9), risk toassembly, peaceful, right of (ICCPRArt. 21), 278. See also association, right of entries;

expression, freedom of (ICCPR Art. 19(1)); political activityand international peace and security (UNCharter/UNGARes. 3314(XXIX)), 1085“necessary” restrictions, 1083public health and, 1082public morals and, 1083public order/ordre public and, 1080public safety and, 1082restrictions, 1077–1085and rule of law, 1077

assets, seizure of, 641assets, transfer (CRSR Art. 30), 1197–1206. See also property rights

as absolute right, 264“aliens generally” standard of treatment, 1204, 1205

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assets, transfer (cont.)“assets,” 1201–1206“in conformity with its laws and regulations,” 1199drafting history, 1197–1204limitation to cases of resettlement, 1203as new right, 29

association, right of, 1048–1085. See also peaceful assembly, right of (ICCPR Art. 21)cultural values and, 1049directed against government of origin, 1055freedom of expression in relation to, 1048necessities of life and, 1050political organization

importance of, 1049, 1052suppression of, 1052

state practice, 1052–1057association, right of (CRSR Art. 15)drafting history, 1059–1069lawful stay, 1060, 1065, 1068most-favored-national treatment, 257–261, 276, 1060–1068

HR Conventions compared, 278, 1060“in the same circumstances” 205, 232, 278reservations, 258–261

narrowness of provisions, 1059, 1068political association, 1060, 1068

exclusiondomestic politics, 1062political activity outside political associations, 1068

pre-1951 Conventions compared, 1068trade unions, 1063, 1068Universal Declaration provisions and, 1064, 1066, 1068

association, right of (ICCPR Art. 22)“everyone shall enjoy,” 1074freedom of choice (ICCPR Art. 22(1)), 1075and international peace and security (UN Charter/UNGA Res. 3314(XXIX)),

1085“necessary” restrictions (ICCPR Art. 22(2)), 1083as negative obligation not to enforce association, 1074public health and, 1082public morals and, 1083public order/ordre public and, 1080public safety and, 1082restrictions, 1077restrictions (ICCPR Art. 22(2)), 1077–1085rule of law, 1077standard of treatment, 278trade unions, 1076

association, right of (ICESCR Art. 8)

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scope, 1060standard of treatment, 278strike, right to, 1076

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)Human Rights Declaration of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (2012)asylum, right to, 82free movement, right of, 84non-refoulement, 84

asylum. See non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33)asylum (host) state, attachment to, as basis of entitlement. See habitual residence;

jurisdictional attachment; lawful presence; “lawfully staying”/“résidantrégulièrement”; physical presence

asylum-seekers. See diplomatic asylum; lawful presence; refugee status,determination/verification, declaratory nature

attachment to host (asylum) state as basis of entitlement. See habitual residence;jurisdictional attachment; lawful presence; “lawfully staying”/“résidantrégulièrement”; physical presence

Australiaarbitrary detention, freedom from, 532carrier sanctions, 483, 509cruel or inhuman treatment, 574detention of refugees, 470, 480differential treatment, 106education, access to, 742employment, right to seek/engage in wage-earning (CRSR Art. 17), 43excised territories, 194, 336expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 821–822, 826family unity/reunification, 666, 670, 673, 690freedom of movement, restriction of, 861, 862, 874freedoms of expression and association, 1054housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1034interdiction measures, 318, 321judicial assistance, access to, 783, 806lawful presence, provisional admission, 200naturalization of refugees, 1219non-discrimination, 106, 118non-refoulement, 338, 344, 372, 385, 414, 418, 422, 486passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1087physical harming of refugees, 555, 562professional practice, right to engage in, 995and Refugee Protocol, 54refugee statuscessation of, 1140, 1145, 1188entitlement, 173, 174, 178, 180, 181extraterritorial processing, 327non-discrimination, 268, 280, 284, 286, 287physical presence, 194, 198, 200, 212

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Australia (cont.)refusal of claims, 476

repatriation of refugees, 1166, 1185right to work, 928safe third country regime, 332summary ejection of refugees, 322taxation, 658treaty interpretation, 137, 139, 140, 158and UNHCR Handbook, 61, 64voluntary repatriation, 328

Austriaarbitrary detention, freedom from, 528carrier sanctions, 483detention of refugees, 474family unity/reunification, 667freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 698housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1035non-discrimination, 105, 111public or private assistance, access to, 1017refugee status, most-favored-nation treatment, 258right to work, 930self-employment, right to engage in, 891

Bangladesh. See also Chakma refugeesfood and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 598freedom of movement, restriction of, 867freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 704housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031, 1033physical harming of refugees, 563refugee status, documentation of, 768right to work, 927safe zone for Rohingya refugees, 313self-employment, right to engage in, 890shelter, rationing or denial of, 603voluntary repatriation, 328, 563water, rationing or denial of, 602

Bangladeshi refugees, 268, 270, 279Belarus, non-discrimination, 121Belgiumaccess to courts, 916non-refoulement, 374professional practice, right to engage in, 995public or private assistance, access to, 606refugee status

most-favored-nation treatment, 258standard of treatment, 222

right to work, 930

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belief, freedom of. See religious freedom (freedom to practice/manifest one’s religionor beliefs) (ICCPR Art. 18)

Bhutanese refugeesfamily unity/reunification, 673food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 599freedoms of expression and association, 1050, 1053non-discrimination, 270physical harming of, 557

borders, complete closure of, 314–316Bosnia, housing and housing assistance, 1031Bosnian refugees

family unity/reunification, 671freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 698

Botswanadispute settlement provisions, reservation, 55food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 601healthcare, access to, 631self-employment, right to engage in, 889

Brazil, refugee status, 240Bulgaria

detention of refugees, 465freedom of movement, restriction of, 475housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1036physical harming of refugees, 553, 563public or private assistance, access to, 606, 1016

burden-sharing, 28, 431Burma

education, access to, 739safe zone for Rohingya refugees, 313

Burmese refugees. See also Rohingya refugeesexpulsion of, 812freedom of movement, restriction of, 862, 873freedoms of expression and association, 1056housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031judicial assistance, access to, 781self-employment, right to engage in, 890

Burundihousing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031summary ejection of refugees, 324

Burundian refugeesborder closures, 435detention of, 478education, access to, 734family unity/reunification, 671food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 596, 597physical harming of, 560

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Cambodiaeducation, access to, 731naturalization of refugees, 1219right to work, 926

Cambodian refugeesdetention of, 477education, access to, 733, 734expulsion of, 812physical harming of, 554

Cameroonexpulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 815food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585, 601

camps, refugee. See reception centers; security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9),risk to, in refugee camps

Canadaaccess to courts, 918carrier sanctions, 482, 509Conclusions on International Protection of Refugees, legal effect, 58detention of refugees, 474, 476education, access to, 736, 741employment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 605expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 813, 843family unity/reunification, 666, 686“first country of arrival” regime, 330freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 699healthcare, access to, 634housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1035Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany, 314judicial assistance, access to, 782, 807non-discrimination, 105, 116, 120, 269, 271, 281, 287non-refoulement, 338, 344, 346, 372, 377, 403, 404, 406, 411passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1088proportionality, 116public or private assistance, access to, 1015refugee status

cessation of, 1176, 1188entitlement, 179exemption from penalization, 518national security restrictions, 300–301non-discrimination, 269, 271, 281, 287refusal of claims, 467, 512, 516

repatriation of refugees, 1187safe country of origin regime, 281, 334treaty interpretation, 131, 149, 153, 158and UNHCR Executive Committee Conclusions, 58and UNHCR Handbook, 60, 64visa requirements, 329

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capacity, personal status (applicable law) (CRSR Art. 12(1)), 238carrier sanctions, 329, 350, 509. See also visa controlsCartagena Declaration. See under Organization of American States (OAS)cautio judicatum solvi (CRSR Art. 16(2)), 916–918. See also legal aid (CRSR

Art. 16(2))1933 and 1938 Conventions, 916ALI/UNIDROIT Principles and Rules of Transnational Civil Procedure, 922drafting history, 919–924habitual residence, 919–923margin of appreciation, 922national treatment, 916national treatment (in country of residence or in territory of another state party)

(Art. 16(3)), 921non-discrimination and, 922right to demand, 922

Central African Republic refugeesexpulsion of, 815shelter, rationing or denial of, 603

cessation of refugee status (CRSR Art. 1(C))“circumstances have ceased to exist” (Art. 1(C)(5)–(6)). See fundamental change

of circumstances (“circumstances have ceased to exist”) (Art. 1(C)(5)–(6))compelling reasons exception, 1171–1177conceptual confusion about, 1128as durable solution, 1137general declarations of cessation, 1156–1160loss of legal or certain status, avoidance, 1136–1160naturalization (Art. 1(C)(3)). See naturalization (CRSR Art. 34)resettlement in third country. See resettlement in third countryvoluntary reestablishment in country of origin. See reestablishment in country of

origin (CRSR Art. 1(C)(4))“voluntary repatriation” concept and, 1128. See also voluntary repatriation

Chadeducation, access to, 734freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 697physical harming of refugees, 558right to work, 927self-employment, right to engage in, 888shelter, rationing or denial of, 603

Chakma refugeeshousing and housing assistance, provision of, 1033, 1038non-refoulement, 360

child refugees. See also education, right to; family unity/reunification; religious andmoral education, parents’ right to ensure conformity with convictions(ICESCR Art. 13(3)); religious freedom (freedom to practice/manifestone’s religion or beliefs) (ICCPR Art. 18)

detention of, 481family unity/reunification, 665

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child refugees (cont.)nationality, right to (Art. 24(3)), 1165recognition of family membership, 679repatriation, 1166right to protection (ICCPR Art. 24(1)), 278, 363separation and/or adoption, 672

Chilean refugees, resettlement of, 1189Chinadispute settlement provisions, reservation, 55extradition requests by, 322freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 700, 708non-discrimination, 266, 283physical harming of refugees, 562

Chinese refugees, non-recognition of status, 326citizenshipcategorical approval of differentiation based on, 108–112fiscal charges based on, 658reasonable and objective requirement, presumption of on basis of categories, 88,

110–112, 650Civil and Political Rights, International Covenant on (1966) (ICCPR). See also under

individual subject headings and Table of Treaties and Other InternationalInstruments

authentic languages, 138derogation, right of in time of emergency (Art. 4(1))

non-derogable rights (Art. 4(2)), 89, 571non-discrimination and, 89

limitations of, 88as a minimum standard, 52non-refoulement, 88Refugee Convention (1951) in relation to, 88refugees, relevance to, 84–102

breadth of refugee protection, 87omission or inappropriate formulation of refugee-related rights, 88

clothing (ICESCR Art. 11)“adequacy”/“adequate,” definition of, 626cultural expression (ICCPR Art. 27) and, 626disabled persons, 626UDHR Art. 25(1) and, 625–626

Colombian refugeesfood and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 584right to work, 927self-employment, right to engage in, 887shelter, rationing or denial of, 604summary ejection of, 324

Common European Asylum System. See under European Union (EU)compensation, confiscated property, 641, 648, 655–656

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compliance mechanisms. See also dispute settlement provisions; good faith; judicialrole; Minorities Treaties (post-WWI), compliance mechanisms

choice of means, 587, 636collectivization of responsibility, 26national courts, 176, 781–784national law as justification for non-compliance, 336UN human rights bodies, 176UNHCR, role. See UNHCR, role (CRSR Art. 35)

confiscation. See property rights (CRSR Art. 13)Congo, Democratic Republic of (Zaïre)

border closures, 314, 435dispute settlement provisions, reservation, 55physical harming of refugees, 555, 557

Congolese refugeesdetention of, 465expulsion of, 814food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 601housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031physical harming of, 555, 560self-sufficiency, 582voluntary repatriation, 327

conscientious objection. See also conscription, forced; religious freedom (freedom topractice/manifest one’s religion or beliefs) (ICCPR Art. 18)

conscription, forced, 671, 683. See also military serviceconsular protection, 21. See also administrative assistance (CRSR Art. 25); protection

of refugees (UNHCR Statute Art. 8)contingent rights, 12, 13Convention Travel Document (CTD). See documentation (travel documents) (CRSR

Art. 28)Conventions. See Civil and Political Rights, International Covenant on (1966)

(ICCPR); Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, International Covenanton (1966) (ICESCR); Refugees, Convention relating to the Status of (1951);Refugees, Protocol relating to the Status of (1967); Table of Treaties andOther International Instruments

core obligations (ICESCR). See Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, InternationalCovenant on (1966) (ICESCR), core obligations

Costa Ricaborder closures, 315self-employment, right to engage in, 889

Council of Europe. See European Convention on Human Rights/Protocols in theTable of Treaties and Other International Instruments

country of first arrival. See first country of arrival/safe third country rulescourts, access to (CRSR Art. 16), 797–808, 915–924

1933 and 1938 Conventions as basis, 23, 797as absolute right (Art. 16(1)), 264, 915“access to the courts”/“right to appear,” 799drafting history, 797–808, 919–924

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courts, access to (CRSR Art. 16) (cont.)“free access”/“libre et facile accès devant les tribunaux,” 799habitual residence and, 810legal aid/cautio judicatum solvi exemption (CRSR Art. 16(2)). See cautio

judicatum solvi (CRSR Art. 16(2)); legal aid (CRSR Art. 16(2))national treatment, 261, 262, 276reservation, exclusion, 31security for costs, 276subject-matter jurisdiction, in absence of, 800“on the territory of all contracting States,” 797

courts, access to (equality before) (ICCPRArt. 14(1)), 278, 800–808. See also hearing,right to fair and public (ICCPR Art.14); judicial review/appeal againstdetermination of status, right of

arbitrary detention (ICCPR Art. 9(4)) and, 915cautio judicatum solvi requirement, 922“courts,” 915equality, 278equality between the parties, 915impartial tribunal established by law, 915legal aid and, 922. See also legal aid (CRSR Art. 16(2))margin of appreciation, 922“suit at law,” 802–807territorial limitation/courts of all contracting states, 915

criminalsexclusion. See fugitives from justice, exclusion (CRSR Art. 1(F)(b)); non-

refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), grounds for withdrawal of right (CRSRArt. 33(2))

segregation of detainees from, 548Croatiaaccess to courts, 916border closures, 315housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031

Croatian refugees, family unity/reunification, 671cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment, freedom from (ICCPR Art. 7), 573–576. See

also torture, freedom from (ICCPR Art. 7)contextual factors, 576degrading treatment, 576, 617, 1164disregard of humanity, 577failure to protect against known risks, 574humiliation of victims, 576“inhuman or cruel,” definition/requirements, 573, 1164

intention, relevance, 572level of severity, 573necessities of life, right to and, 617as non-derogable right, 89(non-)necessity of physical force, 577official act or omission, 575

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“torture,” definition of, 572cruel treatment. See cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment (ICCPR Art. 7); torture,

freedom from (ICCPR Art. 7)Cuba, Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany, 314Cuban refugees

border closures, 315food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585freedoms of expression and association, 1057interdiction of, 318visa requirements, 329, 354withdrawal of refugee status for non-compliance with law, 49

cultural life, right to participation in (ICESCR Art. 15), 278customary international law, requirements. See also international law sources; state

practiceconsistent and uniform practice, 437general acceptance by appreciable section of community, 437opinio juris, 436, 441–450treaty-based norms as basis of, 440

Cyprus, family unity/reunification, 667Czech Republic, non-discrimination, 123–125

de facto reciprocity. See reciprocitydeath penalty, prohibition except under strict control as determined by the law, 567degrading treatment. See cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment (ICCPR Art. 7)Denmark

detention of refugees, 466education, access to, 736exemption from penalization, 513family unity/reunification, 667freedom of movement, restriction of, 476freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 698housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1029naturalization of refugees, 1220passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1088property rights, restriction or violation of, 641public or private assistance, access to, 1016, 1018right to work, 930self-employment, right to engage in, 891

deportation. See expulsion entries; repatriationdeprivation, freedom from. See necessities of life, right toderogation, right of (ICESCR Art. 2(3)), 175detention, freedom from arbitrary (ICCPR Art. 9), 464–488, 523–537. See also

internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (CRSR Art. 26);internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (CRSR Art. 31(2));internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (ICCPR Art. 12(1));internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (ICCPR Art. 12(3));life, right to (ICCPR Art. 6)

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detention, freedom from arbitrary (ICCPR Art. 9) (cont.)alternatives to detention, 474, 538beneficiaries of protection, 488–491children, detention of, 481conditions of detention, 479, 547–550. See also reception centers, conditions

children, 481closed detention facilities, risks to physical security, 559humanity and respect for inherent dignity (ICCPR Art. 10(1)), 547positive duty of care, 547

constraints on right to detain, 521CRSR Art. 31 criteria, relevance, 523“detention,” definition of, 521duration of detention, limit on, 530family members, separate detention of, 671family unity, effect of mass detention on, 683internment, 295justification, need for

efficient assessment of refugee claims, 535individual cases as basis, 528, 536necessity, 523, 528, 536proportionality, 532, 536“in pursuit of a legitimate goal,” 525, 536reasonableness, 527

mandatory termination of detention, 540–546mass detention, effect on family unity, 683mass influx, 477other restrictions on movement, 537–540protection of detainees, 548–550

segregation from common criminals, 548routine application of ostensibly specific measures, 472specific subsets of refugees, 476specificity of detention laws, 469state legislation and practices, 469–484vulnerable groups, 530

developing countriescompliance with 1951 Convention, 2as main recipients of refugees, 2right to limit economic rights (ICESCRArt. 2(3)). See economic rights, developing

countries’ right to limit (ICESCR Art. 2(3))diplomatic asylum, 196diplomatic premisesinjury to individual, relevance, 13inviolability, 195nationality as link, 16non-extraterritorial nature, 195responsibility for refugees physically present, 195

concurrent jurisdiction, 196

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customary international law, 196third-country nationals, 196

right of national state as basis, 13surrogate nature of right, 16

rights of asylum-seekers physically present, nationals of territorial state, 196statelessness and, 14, 20, 779

diplomatic reciprocity. See reciprocitydiplomatic relations, break, exceptional measures (CRSR Art. 8) and, 305disabled persons, and right to clothing, 626discrimination. See non-discriminationdispute settlement provisions

compulsory submission to International Court of Justice, 176right of reservation, 54Refugee Convention (1951). See reservations (CRSR Art. 42), right to make

divorce, acquired rights (CRSR Art. 12(2)) and, 253Djibouti, provision of housing and housing assistance, 1031documentation

1933 Convention, 241936 Convention, 25

documentation (identity papers) (CRSR Art. 27), 765–779as absolute right, 264administrative barriers to obtaining, 766compliance, 765–769drafting history, 769–776effectiveness of, 777facilitation of rights abuses by issuance of, 768form ofno mandatory format, 776standardization of, 769work permits, 606

importance to refugees, 765provisional documentation, 778refugee status, documentation of, 769–776refusal to issue documents, 765refusal to recognize documentation, 768

documentation (League of Nations), as international travel documents, 21documentation (travel documents). See travel documentsdomestic violence in refugee camps, 559domicile

personal status (CRSR Art. 12(1)) and, 237–241. See also personal status(applicable law) (CRSR Art. 12(1))

state of domicile, definition of, 243Dominican Republic, access to courts, 917due process requirements. See expulsion of person lawfully in the territory (CRSR

Art. 32), due process of law requirement (Art. 32(2))durable residence, 216–219

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durable solutions, 1128–1133. See also local integration; naturalization;reestablishment in country of origin (CRSR Art. 1(C)(4)); repatriation;resettlement in third country

“complementary pathways,” 1129continued respect for refugee rights, 1132expansion beyond CRSC provisions, 1130inherent in CRSC, 1128lawful and unlawful solutions, 1128–1133as preferred option, 1128provided in CRSC, 1130rights of, 7, 31types of, 1128

duties of refugees (CRSR Art. 2), 37–50. See also fiscal charges (CRSR Art. 29);military service; refugee status, determination/verification

codification, relevance, 38–40compliance with laws, regulations, and public order measures, limitation to,

38, 42“as well as to measures . . . for public order,” 42, 44invalid measures, 42public morality and, 45UN Conference on Territorial Asylum (1977), 55

drafting history, 38–42military service, 42political activity, 40. See also political activitytax liability. See fiscal charges (CRSR Art. 29)withdrawal of rights for breach

as alternative to withdrawal of refugee status or expulsion, 46–48, 49exclusion, 46–50

economic development, refugees as agents for local economic development, 582economic rightsdefinition/classification as, 615

education, 749–753non-discrimination, 90–102

Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, International Covenant on (1966) (ICESCR). Seealso Table of Treaties and Other International Instruments

authentic languages, 138breadth of refugee protection, 87core obligations

adequate food, 613, 622adequate housing, 613, 619, 627developing countries, right to limit economic rights (ICESCR Art. 2(3)), 620,

749–753disaster and humanitarian assistance, 622education, 749–753international aid, obligation to seek, 594, 613, 620primary healthcare, 613, 620, 637

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proactive/protective nature of obligation, 616, 618, 620developing countries’ right to limit (ICESCR Art. 2(3)), 256, 615,

620, 749–753progressive realization (ICESCR Art. 2(1))burden of proof, 613core obligations (ICESCR) and, 613, 749–753legal accountability, 620marginalized and vulnerable groups and, 618“to the maximum of its available resources,” 636, 749–753non-discrimination, 91, 98, 99, 615

Ecuadorfood and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585refugee statusdeadline for claims, 468, 495documentation, 768

right to work, 927self-employment, right to engage in, 888visa requirements, 329, 354withdrawal of refugee status for non-compliance with law, 49

education, right to, 730–765. See also religious andmoral education, parents’ right toensure conformity with convictions (ICESCR Art. 13(3)); religiousfreedom (freedom to practice/manifest one’s religion or beliefs) (ICCPRArt. 18)

1933 Convention, 23access to education, lack of, 731curriculum policy, 734delayed or inadequate support, 732denial of, 732elementary (CRSR Art. 22(1)), 745–757access to, 745definition of, 745duty to provide equal access, 753enrolment policy, flexibility of approach to, 749equality of provision, 748fundamental education, 749–753national treatment, 261, 262, 276persons entitled to, 746refugee status determination and, 749reservations, 753resource constraints, relevance, 753

elementary (ICESCR Art. 13(2)(a))acceptable and appropriate form and substance, 754as core obligation, 749–753economic or social right, whether, 749–753“free for all,” 754language of instruction, 756non-discrimination and, 256

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education, right to (cont.)progressive realization, 749–753prospect of repatriation, influence on education provision policy, 755

equality of provision, 740, 743fundamental education (ICESCR Art. 13(2)(d)), progressive realization and,

749–753funding

adequate fellowship system (ICESCR Art. 13(e)), 626, 764“aliens generally,” same as, 759non-discrimination (ICESCR Art. 2(3)) and, 764

higher. See post-elementary (CRSR 22(2) and post-elementary (ICESCR 13))below

importance to refugees, 730integration of refugee children into host state system, 735language of instruction, 736non-formal education, 739post-elementary (CRSR 22(2)), 757–765

drafting history, 757–765public provision, limitation of access to, 757standard of treatment

“aliens generally,” same as, 759“in the same circumstances,” 232

post-elementary (ICESCR Art. 13), 762–765availability “to all,” 762funding, adequate provision of, 764higher education (Art. 13(2)(c)), 278merit-based assessment, 763progressive introduction of free education, 762progressive realization, 762secondary education (Art. 13(2)(b)), 278technical and vocational education (Art. 13(2)(b)), 763

prospect of repatriation, influence on education provision policy, 734refugee status determination and, 740secondary and post-secondary education, access to, 737vocational programs, 739

education, role, requirements and provision, vocational training under 1938Convention, 25

Egyptarmed attacks by border guards, 317freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 701freedoms of expression and association, 1052physical harming of refugees, 552public or private assistance, access to, 1014right to work, 927voluntary repatriation, 328

ejection. See non-refoulement entries

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El Salvador. See also Salvadoran refugeesdispute settlement provisions, reservation, 55

employment, right to seek/engage in wage-earning (CRSR Art. 17), 925–993. See alsoliberal professions, right to practice (CRSR Art. 19); migrant workers; self-employment, right to engage in (CRSR Art. 18)

denial as breach of obligations, degrading treatment, 616determination of status, dependence on, 605, 616–618, 928drafting history, 943–947, 951–966necessities of life and, 616, 942practical difficulties, 929racial discrimination and, 942resettlement program obligations (CRSR Art. 17(3)), 875restrictions for protection of national labor market, exemption (CRSR Art. 17(2)),

958–965drafting history, 960–966

self-sufficiency and, 605, 616–618standard of treatmentdomestic labor market concerns, 943–946most-favored-national (CRSR Art. 17(1)), 232, 257–261, 276, 951–957treatment accorded to aliens generally (“lowest common denominator”),

exclusion, 278temporary protection and, 928

employment, right to seek/engage in wage-earning (ICESCR Art. 6), 931–966differentiation based on nationality, 932national treatment, 278non-discrimination and, 942as protection againstarbitrary dismissal, 942forced labor, 942unjust denial of work, 942

employment rights (just and favorable conditions of work (ICESCR Art. 7), 278. Seealso social security (ICESCR Art. 9)

employment rights (labor legislation (CRSR Art. 24)). See also association, right of(CRSR Art. 15)

collective bargaining, 972. See also association, right of (CRSR Art. 15)drafting history, 967–973fair working conditions, 966–978ICESCR Art. 7 and, 970–978national treatment (CRSR Art. 24(1)(a)), 261, 262, 276social security. See social security (CRSR Art. 24(1)(b))

employment rights (Refugee Convention (1933)), 23enemy alien, classification as

exemption from exceptional measures and (CRSR Art. 8), 303Geneva Convention on Protection of Civilian Persons (Art. 44), 303

enforcement. See compliance mechanismsenter his own country, right to (ICCPR Art. 12(4))

arbitrary deprivation, 1181

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enter his own country, right to (ICCPR Art. 12(4)) (cont.)“his own country,” 1182

enter, right of refugees to. See also non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33)non-penalization. See illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR

Art. 31(1))non-refoulement in relation to, 337

equality before the courts (ICCPR Art. 14(1)). See courts, access to (equality before)(ICCPR Art. 14(1)); non-discrimination (equality before the law/equalityof protection) (ICCPR Art. 26)

Eritrea, freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 702Eritrean refugeesexpulsion of, 812freedom of movement, restriction of, 864freedoms of expression and association, 1050non-discrimination, 267non-recognition of status, 326taxation, 662voluntary repatriation, 328

Estonia, non-discrimination, 114Ethiopiafood and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 584, 599, 600, 601, 1012housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1029public or private assistance, access to, 1014water, rationing or denial of, 602

Ethiopian refugeesdocumentation, 765freedom of movement, restriction of, 874non-discrimination, 267public or private assistance, access to, 1013

Europe, Council of. See Council of EuropeEuropean Union (EU)access to courts, 918arbitrary detention, freedom from, 528, 532, 537carrier sanctions, 483, 509Common European Asylum System, 72–77

legal basis of, 72limitations of, 74protections greater than international refugee law standard, 76scope of, 73

degrading treatment, 576detention of refugees, 472education, access to, 736, 740expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 813, 823family unity/reunification, 667, 669, 670“first country of arrival” regime, 330freedom of movement, restriction of, 865, 873Handbook and Guidelines, legal effect, 60, 64

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housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1034interdiction measures, 320judicial assistance, access to, 784non-discrimination, 268, 281, 283non-refoulement, 338, 370, 422passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1090, 1115professional practice, right to engage in, 994, 995public or private assistance, access to, 1015, 1017, 1024refugee statuscessation of, 1141exemption from insurmountable requirements, 235exemption from penalization, 517non-discrimination, 268, 281, 283physical presence, 200standard of treatment, 223

repatriation of refugees, 1185resettlement of refugees, 1194right to work, 929, 954, 959safe country of origin regime, 334safe third country regime, 332self-employment, right to engage in, 891treaty interpretation, 131–133and UNHCR Handbook, 60, 64visa requirements, 329

eviction, forced, 627exceptional measures, exemption (CRSR Art. 8), 303–311. See also enemy alien,

classification as; provisional measures (CRSR Art. 9)applicability“in appropriate cases,” 310break of diplomatic relations and, 305in case of temporary interstate dispute, 305general measures, 307international emergency, 305measures not based on nationality, 306“nationals of a foreign state,” limiting nature, 307war or national emergency, 305where national legislation prevents application of general principle, 307–311

inappropriateness of measures directed against state, 305margin of appreciation, 304as new right, 29non-discrimination (CRSR Art. 3) and, 306, 309peacetime measures, 304personal status, applicable law (CRSR Art. 12(1)) and, 242provisional measures (CRSR Art. 9) distinguished, 304reservations, 309

excised territories, 194, 365–366excision policies, 336–337

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exclusion of fugitives from justice. See fugitives from justice, exclusion (CRSR Art. 1(F)(b))

expression, freedom ofimportance to refugees, 1049in liberal tradition, 1048

expression, freedom of (ICCPR Art. 19(1))CRSC Art. 15 compared, 1069forms of protected expression, 1071foundational right, 1070information and ideas, transmission of, 1071and international peace and security (UNCharter/UNGARes. 3314(XXIX)), 1085national security and, 1080“necessary” restrictions, 1083non-discrimination and, 1072public morals and, 1083public order (ordre public) and, 1080public safety and, 1082“rights and freedoms of others,” protection of, 1079rule of law, 1077

expression, freedom of (UDHR Art. 19)codification in 1951 Convention, rejection, 1064, 1069narrowness of provisions, 1059

expulsion1933 Convention, 23, 8551936 Convention, 25examples, 811–816as right, 833

expulsion of person lawfully in the territory (CRSR Art. 32), 809, 811–860. See alsonon-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33); non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33),avoidance of obligation; resettlement in third country

as absolute right, 264constraints before lawful presence, 818–830constraints following lawful presence, 830–833due process of law requirement (CRSR Art. 32(2)), 833–841, 859. See also right of

appeal to competent authority (CRSR Art. 32(2)) below“compelling reasons of national security otherwise require,” 839–841

limitation to specified rights, 839non-judicial proceedings and, 840, 859“objectively necessary” requirement, 859

“due process,” 838expulsion in accordance with the law (ICCPR Art. 13) compared, 834judicial process, rejection, 834procedural rights available to all aliens under ICCPR Art. 13 compared, 837right to submit evidence to clear himself, 836

expulsion to country of origin, 842grounds (CRSR Art. 32(1))

1933 Convention distinguished, 855

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admissibility to state with no risk of refoulement, 859international trade/comity, 842limitation to national security or public order, 842, 859national security, 859. See also national security

CRSR Art. 33(2) compared, 842“objectively reasonable suspicion,” 843public order, 859

drafting history, 844–856illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art. 31(1)) and, 519–520non-coercive departure, right to, 856–860non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33) and, 816, 856procedural constraints, 833–841reasonable period to seek admission into another country (CRSR 32(3)),

857–859drafting history, 857–859internal measures deemed necessary, right to impose, 858

detention, possibility of, 858margin of appreciation, 858“restrictions necessary” in case of persons unlawfully present distinguished

(CRSR Art. 31(2)), 858limitation to cases of non-receipt of documentation or visas, rejection, 857non-refoulement safeguards, 411as respect for refugee’s preferences, 857

reservations, 418courts, access to (CRSR Art. 16(1)) and, 797

right of appeal to competent authority (CRSR Art. 32(2)), 834, 859. See also dueprocess of law requirement (CRSR Art. 32(2)) above

authority over expulsion process, need for, 834, 859explicit designation of body or person, need for, 834as right to “présenter un recours,” 834

substantive constraints, 841–856summary ejection, 321–325

expulsion of person lawfully in the territory (ICCPR Art. 13)“in accordance with law,” 837“appeal to . . . competent authority” (CRSR Art. 32) compared, 834

“lawfully in the territory,” relevance of time spent in country, 197right of review by competent authorityoral hearing/personal appearance, 836right to be represented, 836

extraterritorial controls. See non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), avoidance ofobligation, extraterritorial controls; visa controls

“extraterritorial”/international zones, 194, 336–337, 365–366extraterritorial jurisdiction. See state responsibility for acts outside territory

fair working conditions, right to. See employment rights (just and favorableconditions of work (ICESCR Art. 7)); employment rights (labor legislation(CRSR Art. 24))

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family rights, applicable law, 239matrimonial status, 248succession and inheritance, 240

family unity/reunification, 664–697administrative delays and impediments, 666, 670affirmative action obligation, 687, 688, 697arbitrary interference

reasonableness/proportionality requirement, 684repatriation and, 1164, 1165

arbitrary interference (ICCPR Art. 17), 683–687procedures established by law requirement, 683

badly designed or implemented policies, effects of, 672Child, Convention on the Rights of the, 677children, recognition as family member, 679conscription, forced and, 671, 683customary international law, 1164family as fundamental unit of society

ICCPR Art. 23(1), 278ICESCR Art. 10, 278

family memberassimilation to head of family, 675definition, 1164recognition as, 678

“family”/“family member,” definition of, 668Final Act, Recommendation B, 674–677financial situation, relevance, 669human rights law and, 677–683“live together,” right to, 688mass detention and, 683mass expulsion and, 671reasonableness standard for implementation of obligations, 688recognition of family relationships, 677–683refugee status, relevance, 666right to found family (ICCPR Art. 23(2)), 687same-sex relationships, 693–697separate detention, 671state practice, 677

FCN treaties. See standard of treatment of aliens, evolution of regime, bilateral/FCNtreaty regime

federal clause (CRSR Art. 41), fiscal charges and, 660Finlandnon-discrimination, 118right to work, 930

first asylum, principle of. See first country of arrival/safe third country rulesfirst country of arrival/safe third country rules, 330–332, 366–375first country of arrival rule, 366–375

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as constraint on right to choose country of protection, 366definition, 330drafting history, 367harmonization regimes, 330–332

continuing responsibility of first country, 373indirect refoulement and, 371

safe country of origin, designation as, 334, 375–378blanket determinations of safety, 375burden of proof, 376“manifestly unfounded,” treatment as, 335as procedural device, 376

safe third country rule, 332–335, 366–375compatibility with CRSR Art. 33 323–324, 368–371definition, 332

fiscal charges (CRSR Art. 29), 656–664. See also taxation1933 Convention, 23, 262bilateral treatment protection, ineffectiveness in case of refugees, 659charges for administrative documents (CRSR Art. 29(2)), 661citizenship as basis, 658differing impact, 657exemption from, 656location of property, expenditures, and activities, relevance, 658national treatment, 261, 276“other or higher” charges or taxes, 662“in similar situations,” 232, 261, 662

reciprocity, relevance, 660residence, relevance, 663special duties, charges, or taxes, protection against (CRSR 29(1)), 660charges wholly applied for relief of refugees, 661federal clause (CRSR Art. 41), 660taxes assessed by political sub-units, 660

flag state, responsibility for acts outside territory, jurisdiction in absence of, 388food (ICESCR Art. 11). See also food shortages; international aid/relief, dependence

on; necessities of life, right to; water, right toadequate food (ICESCR Art. 11(1)), 278, 612, 623core content of right, definition of, 622as core obligation, 613, 622cultural differences and, 599, 622as fundamental right (ICESCR Art. 11(2)), 621proactive/protective nature of obligation, 623state responsibility for, 622

food shortagesfood bans, 598as major cause of death and serious illness, 601“voluntary” repatriation and, 600

forced eviction. See eviction, forced

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forcible displacement during WWII (CRSR Art. 10), 217–218attachment to states in which rights are to be invoked as key consideration, 218,

1215continuity of residence in country from which deported (CRSR Art. 10(2)), 218difficulties faced by refugees, relevance, 218, 1215obsolescence of provision, 218

Franceaccess to courts, 917carrier sanctions, 483expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 823freedom of movement, restriction of, 475, 542, 885freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 704, 709freedoms of expression and association, 1062healthcare, access to, 634housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1036non-discrimination, 112, 114physical barriers at borders, 316physical harming of refugees, 557, 558, 562professional practice, right to engage in, 994public or private assistance, access to, 1016refugee rights regime pre-Convention, 177refugee status, standard of treatment, 223self-employment, right to engage in, 889, 891

freedom from deprivation. See necessities of life, right tofreedom of association. See association, right of (CRSR Art. 15); association, right of

(ICCPR Art. 22); association, right of (ICESCR Art. 8)freedom of expression. See expression, freedom of (ICCPR Art. 19 (1)); expression,

freedom of (UDHR Art. 19)freedom of movement, restrictions on. See detention, freedom from arbitrary

(ICCPR Art. 9)freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. See religious freedom (freedom to

practice/manifest one’s religion or beliefs) (ICCPR Art. 18)fugitives from justice, exclusion (CRSR Art. 1(F)(b)), 294, 399–425.

See also non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), grounds for withdrawal of right(Art. 33(2))

continuing justiciability, relevance, 417crimes committed prior to admission as a refugee, 404drafting history/rationale, 399, 403, 413standard of proof, 399

fundamental change of circumstances (“circumstances have ceased to exist”), (CRSRArt. 1(C)(5)–(6)), 1130, 1137–1156. See also cessation of refugee status(CRSR Art. 1(C))

actual change has occurred, requirement for, 1144causal connection between political change and reduction of risk

to refugees, 1146“ceased to exist” requirement, 1140cessation clauses, 1148, 1154, 1157, 1184

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change in “objective situation,” requirement for, 1143durable political change, requirement for, 1145“fundamental, stable and durable” standard, 1140government in home state able to protect refugee, sufficiency, 1139inquiry process for, 1138–1143misconstruction as basis for cessation, 1141non-impairment of rights (CRSR Art. 5) and, 50restoration of protection, 1138, 1147–1150substantial political change, requirement for, 1144voluntary repatriation as replacement for CRSR Art. 1(C)(5)–(6) requirements,

1150–1156. See also repatriation; “voluntary” repatriation

gender. See women refugeesgender discrimination. See sex discriminationgeographical limitation of obligations (CRSR Art. 1(B)), 35–37

Refugees, Protocol relating to the Status of (1967) and, 35–37critical date, 36

Georgia, access to judicial assistance, 782Germany

detention of refugees, 476, 522education, access to, 735employment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 605expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 824family unity/reunification, 667freedom of movement, restriction of, 475, 865freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 704freedoms of expression and association, 1049, 1057healthcare, access to, 634housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1035, 1036Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany, 314physical harming of refugees, 558professional practice, right to engage in, 996property rights, restriction or violation of, 645public or private assistance, access to, 606, 1016, 1018refugee status, cessation of, 1141right to work, 929self-employment, right to engage in, 891treaty interpretation, 164

Ghanadispute settlement provisions, reservation, 55property rights, restriction or violation of, 644public or private assistance, access to, 1013public order measures, 45

good faithasylum claims made in, 491national security, assessment of risk, 302naturalization requirements (CRSR Art. 34) and, 1215, 1219–1221

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good faith (cont.)obligation to consider non-application to refugees of general limits, 899pacta sunt servanda, 180standard of treatment of aliens, 653treaty implementation, 180, 348, 782, 811treaty interpretation, 348, 578

“governed,” meaning of, 237Greecearbitrary detention, freedom from, 537detention of refugees, 477education, access to, 735employment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 605family unity/reunification, 667freedom of movement, restriction of, 864freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 698, 706, 708freedoms of expression and association, 1052non-discrimination, 115physical harming of refugees, 561, 563self-employment, right to engage in, 891shelter, rationing or denial of, 604summary ejection of refugees, 322

Guantánamo Bay, jurisdiction, 186Guatemalan refugeescessation of refugee status, 1144family unity/reunification, 670public or private assistance, access to, 1012

Guineaself-employment, right to engage in, 888summary ejection of refugees, 325

habitual presence or lawful presence, 196–212habitual residenceconcept of, 211courts, access to (CRSR Art. 16) and, 810definition of, 211intellectual property rights (CRSR Art. 14), 810, 908lawful presence in relation to, 212legal aid (CRSR Art. 16(2)), 919–923personal status and, 241rights dependent on. See employment, right to seek/engage in wage-earning

(CRSR Art. 17), restrictions for protection of national labor market,exemption (CRSR Art. 17(2)); intellectual property rights (CRSR Art. 14);legal aid (CRSR Art. 16(2)); reciprocity, exemption (CRSR Art. 7(2))

temporary residence distinguished from, 908Haitian refugeesdetention of, 266interdiction of, 317

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non-refoulement, 380–384harmonization regimes

continuing responsibility of first country, 373indirect refoulement and, 371

hatred, advocacy of, 278, 1078health, highest attainable standard of physical andmental, right to (ICESCR Art. 12),

278, 613access to healthcare, 630–640choice of means, 636as core obligation, 637freedom from interference, 635interrelationship with housing and food, 630language and, 633marginalized and vulnerable groups and, 619, 639national treatment, 620as non-derogable obligation, 639non-discrimination and, 638primary healthcare as core obligation, 620, 637progressive realization, 636–640right to health distinguished, 635timely access to health protection, 635

hearing, right to fair and public (ICCPR Art. 14), 783, 801, 915. See also expulsion ofperson lawfully in the territory (CRSR Art. 32), due process of lawrequirement (CRSR Art. 32(2)); expulsion of person lawfully in theterritory (ICCPR Art. 13), right of review by competent authority; judicialreview/appeal against determination of status, right of

high seas, refugee rights on, 317, 379, 381, 384–390, 581Honduran refugees, interdiction of, 319Honduras

food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 598freedoms of expression and association, 1050interdiction measures, 319property rights, restriction or violation of, 644

Hong Kongdetention of refugees, 478freedom of movement, restriction of, 476non-refoulement, 129, 361, 437

host (asylum) state, attachment to, as basis of entitlement. See habitual residence;jurisdictional attachment; lawful presence; “lawfully staying”/“résidantrégulièrement”; physical presence

housing (CRSR Art. 21), 1028–1048. See also internal movement, freedom of/choiceof residence (CRSR Art. 31(2)); necessities of life, right to; receptioncenters

“lawfully staying”/“résidant régulièrement,” temporary protection status and,1034

public relief and assistance (CRSR Art. 23) distinguished, 1040rationing, 591

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housing (CRSR Art. 21) (cont.)self-settlement and, 1014, 1019, 1032, 1039standard of treatment/assimilation to aliens, 276, 278

adequacy of treatment, ICESCR Art. 11 and. See housing (ICESCR Art. 11(1))as favorable as possible, 1040“in the same circumstances,” 232

temporary accommodation, 603, 1028. See also reception centershousing (ICESCR Art. 11(1)), 627–630“adequate,” 603, 627–630, 1029–1034, 1046–1048as core obligation, 613, 619, 627, 1045cultural appropriateness, 629forced eviction, 627freedom of movement/choice of residence and, 1039general human rights law, relevance, 1044habitability, 630, 1046international aid, obligation to seek, 1039location, 629, 1031marginalized and vulnerable groups and, 619, 629, 1039non-discrimination and, 278overcrowding, 604security, peace, and dignity requirement, 628self-settlement, 1039shortage of materials, 1032

Human Rights Declaration of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)(2012). See Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN); and underTable of Treaties and Other International Instruments.

human rights law post-1951. See also Civil and Political Rights, InternationalCovenant on (1966) (ICCPR); Economic, Social and Cultural Rights,International Covenant on (1966) (ICESCR); standard of treatment ofaliens, evolution of regime

applicability to refugees, 85continuing relevance of 1951 Convention, 88–89, 173, 255–257, 290development of, 84as law applicable to refugees, 84–102universality of civil rights (ICCPR), 88

human rights treaties, extraterritorial obligations. See state responsibility for actsoutside territory

Human Rights, Universal Declaration of (1948). See also Table of Treaties and OtherInternational Instruments

as model for 1951 Convention, 29non-binding nature, 84

Hungarian refugees, resettlement of, 1189Hungarydegrading treatment, 576detention of refugees, 469, 472, 479education, access to, 735excised territories, 336

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freedom of movement, restriction of, 861, 873freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 707geographical limitation of obligations, 36housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1035judicial assistance, access to, 784non-discrimination, 270, 282passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1086physical barriers at borders, 316physical harming of refugees, 554professional practice, right to engage in, 995and Refugee Protocol, 36summary ejection of refugees, 325

Iceland, non-discrimination, 116identity papers. See documentation (identity papers) (CRSR Art. 27)illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art. 31(1)), 464–488. See also

lawful presencedetention. See detention, freedom from arbitrary (ICCPR Art. 9)determination of refugee status, right to, 516drafting history/rationale, 488expulsion and, 519–520failure to distinguish between asylum-seekers and other aliens, 464,

486inconsistent legislation, 464

“illegal entry or presence,” 511intermediate country, time spent in, 467internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (CRSR Art. 31(2)) and. See

detention, freedom from arbitrary (ICCPR Art. 9); internal movement,freedom of/choice of residence (CRSR Art. 31(2))

need for CRSR Art. 31, 487as new right, 30non-refoulement and, 485organizations or persons assisting refugees, applicability to, 507–510carrier sanctions and, 482, 510

“penalties,” 511–519expedited determination of status as, 467, 486, 516obligation not to “impose,” limitation to, 512retrospective application of, 491sanctions pénales, 515

physical presence, sufficiency, 488requirements“coming directly,” 495–507drafting history/rationale, 497good cause for illegal entry, 198, 492, 495, 496, 510

drafting history, 496January 1, 1951 cut-off date, effect of abolition, 502persecution in country of asylum and, 501–504

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illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art. 31(1)) (cont.)presentation to the authorities, 492–495

apprehension or detention by the authorities, 492presentation without delay, 198, 468, 485, 486, 488, 492–495, 510

as reasonableness requirement, 493short periods of transit, 500“threat to life or freedom,” 500

right to seek admission to another country (CRSR Art. 31(2)), 411scope of protection, 491visa controls and, 352

immigration laws as matter of domestic policy, 338. See also enter his own country,right to (ICCPR Art. 12(4))

“in” or “within” the country. See physical presenceIndiadetention of refugees, 469freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 704, 706freedoms of expression and association, 1050, 1055housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1033, 1038judicial assistance, access to, 781non-discrimination, 268, 270, 279non-refoulement, 129, 360passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1087public or private assistance, access to, 1012right to work, 926self-employment, right to engage in, 889

individual, standing, 17, 18. See also standard of treatment of aliens, evolution ofregime

Indonesiaarbitrary detention, freedom from, 530detention of refugees, 470, 482freedom of movement, restriction of, 469freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 706interdiction measures, 318

Indonesian refugeesnon-recognition of status, 326summary ejection of, 322

inheritance. See succession and inheritanceinland waters and territorial seas, 194insurmountable circumstances. See standard of treatment of refugees (CRSR Art. 6),

“in the same circumstances,” insurmountable requirementsintegration. See local integrationintellectual property rights (CRSR Art. 14)drafting history/rationale, 901–915habitual residence requirement, 810, 908

interdiction measures, 317–325intermediate country, time spent in, 467internal measures in case of lawful expulsion (CRSR Art. 32(3)), 858

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internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence, 860–886. See also detention,freedom from arbitrary (ICCPR Art. 9); internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (CRSR Art. 26); internal movement, freedom of/choiceof residence (CRSR Art. 31(2)); internal movement, freedom of/choice ofresidence (ICCPR Art. 12(1)); internal movement, freedom of/choice ofresidence (ICCPR Art. 12(3)); reception centers; resettlement in thirdcountry

internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (CRSR Art. 26)1938 Convention compared, 868conditional permission to live outside reception center, 539, 608drafting history, 868–872lawful presence and, 809mass influx, 868non-discrimination and, 255, 278prohibition of post-regularization constraints, 872–877standard of treatmentsubject to regulations applicable to aliens generally, 276, 278, 868

“in the same circumstances,” 879internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (CRSR Art. 31(2)). See also

resettlement in third countryassignment to reception centers, 474. See also reception centersdetentionexemption from, 522mandatory termination, 540–546necessity requirement, 523, 529, 536provisional detention, 521–523, 545

family unity/reunification and, 672indirect restrictions, 873justificationexamples of, 864–865need for, 523

“necessary” for national security, 870non-punitive nature, 858provisional nature of rightmass influx and, 869pending verification of identity and circumstances of entry, 811, 870regularization of status in country, 871

restrictions on movement, prohibition of, 537–540terms of resettlement or admission and, 875

internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (ICCPR Art. 12(1)),278

lawful presence and, 255, 278internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (ICCPR Art. 12(3)),

880–885internal protection/flight/relocation alternative, 64international aid/relief, dependence on, 594–597

disaster and humanitarian assistance, 622

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international aid/relief, dependence on (cont.)failure to foresee needs, 598food bans, 598logistical difficulties, 598non-discrimination, duty of, 615obligation to give aid, 616–620obligation to seek/accept aid, 594, 613, 614, 620political considerations, 594, 597voluntary contributions, dependence on, 595

international aliens law. See aliens law, internationalInternational Court of Justice (ICJ), role, compulsory submission to, 176International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) (ICCPR). See Civil and

Political Rights, International Covenant on (1966) (ICCPR)International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) (ICESCR).

See Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, International Covenant on(1966) (ICESCR)

International Labor Organization (ILO) migrant labor conventions, 1951Convention and, 30

international law sourcescustomary international law/general principles of law, value. See also customary

international law, requirementstreaties. See treaties

international peace and security obligations. See peace and security obligations,international

International Refugee Organization, role, 26, 27, 28, 242international travel. See travel documentsinternational zones. See “extraterritorial”/international zonesinternment. See provisional measures (CRSR Art. 9), internmentIraneducation, access to, 732, 738freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 701healthcare, access to, 631professional practice, right to engage in, 993right to work, 927voluntary repatriation, 563

Iranian refugeescessation of refugee status, 1187physical harming of, 554, 561

Iraqphysical harming of refugees, 554, 561public or private assistance, access to, 1014shelter, rationing or denial of, 604

Iraqi refugeesexpulsion of, 814food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585physical harming of, 559professional practice, right to engage in, 995

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public or private assistance, access to, 606shelter, rationing or denial of, 603

Irelanddegrading treatment, 576education, access to, 736employment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 605freedom of movement, restriction of, 475freedoms of expression and association, 1051non-discrimination, 115passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1089property rights, restriction or violation of, 645public or private assistance, access to, 606refugee statusexemption from insurmountable requirements, 235physical presence, 200

self-employment, right to engage in, 889Israel

detention of refugees, 469expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 812, 836freedom of movement, restriction of, 863physical harming of refugees, 562refugee statusnon-discrimination, 267, 283refusal of claims, 326

right to work, 928taxation, 657

Italycarrier sanctions, 482healthcare, access to, 634interdiction measures, 319non-refoulement, 379professional practice, right to engage in, 995public or private assistance, access to, 1018refugee status, most-favored-nation treatment, 260right to work, 944safe third country regime, 332shelter, rationing or denial of, 604, 608summary ejection of refugees, 324

Jamaicadispute settlement provisions, reservation, 55as safe country of origin, 281

Japandetention of refugees, 469judicial assistance, access to, 781passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1090refugee status, refusal of claims, 326

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Japan (cont.)right to work, 928

Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany, 314Jordanborder closures, 315education, access to, 731, 738expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 814, 834housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1032, 1033non-discrimination, 270, 286physical harming of refugees, 559professional practice, right to engage in, 993public or private assistance, access to, 1014shelter, rationing or denial of, 603

judicial review/appeal against determination of status, right of, 783. See alsoadministrative assistance (CRSR Art. 25); consular protection; courts,access to (equality before) (ICCPRArt. 14(1)); expulsion of person lawfullyin the territory (CRSR Art. 32), right of appeal to competent authority(CRSR Art. 32(2)); expulsion of person lawfully in the territory (ICCPRArt. 13), right of review by competent authority; protection of refugees(UNHCR Statute Art. 8)

free courts, access to (CRSR Art. 16(1)) and, 797expedited determination of status and, 363, 467, 807refoulement and, 363unreasonable deadline, 784

judicial role, 1transnational approach, 158

juridical status. See courts, access to (CRSR Art. 16); individual, standing; personalstatus

jurisdictional attachment, 181–193. See also courts, access to (CRSR Art. 16);education, right to, elementary (CRSR Art. 22(1)); fiscal charges (CRSRArt. 29); naturalization (CRSR Art. 34); non-discrimination (CRSRArt. 3);non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33); property rights (CRSR Art. 13); rationing(CRSR Art. 20); state responsibility for acts outside territory

Kenyaarbitrary detention, freedom from, 529border closures, 314detention of refugees, 465education, access to, 735, 738expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 815, 839family unity/reunification, 671first country of arrival regime, 331food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585, 596, 600, 601, 1012forced conscription of refugees, 563freedom of movement, restriction of, 469, 861, 866, 872freedoms of expression and association, 1055

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healthcare, access to, 631, 633housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031judicial assistance, access to, 781non-refoulement, 343, 357, 412, 417, 420passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1086physical harming of refugees, 562property rights, restriction or violation of, 643public or private assistance, access to, 1014refugee statuscessation of, 1137documentation, 768entitlement, 179national security restrictions, 302

self-employment, right to engage in, 887taxation, 657

Kosovar refugeesborder closures, 314shelter, rationing or denial of, 603

Kurdish refugeesborder closures, 314food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585physical harming of, 557shelter, rationing or denial of, 603

Kuwait, expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 814, 836Kyrgyz refugees, border closures, 315Kyrgyzstan

food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 600summary ejection of refugees, 321

labor rights. See employment rights (labor legislation (CRSR Art. 24))land

restrictions on leasing, 644restrictions on ownership, 643

language. See differential treatment, justification/requirements, differing impact,relevance; education, role, requirements and provision; health, highestattainable standard of physical and mental, right to (ICESCR Art. 12),language and; treaty interpretation, aids and guidelines (with particularreference to the 1951 Convention), multiple languages

Lao Hmong refugeesexpulsion of, 812food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585

Laos, freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 702, 709Law of Nations, statelessness and, 14lawful presence. See also illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art.

31(1)); physical presencein absence of verification procedures, 810

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lawful presence (cont.)or habitual presence, 196–212habitual residence, 212lawful residence, relevance. See also “lawfully staying”/“résidant régulièrement”lawful sanction as determining factor, 197provisional admission, 198refugee status, determination/verification, relevance, 198–208, 810rights deriving from, 197. See also documentation (identity papers) (CRSR Art.

27); expulsion of person lawfully in the territory (CRSR Art. 32); internalmovement, freedom of/choice of residence (CRSR Art. 26); internalmovement, freedom of/choice of residence (ICCPR Art. 12(1)); self-employment, right to engage in (CRSR Art. 18)

temporary presence, 197, 810“lawfully staying”/“résidant régulièrement”equivalence of terms, 212–216rights deriving from, 925. See also documentation (travel documents) (CRSR Art.

28); employment, right to seek/engage in wage-earning (CRSR Art. 17);employment rights (labor legislation (CRSR Art. 24)); housing (CRSR Art.21); intellectual property rights (CRSR Art. 14); liberal professions, right topractice (CRSR Art. 19); public relief and assistance (CRSR Art. 23); socialsecurity (CRSR Art. 24 (1)(b))

temporary protection and, 925verification of status, relevance, 925

League of Arab States. See Refugees in the Arab Countries, Convention onRegulating Status of (1994)

League of Nationscodifications of refugee rights, 19–26documentation, 21Minorities Treaties and, 17resettlement in third country, 25

League of Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, consular protection, 21leave the country, freedom to (ICCPR Art. 12(2)). See also documentation (travel

documents) (CRSR Art. 28); enter his own country, right to (ICCPR Art.12(4)); internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (CRSRArt. 26);internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (ICCPR Art.12(1))

non-discrimination (ICCPR Arts. 2(1) and (26) and, 348, 1180non-refoulement, avoidance of obligation (CRSR Art. 33) and, 348permissible restrictions (ICCPR Art. 12(3)), 348, 1179, 1180reestablishment in country of origin and, 1179state practice, 352travel documentation, right to, 1179visa controls and, 278, 352–355, 1099

Lebanonborder closures, 315detention of refugees, 465education, access to, 737, 739freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 698

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freedoms of expression and association, 1052healthcare, access to, 633housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1029physical harming of refugees, 555property rights, restriction or violation of, 643public or private assistance, access to, 1014refugee status, documentation, 767right to work, 928shelter, rationing or denial of, 604visa requirements, 329, 354

legal aid (CRSR Art. 16(2)), 916–918. See also cautio judicatum solvi (CRSRArt. 16(2))

“free access” (CRSR Art. 16(1)) distinguished, 799habitual residence, 919–923ICCPR and, 922legal aid, public schemes, limitation to, 922margin of appreciation, 922national treatment (in country of residence or in territory of another state party)

(CRSR Art. 16(3)), 921legislative reciprocity. See reciprocity, legislative and/or de facto reciprocity

considerations andliberal professions, right to practice (CRSR Art. 19), 993–1011. See also employment,

right to seek/engage in wage-earning (CRSR Art. 17); self-employment,right to engage in (CRSR Art. 18)

determination of status, relevance, 1003“diploma recognized by the competent authorities” requirement, 1007drafting history, 997–1007education, right to (CRSR Art. 22(2)) and, 757“lawfully staying”/“résidant régulièrement,” 1002“liberal” professions, 1007–1011limited value of Art. 19, 1003non-discrimination, 255, 256, 1010resettlement in affiliated territories, best endeavours obligation (CRSR Art. 19(2)),

1005–1007. See also resettlement in third countryrestrictions, 993–996as breach of ICESCR Art. 12 (health), 999

standard of treatment (CRSR Art. 19(1)), 276most-favored-national treatment, rejection, 997treatment accorded to aliens generally, 997

insurmountable requirements, 1002“in the same circumstances” 205, 232, 1002

treatment as favorable as possible, 224, 998treatment more favorable, good faith obligation to consider, 998

Liberia, freedom of movement, restriction of, 862Liberian refugees

physical harming of, 559public order measures, 45

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Liberian refugees (cont.)self-employment, right to engage in, 888summary ejection of, 325

liberty of person. See security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9)Libyadetention of refugees, 464, 479freedoms of expression and association, 1052interdiction measures, 319

Libyan refugees, interdiction of, 319life, right to (ICCPRArt. 6), 278, 566–571. See also detention, freedom from arbitrary

(ICCPR Art. 9); food shortages; inhuman, cruel, or degrading treatment(ICCPR Art. 7); necessities of life, right to; torture, freedom from (ICCPRArt. 7)

choice of means, 587death penalty, prohibition except under strict control as determined by the

law, 567effective facilities and procedures to investigate, need for, 570as inherent right, 566intention, relevance, 588intentional killing by state authorities, 567positive measures to protect, 569positive measures to protect, need for/duty of care, 587

camps near border, right to move from, 570security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9) and, 566–571serious efforts to protect, sufficiency of, 571state responsibilities for acts committed by agents, 567

Lithuaniaarbitrary detention, freedom from, 528detention of refugees, 472

local integration, 1206–1208appropriateness of use of term, 1214definition of, 1206as durable solution, 1208indistinguishability from respect for refugees’ rights, 1206

Macedoniaborder closures, 314, 315voluntary repatriation, 328

Malawidetention of refugees, 464education, access to, 733food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 601freedom of movement, restriction of, 867freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 700

Malaysiadetention of refugees, 465, 479, 482education, access to, 731

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expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 814, 840food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 708, 710interdiction measures, 318physical harming of refugees, 552, 554refugee status, refusal of claims, 326summary ejection of refugees, 325

Maldives, freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 699, 706Mali, refugee status, documentation, 766Malta

detention of refugees, 474employment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 606

manifestly unfounded claimsconflicting UNHCR views, 64EU safe country of origin procedures, 335

margin of appreciationcourts, access tocautio judicatum solvi, 922legal aid, 922

exceptional measures, exemption (CRSR Art. 8), 304internal measures in case of expulsion (CRSR Art. 32(3)), 858national security, 843non-discrimination (ICCPR Art. 2; ICESCR Art. 2)), 256. See also proportionality

marginalized and vulnerable groupsdetention, freedom from arbitrary (ICCPR Art. 9), 530health, highest attainable standard of physical and mental, right to (ICESCR Art.

12) and, 619, 639housing (ICESCR Art. 11(1)) and, 619, 629, 1039progressive realization (ICESCR Art. 2(1)) and, 618security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9), risk to, 580

married women. See also sex discrimination; women refugeesacquired rights dependent on personal status (CRSR Art. 12(2)),

248applicable law (CRSR Art. 12(1)), 238

mass influx as ground for suspension or withdrawal of right, 423–435, 477, 868. Seealso non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), grounds for withdrawal of right(CRSR Art. 33(2)), mass influx

matrimonial status. See also divorce; family rights, applicable lawacquired rights dependent on (CRSR Art. 12(2)), 248

Mauritanian refugees, documentation, 766Mexico

detention of refugees, 481interdiction measures, 319physical harming of refugees, 551, 561property rights, restriction or violation of, 643, 644public or private assistance, access to, 1012refugee status

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Mexico (cont.)deadline for claims, 468, 495refusal of claims, 468

shelter, rationing or denial of, 604migrant workers, 30, 85, 122, 970, 1039, 1066military attacks. See security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9), risk tomilitary service, 42. See also conscription, forcedMinorities Treaties (post-WWI), 17–19compliance mechanisms

collective responsibility, 17, 18League of Nations, 17PCIJ, 18petitions, 17

as external guarantee of relationship between foreign citizens and owngovernment, 17–19

interstate nature of rights and obligations, 17limited applicability, 18object and purpose, 17as precondition for admission to League of Nations/conclusion of Peace Treaty, 17

minority rights, protection (ICCPR Art. 27), 278most-favored-national treatment, 12, 257–261Moroccoeducation, access to, 739physical harming of refugees, 562

Mozambican refugeeseducation, access to, 733food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 601freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 700freedoms of expression and association, 1050physical barriers at borders, 316public or private assistance, access to, 1014self-sufficiency, 581

Mozambiquefreedom of movement, restriction of, 864freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 709refugee self-sufficiency, 582

Myanmar. See Burma

Namibiaarmed attacks by border guards, 317food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 595, 598freedoms of expression and association, 1052property rights, restriction or violation of, 643refugee self-sufficiency, 582

national security, 292–303, 868. See also documentation (travel documents) (CRSRArt. 28), withhold, right of; expulsion of person lawfully in the territory(CRSR Art. 32), due process of law requirement (CRSR Art. 32(2));

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expulsion of person lawfully in the territory (CRSR Art. 32), grounds;internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence (CRSR Art. 31(2));provisional measures (CRSR Art. 9)

attack on political integrity of host (asylum) state and, 842global interdependence and, 300as ground for limited withhold of rights. See provisional measures (CRSR Art. 9)hearing, right to fair and public, 839–841non-refoulement, avoidance of obligation and, 381. See also non-refoulementnon-refoulement on basis of danger to, 406–413“objectively reasonable suspicion,” 300, 843, 859preventative/precautionary approach, 299–301risk of direct or indirect harm to basic interests and, 843, 859terrorism, relevance, 299, 843

national treatment. See standard of treatment of refugees (CRSR Art. 7(1)), nationaltreatment; and under individual subject headings

nationality. See also enemy alien, classification as; exceptional measures, exemption(CRSR Art. 8)

differential treatment, 88, 110–112, 267–269, 279, 650, 932“formal,” 303as link establishing right to protection, 16

naturalization (CRSR Art. 34), 1206–1221. See also local integrationas absolute right, 264additional benefits conferred by, 1209“assimilation,” 1213charges and costs of proceedings, reduction of, 1216drafting history, 1210–1214as durable solution, 1209“expedite” processing of applications, 1216facilitation as far as possible of assimilation and naturalization, 1213–1221good faith obligation, 1215, 1219–1221location in Convention, relevance, 1213minimalist nature of obligation, 1218non-binding nature of obligation, 1210–1214, 1218reservations, 1219as termination of refugee status (CRSR Art. 1(C)(3)), 1131, 1209treatment “more favorable than” treatment given to other aliens, 1216

naturalization (pre-1951)as objective, 21reluctance to grant, 24

necessities of life, right to, 581–640. See also clothing (ICESCR Art. 11); food(ICESCR Art. 11); food shortages; health, highest attainable standard ofphysical and mental, right to (ICESCR Art. 12); housing (CRSR Art. 21);housing (ICESCR Art. 11(1)); rationing (CRSR Art. 20); self-employment,right to engage in (CRSR Art. 18); water, right to; water shortages

absence of provision in 1951 Convention, 589association and, 1050

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necessities of life, right to (cont.)dependence on international aid/relief operations. See international aid/relief,

dependence ondeprivation

as breach of right to humanity and respect (ICCPR Art. 10(1)), 588as disincentive, 585on ethnic or religious grounds, 585freedom from, 584–594as punishment, 585as refoulement, 587as “voluntary” repatriation, 585

employment, right to seek/engage in and, 616, 942life, right to and, 588proactive/protective nature of obligation, 616, 618reception centers. See reception centersrefugees as agents for local economic development, 582repatriation and, 1170self-sufficiency and, 581, 605, 616–618, 1011

necessities of life, right to (ICESCR Art. 11) (right to adequate standard ofliving), 278

employment, right to seek/engage in wage-earning (CRSR Art. 17) and, 616non-discrimination and, 611progressive realization obligation, 613. See also progressive realization (ICESCR

Art. 2(1))necessityarbitrary detention, 523, 528, 536non-refoulement, 433–435physical force, 577restrictions on freedom of expression (ICCPR Art. 19(1)), 1083

Nepalextradition of refugees, 322family unity/reunification, 673food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 599freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 708freedoms of expression and association, 1050, 1053passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1089physical harming of refugees, 557refugee status

documentation, 765non-discrimination, 270, 286

Netherlandsaccess to courts, 916education, access to, 741freedom of movement, restriction of, 867, 874non-discrimination, 108, 116, 119, 122–123property rights, restriction or violation of, 641public or private assistance, access to, 1018

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New Zealandarbitrary detention, freedom from, 533Conclusions on International Protection of Refugees, legal effect, 58family unity/reunification, 666Handbook and Guidelines, legal effect, 65non-discrimination, 123, 271, 286, 287non-refoulement, 346, 422, 423passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1088property rights, restriction or violation of, 643refugee statusentitlement, 179non-discrimination, 271, 286, 287physical presence, 211

repatriation of refugees, 1166treaty interpretation, 160and UNHCR Executive Committee Conclusions, 57and UNHCR Executive Committee determinations, 57and UNHCR Handbook, 60

Nicaraguaborder closures, 315food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 584

Nicaraguan refugees, food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 598Niger, summary ejection of refugees, 324Nigeria, property rights, restriction or violation of, 643Nigerian refugees

expulsion of, 815food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585physical harming of, 560summary ejection of, 324

non-discrimination. See also non-discrimination (CRSR Art. 3); non-discrimination(equality before the law/equality of protection) (ICCPR Art. 26); non-discrimination (ICCPR Art. 2/ICESCR Art. 2); and under individualsubject headings

bilateral/FCN agreements and, 16customary international law, 278differential allocations of rights, 266differential treatment, justification/requirements, 102–127, 265–272. See also

national security; non-discrimination (CRSR Art. 3)affirmative action and, 105, 120, 265allocation of public goods, 19, 21, 279, 649arbitrary requirement, exclusion. See reasonable and objective requirement

belowcategorical approval of differentiation based on citizenship, 108–112differing impact, relevance, 265

fiscal charges, 657“individual personal circumstances,” 106intention, relevance, 265

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non-discrimination (cont.)language requirements, 106, 633

discriminatory effect of generally applicable rules, 119–127financial situation, 669margin of appreciation, 112–119, 265, 279, 932merit-based assessment for access to education, 763positive discrimination. See affirmative action and abovereasonable and objective requirement, 107–127, 279

CRSR Art. 3, relevance, 273, 278, 290HRC deference to state assertions of reasonableness, 112–119proportionality, 117security considerations, 650

reasonable and objective requirement, presumption of on basis of categoriesgender and sexual identity, 270mode of arrival in asylum state, 271, 286nationality/citizenship, 88, 110–112, 267–269, 279, 650, 932race, 279, 348religion, 270, 279service with predecessor government. See also margin of appreciation above

sex, 285, 612. See also women refugeesduty not to discriminate, 102–127, 615and freedom of expression, 1072healthcare, 638non-impairment of non-convention rights and benefits (CRSRArt. 5) and, 50, 289political activity, 41and progressive realization (ICESCR Art. 2(1)), 91, 98, 99, 615proportionality

arbitrary interference with family unity (ICCPR Art. 17), 684–687between the ends and means, 116, 117between national security and violation of human rights (CRSR Art. 9), 302between risk to individual and risk to security of refugee state, 418–423detention, freedom from arbitrary (ICCPR Art. 9), 532, 536leave the country, freedom to (ICCPR Art. 12(2)) and, 1180

purpose of legal duty of, 265unlawfulness of refugee-specific measures, 651

non-discrimination (CRSR Art. 3)burden of proof, 278, 279conflicting provisions, primacy, 289continuing relevance, 290Convention rights, limitation to, 280differential treatment as provided for in the Convention, 276. See also differential

treatment, justification/requirementsnational treatment and, 276

drafting history/rationale, 273–276exceptional measures, exemption (CRSR Art. 8), 306, 309extraterritorial application, 273non-discrimination between classes of refugees, limitation to, 175, 265–291

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non-impairment obligation (CRSR Art. 5), effect, 289non-refoulement and, 281, 348physical presence, relevance, 273public order, safety and morality and, 273race, religion, or country of origin, limitation to, 279, 283–286arbitrary nature, 285country of origin, 283ICCPR Art. 26, effect, 286political opinion, omission, 284sex discrimination, exclusion, 285

“reasonableness” test and, 273, 278reservation, exclusion, 31

non-discrimination (equality before the law/equality of protection) (ICCPR Art. 26),103–108, 265, 279. See also courts, access to (equality before) (ICCPR Art.14(1)); differential treatment, justification/requirements

CRSR Art. 3, effect on, 286, 290equality before the law, 282intention, relevance, 265liberal professions, right to practice (CRSR Art. 19) and, 256national courts’ jurisprudence, 105“other status,” 286–289UNHRC jurisprudence, 105–127

non-discrimination (ICCPR Art. 2/ICESCR Art. 2)adequate standard of living (ICESCR Art. 11), 278, 611“all”/“everyone,” applicability to, 88distinction between ICCPR and ICESCR, whether, 90level of protection of CRSR Art. 3 compared, 276–279rights not included in 1951 Convention, 278

margin of appreciation, 256progressive implementation, 91, 98, 99socioeconomic rights, 90–102

non-entrée. See also non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), avoidance of obligation;physical presence

carrier sanctions, 329, 350, 509definition, 329“extraterritorial”/international zones, 365–366first country of arrival/safe third country rules, 330–332. See also first country of

arrival/safe third country rulesinterpretation of Convention and, 157range of non-entrée policies and practices, 337use of non-entrée policies, 329visa controls. See visa controls

non-impairment of non-convention rights and benefits (CRSR Art. 5), 50–53cessation of status (CRSR Art. 1(C)(5)) and, 50drafting history, 289future obligations and duties, applicability to, 51subsequent human rights conventions, 51

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non-impairment of non-convention rights and benefits (CRSR Art. 5) (cont.)IRO agreements, 50national provisions, 51non-discrimination obligations and, 50, 289original purpose of Art. 5, 50as reflection of intention to enhance refugee rights regime, 51

non-penalization. See illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art. 31(1))non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), 313–464. See also persecuted, well-founded fear of

being (CRSR Art. 1(2))1933 Convention compared, 23, 340as absolute right, 264asylum or entry distinguished, 337–340

ICCPR Art. 12(2) and, 338temporary nature of right, 340Universal Declaration Art. 14(1) and, 338

authorized presence, relevance, 340barriers to exercise of right, 313–337beneficiaries of protection, 340–355Civil and Political Rights, International Covenant on (1966) (ICCPR), 88customary international law and, 435–464. See also customary international law,

requirementsdebates as to conceptualization of, 435–464definition, 23

expulsion distinguished, 355, 856determination of refugee status, relevance, 178, 342, 363drafting history, 340, 381, 383duty of, 355–378as effective protection, 378“expel or return in any manner whatsoever,” 357, 382“expel or turn back,” 357, 382Human Rights Declaration of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations

(2012), 84illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art. 31(1)) and, 485individuated exceptions (CRSR Art. 33(2)). See non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33),

grounds for withdrawal of right (CRSR Art. 33(2))“life or freedom would be threatened,” 343–347

drafting history, 343equivalence with CRSR Art. 1, 306, 344, 345limitation on class of beneficiaries, whether, 343persecution in terms of CRSR Art. 1, whether limited to, 344

as mechanism rather than principle or norm, 438non-discrimination (CRSR Art. 3) and, 281OAS Cartagena Declaration (1984), 78, 80as obligation of result, 360opinio juris, 441–450other treaties, duties in, 459–464persons eligible for protection, 313–464

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physical presence, relevance. See also refugee, definition (CRSR Art. 1)reestablishment in country of origin and, 1131, 1136, 1177Refugee Problems in Africa, Convention Governing Specific Aspects of (AU)

(1969) and, 69reservation, exclusion, 31resettlement in third country, 1196right of entry in relation, 337state practice, 429, 450–459

non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), avoidance of obligation, 313–337closure of borders, 314–316ejection of refugees, 321–325, 359–360excised territories, 194, 365–366extraterritorial controls, 347–350, 351bilateral/multilateral interdiction agreements, 319cooperative extraterritorial deterrence of refugees, 390–399freedom to leave any country (ICCPR Art. 12(2)) and, 348imposition of penalties, 489purpose of, 379refugee status determination, 327state responsibility and, 353unilateral extraterritorial deterrence of refugees, 379–390

“extraterritorial”/international zones, 365–366failure to verify status, 326, 336, 362–365on grounds of age, 363high seas and, 317, 379, 381inadequate or inefficient systems, 326, 350, 362, 365, 374national security (CRSR Art. 33(2)) and, 381necessities of life, deprivation of, 587non-admittance, prohibition of peremptory, 357–359non-entrée. See non-entréenon-state agents and, 325, 389physical barriers, 316–317refusal of access, 314–316, 355, 486transit, penalties imposed when in, 490transit zones, 336–337“voluntary” repatriation, 327–329, 360–362

non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), grounds for withdrawal of right (CRSR Art. 33(2)),278

admissibility of exceptions, 399conviction by a final judgment of a particularly serious crime, 399, 400,

413–418, 856continuing justiciability, relevance, 400conviction by final judgment, need for, 404, 415“danger to the community” requirement, 402, 413, 416“particularly serious,” 404, 413place of crime, relevance, 416refoulement as last resort, 416

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non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), grounds for withdrawal of right (cont.)service of sentence, relevance, 416sufficiency in itself, 416

danger to security of country in which he is, 399, 406–413, 856avoidance of retaliation, 410burden of proof, 411danger posed by individual under consideration, limitation to, 411

group membership, relevance, 411disincentive to other refugees, relevance, 408, 471drafting history/rationale, 407indirect threat to host country, 409international relations, relevance, 408objectively reasonable test, 407property or economic interests, relevance, 408“reasonable grounds for regarding,” 406right to seek admission to another country and, 411

effect on refugee status, 404expulsion of person lawfully in the territory (CRSR Art. 32(1)) compared, 816,

856, 859. See also expulsion of person lawfully in the territory (CRSR Art.32), non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33) and

individuated exceptions to, 399–425mass influx, 423–435

alternative measures of protection, 430burden-sharing and, 431drafting history/rationale, 427necessity doctrine and, 433–435state practice, 429

proportionality between risk to individual and to security of refugee state,418–423

“non-risk country,” designation as. See first country of arrival/safe third countryrules

North Korean refugeesextradition of, 322freedoms of expression and association, 1055non-discrimination, 266, 283physical harming of, 562

Norwayemployment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 605freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 710healthcare, access to, 634professional practice, right to engage in, 996refugee status

deadline for claims, 494documentation, 768most-favored-nation treatment, 259

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OAU Refugee Convention. See African Union (AU), Refugee Problems in Africa,Convention Governing Specific Aspects of (AU) (1969)

“objectively reasonable suspicion,” 300, 843, 859obligations of refugees. See duties of refugees (CRSR Art. 2)opinio juris. See customary international law, requirements, opinio juris; state

practice, opinio juris andordre public. See public order/ordre publicOrganization of African Unity. See African Union (AU)Organization of American States (OAS)

Cartagena Declaration (1984)asylum, right to, 80non-binding nature, 77non-refoulement, 78, 80promotion of refugee rights, 78resettlement of refugees, 79

pacta sunt servanda (VC Art. 26), 157, 180Pakistan

border closures, 314, 434education, access to, 739food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 584, 600freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 697, 701freedoms of expression and association, 1055healthcare, access to, 633housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1033property rights, restriction or violation of, 645refugee status, documentation, 766taxation, 656voluntary repatriation, 328

Pakistani refugees, non-discrimination, 270Palestinian refugees, expulsion of, 814Panama, border closures, 315Papua New Guinea

arbitrary detention, freedom from, 526freedom of movement, restriction of, 872refugee status, 209

Paraguay, freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 711passports. See documentation (travel documents) (CRSR Art. 28)peace and security obligations, international, political activity and, 1085peaceful assembly. See assembly, peaceful, right of (ICCPR Art. 21)penalties, obligation not to impose. See illegal entry or presence, non-penalization

(CRSR Art. 31(1))Permanent Court of International Justice, 18persecuted, well-founded fear of being (CRSR Art. 1(2))

“persecuted”“life or freedom would be threatened” (CRSR Art. 33), relevance, 343–347torture or cruel or degrading treatment, 344

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persecuted, well-founded fear of being (CRSR Art. 1(2)) (cont.)standard of proof, real chance, 338

person, right to recognition as (ICCPR Art. 16), 278personal status (1933, 1936, and 1938 Conventions), 23, 24, 241, 254personal status (acquired rights) (CRSR Art. 12(2)). See acquired rights dependent

on personal status (CRSR Art. 12(2))personal status (applicable law) (CRSR Art. 12(1))1938 Convention, 241capacity, 238civil/common law divide, 241country of nationality, 237–255

administrative difficulties, 242application to refugees, 241appropriateness in case of refugee, 242IRO experience, 242support for continuing use of, 241

determinative connecting factor, approaches to, 237domicile, 237–241, 255

definition. See domicileas determinative connecting factor, 237forms of personal status governed by, 237–241intention to remain, relevance of, 245and married women’s rights, 248“physical presence” requirement, 245practical objections, 245respect for previously acquired rights, 248state of domicile, definition of, 243

drafting history, 237–255evolution of approach, 241family rights, 239“governed,” meaning of, 237habitual residence and, 241rights governed by, 237–255succession and inheritance, 240

Peru, non-discrimination, 109physical presence. See also illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art.

31(1)); lawful presenceadministrative assistance. See administrative assistancedocumentation. See documentation (identity papers) (CRSR Art. 27)education. See education, right tofamily unity. See family unity/reunificationfreedom from arbitrary detention and penalization for illegal entry. See non-

refoulementfreedom of thought, conscience, and religion. See religious freedom (freedom to

practice/manifest one’s religion or beliefs) (ICCPR Art. 18)“in” or “within,” 193judicial assistance. See courts, access to

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necessities of life. See necessities of life, right tonon-discrimination (CRSR Art. 3) and, 273physical security. See security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9), risk toproperty rights. See property rightsprovisional measures (CRSR Art. 9), inclusion of provision as evidence of

sufficiency of presence, 193reunification. See family unity/reunificationright to enter and remain in asylum state. See non-refoulementrights deriving from, 193. See also administrative assistance (CRSR Art. 25);

courts, access to (CRSR Art. 16); detention, freedom from arbitrary(ICCPR Art. 9); documentation (identity papers) (CRSR Art. 27);education, right to, elementary (CRSR Art. 22(1)); employment, right toseek/engage in wage-earning (CRSR Art. 17), restrictions for protection ofnational labor market, exemption (CRSR Art. 17(2)); family unity/reunification; illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art.31(1)); jurisdictional attachment; necessities of life, right to; non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33); property rights (CRSR Art. 13); rationing(CRSR Art. 20); religious freedom (CRSR Art. 4)

territory for purposes of. See also diplomatic premisesdiplomatic premises, 195excised territories, 194“extraterritorial”/international zones, 194inland waters and territorial sea, 194ports of entry, 194territory acquired by accretion, cession, conquest, or prescription, 194

physical security. See security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9), risk toPoland

housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1035non-discrimination, 117proportionality, 117public or private assistance, access to, 1016

political activity. See also association, right of (CRSR Art. 15), political association,exclusion; expression, freedom of (ICCPR Art. 19(1)); peaceful assembly,right of (ICCPR Art. 21)

duties of refugees (CRSR Art. 2) and, 40employment, right to seek/engage inregional, political, and economic unions and, 258–261reservation (CRSR Art. 17), 258–261

ICCPR Art. 19, 41ICCPR Art. 25, 88and international peace and security (UNCharter/UNGARes. 3314(XXIX)), 1085naturalization and, 1209non-discrimination and, 41outside of political associations, 1069public order and, 41

Portugalemployment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 605

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Portugal (cont.)housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1035

presence. See lawful presence; physical presenceprivacy, right to (ICCPR Art. 17), 278professional practice. See liberal professions, right to practice (CRSR Art. 19)progressive realization. See Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, International

Covenant on (1966) (ICESCR), progressive realization (ICESCR Art. 2(1))propaganda for war or advocacy of hatred, prohibition (ICCPR Art. 20), 1078property rights (CRSR Art. 13), 641–664. See also housing (CRSR Art. 21)applicable law, international aliens law, 655confiscation, right to compensation, 641, 648, 655–656drafting history, 651economic or political right, whether, 648ideological considerations, 645, 648leasing, restrictions on, 644movable and immovable property rights, 645–656non-discrimination (ICCPR Art. 26), 649

reasonable differentiation, 650unlawfulness of refugee-specific measures, 651

public interest considerations, 645, 646restrictions on ownership

land tenure, 643personal property, 642self-employment in agriculture (CRSR Art. 18) and, 893

security considerations, 650seizure of cash and other assets, 641standard of treatment/assimilation to aliens, 276

good faith obligation to consider non-application of general limits, 653“in no case less favorable” treatment standard, 653“in the same circumstances” 205, 232, 653

universal formulation of right, 648property rights, intellectual. See intellectual property rights (CRSR Art. 14)proportionality. See margin of appreciation; non-discrimination, proportionality“protection elsewhere” rules. See first country of arrival/safe third country rulesprotection of refugees (UNHCR Statute Art. 8). See also administrative assistance

(CRSR Art. 25); consular protection; UNHCR, roleconsular-type activities, 780, 785–787supervision of the application of international conventions (Art. 8(a)), 780

Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (1967). See Refugees, Protocol relating tothe Status of (1967)

provisional measures (CRSR Art. 9), 292–303. See also exceptional measures,exemption (CRSR Art. 8); national security

drafting history, 292“essential to the national security in the case of a particular person” 155–156, 175

burden of proof, 300direct relationship with perceived threat, 300, 302“essential,” 301

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mass influx and, 292, 302objectively reasonable suspicion, 300“of a particular person,” 292, 302proportionality between aversion of risk and violation of human rights, 302

as evidence of sufficiency of physical presence for entitlement to rights, 193good faith assessment of risk, 301, 302“in time of war or other grave and exceptional circumstances,” 291, 292internment, 295national security considerations as such distinguished, 292. See also national

securitypending determination of refugee status, 291, 292, 296, 302alternatives in case of positive determination, 295determination of non-entitlement, 294good faith determination of status, need for, 294war or other exceptional circumstances affecting, 291

provisional nature of measures, 291public order considerations distinguished, 292

public goods, differential treatment, 19, 21, 279, 649public health. See also health, highest attainable standard of physical and mental,

right to (ICESCR Art. 12)expressive freedoms, as restriction on, 1082

public moralityexpressive freedoms and, 1083non-discrimination and, 273public order and, 45, 849, 859

public order/ordre public. See also documentation (travel documents) (CRSR Art.28); expulsion of person lawfully in the territory (CRSR Art. 32), grounds(CRSR Art. 32(1)), public order

civil/common law divide, 847–852, 859agreement to accept narrow interpretation by reference to travaux

préparatoires, 849declaration of public order/ordre public equivalence, 44

criminal offences and, 844–847serious offence, limitation to, 849, 859

cultural differences and, 845–847duty to conform with measures relating to (CRSR Art. 2), 42, 44and freedom of expression, 1080as internal concept, 844, 859international standard of a democratic society and, 45non-discrimination and, 273political activity and, 41public morality and, 45, 849, 859public safety distinguished, 845, 1082reestablishment in country of origin, host (asylum) state’s right to prevent

departure, 1180religious freedom and, 262social concerns, 851–854, 856

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public policyacquired rights dependent on personal status (CRSR Art. 12(2)) and, 252–253ordre public, equivalence of concept, 859

public relief and assistance (CRSR Art. 23), 1011–1028. See also rationing (CRSR Art.20); social security (CRSR Art. 24(1)(b))

1933 and 1938 Conventions compared, 23, 1019beneficiaries, enumeration, 1020conditions, 607, 862–867, 873, 942determination of refugee status, relevance, 607, 1015differential treatment, 1017drafting history, 1019, 1027factors leading to need for, 1011. See also employment, right to seek/engage in

wage-earning (CRSR Art. 17)housing (CRSR Art. 21) distinguished, 1040international aid organizations, role, 1012, 1014. See also international aid/relief,

dependence on“lawfully staying”/“résidant régulièrement,” 539, 1019,

1023local residence requirements, exemption, 1022national treatment, 261, 262, 276, 1015, 1018–1028, 1040, 1041reception centers and, 607, 862–867, 873self-sufficiency as preferred alternative, 1011social security (ICESCR Art. 9) distinguished, 1026temporary protection status and, 1017, 1034, 1041unemployment compensation and, 1020

public safetyexpressive rights (ICCPR Arts. 19–22) and, 1082public order/ordre public distinguished, 845, 1082

Qatar, passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of,1090

racial discriminationemployment, right to seek/engage in and, 942right to leave country (ICCPR Art. 12(2)) and, 1180. See also differential

treatment, justification/requirements, reasonable and objectiverequirement, presumption of on basis of categories, race; non-discrimination

rape in refugee campsby aid workers, 555, 577by officials, 555

rationing (CRSR Art. 20), 586–594. See also food (ICESCR Art. 11); food shortages;housing (CRSR Art. 21); necessities of life, right to; public relief andassistance (CRSR Art. 23)

“commodities”/“products [in short supply],” 591drafting history/rationale, 589–594housing, exclusion, 591

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lawful presence, relevance, 590national treatment, 261, 262, 276, 590, 591“population at large,” 593treatment not less favorable, 593

obligation to provide, whether, 594physical presence, relevance, 590temporary presence, 590

reception centers. See also housing (CRSR Art. 21); housing (ICESCR Art. 11(1));illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art. 31(1)); Table ofTreaties and Other International Instruments: Reception Directive(January 27, 2003)

conditional permission to live outside, 539conditions, 547, 607, 608. See also detention, freedom from arbitrary (ICCPR Art.

9), conditions of detentionmandatory stay, 474, 606public relief and assistance (CRSR Art. 23) and, 607, 862–867, 874as short-term arrangement, 474

reciprocitybilateral/FCN treaty regime and, 19fiscal charges, 660impracticability in respect of refugees, 19standard of treatment of aliens and. See also standard of treatment of aliens,

evolution of regimestatelessness and, 20

reciprocity, exemption (CRSR Art. 7(2)). See also standard of treatment of refugees(CRSR Art. 7(1))

legislative and/or de facto reciprocity considerations and, 225–232most-favored-national or national treatment, in case of provision for, 256

reestablishment in country of origin (CRSR Art. 1(C)(4)), 1177–1189. See also enterhis own country, right to (ICCPR Art. 12(4))

advice and reconnaissance opportunities, 1183reestablishment, need for, 1135, 1177, 1186–1189as refugee’s own choice/preferred option, 1131, 1179, 1183repatriation distinguished, 1130, 1135right of destination country to restrain. See enter his own country, right to (ICCPR

Art. 12(4))right of host country to restrain. See leave the country, freedom to (ICCPR Art.

12(2)), permissible restrictions (ICCPR Art. 12(3))termination of refugee status consequent on, 1131, 1178“outside the territory of his own country” requirement (CRSR Art. 1(A)) and,

1135voluntary return, need for, 1136, 1177coercion, 1184. See also “voluntary” repatriationfinancial incentives, 1184–1186non-refoulement and, 1131, 1136, 1177

refugee camps. See reception centers; security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9),risk to, in refugee camps

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Refugee Convention (1951). See Refugees, Convention relating to the Status of(1951)

refugee, definition (CRSR Art. 1)“is outside the country of his nationality” (CRSR Art. 1(A)(2)), 13, 347–350, 1135January 1, 1951 cut-off date, abolition, 502provisional nature, 1137temporary protection status, 925withdrawal of right to non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33(2)), effect, 402

Refugee Problems in Africa, Convention Governing Specific Aspects of (AU) (1969).See African Union (AU); and under Table of Treaties and OtherInternational Instruments

Refugee Protocol (1967). See Refugees, Protocol relating to the Status of (1967)refugee rights regime, evolutionas acknowledgment of link between national self-interest and treatment of

refugees, 21, 27, 28collectivization of responsibility, 17, 18, 26

attempt to reverse (1951), 27as cooperative/burden-sharing concept, 28, 431human rights law, as part of, 10League of Nations codifications, 19–26as means of avoiding international destabilization, 21Minorities Treaties (post-WWI). See Minorities Treaties (post-WWI)post-1951, 55. See also human rights law post-1951; Refugees, Protocol relating to

the Status of (1967); standard of treatment of aliens, evolution of regimeabsence of new refugee convention, 55analytical approach, absence, 1changed political, social, and economic circumstances, 157development of human rights law and, 53–127retrenchment, 1–2

post-WWIforced exoduses as catalyst, 19as interim solution, 21Minorities Treaties. See Minorities Treaties (post-WWI)most-favored-national treatment, 21naturalization as objective, 21protectionist nature, 20resettlement. See resettlementsocial and economic changes and, 19, 24surrogacy model, 21

post-WWIIconsiderations leading to 1951 Convention, 26–29IRO resettlement program, 26

pre-1951 refugee conventions, 21. See also under individual subject headings1928 Arrangement relating to Russian and Armenian refugees

failure, 22non-binding nature, 22provisions, 22

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1933 Conventionback-tracking on commitments, 24binding nature, 22limited effectiveness, 24as model for 1951 Convention, 29transfer of focus from aliens in general to refugees in particular,

221936 Convention

binding nature, 25ease of renunciation, 25limited effectiveness, 25

1938 Convention1933 Convention compared, 25renunciation without notice, right of, 25

regional regimes, 67–84reservations, 24restrictions on refugee rights, 291–311transfer of focus from aliens in general to refugees in particular, 22, 26

refugee seamen, flag state obligations (CRSR Art. 11), issuing of traveldocumentation, 1097

refugee status, determination/verification. See also lawful presence, refugee status,determination/verification, relevance; non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33),avoidance of obligation, failure to verify status; provisional measures(CRSR Art. 9), pending determination of refugee status; Refugees,Convention relating to the Status of (1951); Refugees, Protocol relating tothe Status of (1967)

declaratory nature, 312expedited determination, 180, 281illegal entry or presence, non-penalization (CRSR Art. 31(1)) and, 467, 486, 516judicial review/appeal against determination of status and, 363manifestly unfounded claims, 64, 335

conflicting UNHCR views, 64persons from “safe country,” 334

extraterritorial effect. See also jurisdictional attachment; state responsibility foracts outside territory

extraterritorial processing measures to determine, 327failure to verify status, 362–365impermanence, 1128judicial review/appeal against determination. See judicial review/appeal against

determination of status, right ofobligation to verify, whether“excluded tolerance,” 180where rights made contingent on, 811

provisional grant of minimal refugee rights pending, 180. See also illegal entry orpresence, non-penalization (CRSR Art. 31(1)); necessities of life; non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33), determination of refugee status, relevance;security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9)

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refugee status, determination/verification (cont.)summary withdrawal, 180

qualification for refugee status, 1refusal of access to verification procedure, 326termination (CRSR Art. 1(C)). See cessation of refugee status

(CRSR Art. 1(C))travel documents (CRSR Art. 28), whether evidence of,

1100–1102Refugees in the Arab Countries, Convention on Regulating Status of (1994)ratification of, 82Refugee Convention (1951) in relation to, 81scope of, 81

Refugees, Convention relating to the Status of (1951). See also Table of Concordanceto the Refugee Convention and Protocol; refugee rights regime, evolution,pre-1951 refugee conventions; and under individual subject headings

1933 Refugee Convention as basis, 29amendment/revision, absence, 55. See also Refugees, Protocol relating to the

Status of (1967)UN Conference on Territorial Asylum (1977), 55

attachment to host (asylum) state as basis of entitlement, 174, 176–219. See alsohabitual residence; jurisdictional attachment; lawful presence; “lawfullystaying”/“résidant régulièrement”; physical presence; refugee status,determination

incremental nature of system, 177levels of attachment defined, 176as response to problems of mass influx,

177authentic languages, 138compliance mechanisms. See compliance mechanisms; good faith, treaty

implementationconflicting provisions, primacy, 289continuing relevance, 88–89, 173, 255–257,

290changed political, social, and economic circumstances and, 157

derogation/restriction of rights, 175. See also national security; non-refoulement(CRSR Art. 33), grounds for withdrawal of right (CRSR Art. 33(2));provisional measures (CRSR Art. 9); public order/ordre public

dispute settlement provisions. See dispute settlement provisionsdrafting history, 26–29enforcement. See compliance mechanismsextraterritorial obligations, attachment to host (asylum) state as basis of

entitlement. See state responsibility for acts outside territoryHuman Rights, Universal Declaration of (1948) and, 29ILO Conventions and. See International Labor Organization (ILO) migrant labor

conventionsjudicial role. See judicial rolelowest common denominator approach

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employment, right to seek/engage in (CRSR Art. 17) and, 278non-impairment of obligations (CRSR Art. 5) and, 51

as means of compensating for vulnerability caused by involuntary migration,49

new approach to implementation, 66new rights introduced by, 29non-Convention rights and benefits, effect on. See non-impairment of non-

convention rights and benefits (CRSR Art. 5)object and purpose, regime favorable to refugees, 51, 233overview of key provisions, 29–31reservations. See geographical limitation of obligations (CRSR Art. 1(B));

reservations (CRSR Art. 42), right to make; temporal limitation ofobligations (CRSR Art. 1(B))

standard of treatment of refugees. See standard of treatment of refugees (CRSRArt. 6); standard of treatment of refugees (CRSR Art. 7(1)); and underindividual subject headings

subsequent human rights conventions, role, 53. See also individual treaties andreferences to them under individual subject headings

UN proposals for, 27Refugees, Protocol relating to the Status of (1967), 54–56. See also Table of

Concordance to the Refugee Convention and Protocol; and under individualsubject headings

accession to, 35authentic languages, 138dispute settlement provisions, right of reservation (Art. VII(1)), 54independence of Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951), 54limitation on obligations and, 35–37reservations (Art. VII), 32

regional, political, and economic unions, employment, right to seek/engage in wage-earning (CRSR Art. 17), 258–261, 951–957

regional refugee rights regimes. See alsoAfrican Union (AU); Arab States, League of;Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN); European Union (EU);Organization of American States (OAS)

common characteristics of, 67development of, 67

rejection at frontier. See non-refoulement entriesrelief and assistance. See public relief and assistance (CRSR Art. 23)relief, international. See international aid/relief, dependence onreligion, differential treatment on basis of, 270, 279religious and moral education, parents’ right to ensure conformity with convictions

(ICESCR Art. 13(3)), 728. See also religious freedom (CRSR Art. 4),religious education

religious freedom (CRSR Art. 4)national treatment, 261, 276drafting history, 263religious education, 276. See also religious and moral education, parents’ right

to ensure conformity with convictions (ICESCR Art. 13(3))

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religious freedom (CRSR Art. 4) (cont.)“treatment at least as favorable” 236–237, 264

reservation, exclusion, 31religious freedom (freedom to practice/manifest one’s religion or beliefs) (ICCPR

Art. 18), 278limitations (ICCPR Art. 18(3)), public safety, order, health, or morals, 262as non-derogable obligation, 89proselytization by aid workers, 697, 720

religious freedom, restrictions, 697–730remedies. See compliance mechanisms; effective remedy, need forremoval. See expulsion entriesrepatriation, 1134–1177. See also cessation of refugee status (CRSR Art. 1(C));

fundamental change of circumstances (“circumstances have ceased toexist” (Art. 1(C)(5)–(6)), voluntary repatriation as replacement for CRSRArt. 1(C)(5)–(6) requirements; “voluntary” repatriation

determination of cessation requirements, sufficiency, 1164dignity requirement, 1161family unity and, 1164lawful mandated repatriation, 1161–1171material security on return, relevance, 1170as preferred option, 1134“return” as preferred term, 1135as right following termination of refugee status, 915–916,

1170–1171“in safety and with dignity,” 1161–1171safety requirement, 1161torture, cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment/security of person

(ICCPR Arts. 7 and 9(1)) as binding standards, 1163voluntary reestablishment in country of origin distinguished, 1130, 1135

reservations (CRSR Art. 42), right to make, 31–35, 291. See also geographicallimitation of obligations (CRSR Art. 1(B)); provisional measures (CRSRArt. 9); temporal limitation of obligations (CRSR Art. 1(B)); and underindividual subject headings

achievement of goal of, 34concerns as to, 34effect on provision, 1219misuse of right, 33non-derogable obligations, 30, 31non-discrimination (CRSR Art. 3), 32post-ratification, exclusion, 31withdrawable rights. See also documentation (travel documents) (CRSR Art. 28);

expulsion of person lawfully in the territory (CRSR Art. 32); non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33)

withdrawal of reservation, desirability, 32. See also geographical limitation ofobligations (CRSR Art. 1(B)); provisional measures (CRSR Art. 9);temporal limitation of obligations (CRSR Art. 1(B)); and under individualsubject headings

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resettlement in third country. See also internal movement, freedom of/choice ofresidence (CRSR Art. 31(2)); liberal professions, right to practice (CRSRArt. 19), resettlement in affiliated territories, best endeavours obligation(CRSR Art. 19(2))

1936 Convention, 25, 11951938 Convention, 25, 11951938–51, 261947–51 (IRO), 26at behest of country of first arrival, 1195–1197common denominator entitlements, need for, 28, 1189–1206decline of, 1190as deterrence strategy, 1194increase use of, commitment to, 1193League of Nations proposals, 25non-refoulement, 1196refugees to resettle elsewhere, authority to require, 1196reinvention of, 1192residual role of, 1191termination of refugee status consequent on, 1131transfer of assets. See transfer of assets in case of resettlement

(CRSR Art. 30)use of, 1189

residencedurable, 216–219habitual. See habitual residence

retirement, mandatory retirement, age discrimination and, 109reunification. See family unity/reunificationreview and appeal. See judicial review/appeal against determination of status, right ofright to enter his own country. See enter his own country, right to (ICCPRArt. 12(4))Rohingya refugees

detention of, 465, 479documentation, 768food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 598freedom of movement, restriction of, 867housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031interdiction of, 318physical harming of, 563public or private assistance, access to, 1012right to work, 926, 927safe zone for, 313shelter, rationing or denial of, 602, 603voluntary repatriation, 328, 563, 1154water, rationing or denial of, 602

Roma refugeesinterdiction of, 321non-refoulement, 347safe country of origin regime, 335

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Roma refugees (cont.)voluntary repatriation, 328

Romania, passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1089Russian Federationdetention of refugees, 466excised territories, 336freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 700, 709physical harming of refugees, 561refugee status, jurisdiction, 189

Russian refugees, cessation of refugee status, 1188Rwandadispute settlement provisions, reservation, 55passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1086public or private assistance, access to, 1014voluntary repatriation, 327

Rwandan refugeesborder closures, 435detention of, 478expulsion of, 814family unity/reunification, 671freedoms of expression and association, 1057physical harming of, 555, 557summary ejection of, 322, 324voluntary repatriation, 1154

safe country designation. See first country of arrival/safe third country rulesSahrawi refugees, food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 598Salvadoran refugeesfamily unity/reunification, 670food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 584freedoms of expression and association, 1050voluntary repatriation, 1187

Saudi Arabiafreedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 701, 702refugee status, refusal of claims, 326taxation, 658

seamen, refugee, flag state obligations (CRSR Art. 11), issuing of traveldocumentation, 1097

security, national. See national securitysecurity of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9), 278right to life (ICCPR Art. 6) and, 566–571“security of person,” 578–581

closed refugee camps, 580drafting history, 578positive duty to protect, 579reasonable and appropriate measures to protect, obligation, 1164repatriation in “safety and with dignity” and, 1163

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Universal Declaration compared, 578–579state responsibility for acts outside territory, 1163

security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9), risk to, 550–566. See also life, right to(ICCPR Art. 6); security of person and liberty (ICCPR Art. 9)

absence of provision in 1951 Convention, 564–566drafting history, 564protection under other human rights treaties, 565rationale, 564standard of treatment accorded to aliens generally (CRSR Art. 7(1)) as fall

back, 565from authorities outside refugee camps, 561in border areas, 553closed detention facilities, 559in course of flight, 551marginalized and vulnerable groups, 580in refugee camps, 554–561, 580from agents of country of origin, 559armed attacks, 559camps near border, right to move from, 570closed camps, 580domestic violence, 559faulty design and management of camps, 558from fellow residents, 557rape by aid workers, 555, 577rape by officials, 555

smuggling and trafficking networks, 552from vigilantes, 563“voluntary” repatriation and, 563water, right to, 624

self-employment, right to engage in (CRSR Art. 18), 809, 886–901. See alsoemployment, right to seek/engage in wage-earning (CRSR Art. 17); liberalprofessions, right to practice (CRSR Art. 19)

agriculture, 893land restrictions and, 893

compliance with obligations, need for, 897domestic labor market concerns, 896drafting history/rationale, 893–897Eastern Sudan Refugee Program, 1011“on his own account,” 896importance of provision, 892as innovation, 892lawful presenceright to be employed or engage in professional practice distinguished, 887, 894short-term presence, 894verification of status, relevance, 894

physical presence, sufficiency/necessity, 894right to establish companies, 893

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self-employment, right to engage in (CRSR Art. 18) (cont.)“in the same circumstances,” 900treatment as favorable as possible/not less favorable, 896–899

self-employment, right to engage in (ICESCR)non-discrimination and, 256“in the same circumstances,” 232

self-sufficiencyemployment, right to seek/engage in, 605, 616–618internal movement, freedom of/choice of residence and, 864international aid/relief, dependence on, 1012necessities of life, right to and, 581, 605, 616–618, 1011public relief and assistance and, 1011

Serbiaborder closures, 315family unity/reunification, 671passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1087

sex discrimination. See also differential treatment, justification/requirements, sex;women refugees

differential treatment, justification/requirements, 270exclusion from CRSR Art. 3, 285

sexual orientation, right to found family and, 693–697shelter, right to. See housing (CRSR Art. 21); housing (ICESCR Art. 11(1))Sierra Leone, housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031Sierra Leonean refugeescessation of refugee status, 1159physical harming of, 560summary ejection of, 325

Singapore, property rights, restriction or violation of, 643Slovakia, non-discrimination, 270, 282Sloveniaaccess to courts, 916border closures, 315housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1035

smuggling and trafficking networks, dangers from, 552social rights. See Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, International Covenant on

(1966) (ICESCR)social security (CRSR Art. 24(1)(b)), 978–993. See also public relief and assistance

(CRSR Art. 23)definition, 979, 981

“invalidity”/“disability,” 981drafting history, 979–993national treatment, 261, 276

social security (ICESCR Art. 9), 278, 1026social welfare. See public relief and assistance (CRSR Art. 23); social security (CRSR

Art. 24(1)(b)); social security (ICESCR Art. 9)socioeconomic rights, 30. See also economic rights; and under individual subject

headings

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solutions. See durable solutionsSomali refugees

border closures, 314cessation of refugee status, 1144documentation, 765expulsion of, 815, 839family unity/reunification, 671food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 596, 600, 601forced conscription of, 563freedom of movement, restriction of, 862freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 703freedoms of expression and association, 1052non-discrimination, 267non-recognition of status, 326non-refoulement, 412physical harming of, 551taxation, 657voluntary repatriation, 1185

sources of law. See international law sourcesSouth Africa

detention of refugees, 465education, access to, 733, 738, 739, 744employment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 617equal protection of the law, 105first country of arrival regime, 331healthcare, access to, 632judicial assistance, access to, 782non-discrimination, 282non-refoulement, 342, 487passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1089physical barriers at borders, 316physical harming of refugees, 559, 562professional practice, right to engage in, 993property rights, restriction or violation of, 643public or private assistance, access to, 1014refugee statuscessation of, 1177documentation, 767, 777inadequate or inefficient systems for determination of, 326non-discrimination, 282physical presence, 200

right to work, 927self-employment, right to engage in, 890, 895treaty interpretation, 137, 138and UNHCR Handbook, 61

South African refugees, expulsion of, 815South Korea, freedoms of expression and association, 1055

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South Sudanfood and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 598freedom of movement, restriction of, 862

South Sudanese refugeeseducation, access to, 733food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 596freedoms of expression and association, 1055shelter, rationing or denial of, 604

Spainarmed attacks by border guards, 317employment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 605freedom of movement, restriction of, 861, 874interdiction measures, 319non-refoulement, 379refugee status

jurisdiction, 188refusal of claims, 326

self-employment, right to engage in, 889Sri Lankan refugees. See also Tamil refugeesdetention of, 469expulsion of, 814, 840freedoms of expression and association, 1055non-discrimination, 268, 279, 280right to work, 926

standard of treatment of refugees (CRSR Art. 6)most-favored-national treatment, rejection, 233“in the same circumstances”

conditions of stay as sole criterion, 233criteria for distinguishing, 233insurmountable requirements, exemption from, 232–236

standard of treatment of refugees (CRSR Art. 7(1)). See also under individual subjectheadings

assimilation to aliensgeneral norm of human rights law, 255–257limited nature of benefits, 255treatment accorded to aliens generally, 224–225, 255–257, 258–261treatment as favorable as possible, 653treatment more favorable, 256

classification as, 264, 265. See also acquired rights dependent on personal status(CRSR Art. 12(2)); administrative assistance (CRSR Art. 25); courts, accessto (CRSR Art. 16); documentation (identity papers) (CRSR Art. 27);documentation (travel documents) (CRSR Art. 28); expulsion of personlawfully in the territory (CRSR Art. 32); naturalization (CRSR Art. 34);non-refoulement (CRSR Art. 33); transfer of assets in case of resettlement(CRSR Art. 30)

contingent rights and, as mixture, 175, 265exceptional standards of treatment, 255–265

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general standard of treatment, 219–223most-favored-national treatment, 257–261, 951–9571933 Convention and, 23, 24drafting history/rationale, 257–261regional, political, and economic unions and, 951–957reservations, 258–261

national treatment, 261–2641933 Convention and, 23, 2621936 Convention and, 25principle/fairness, 262rationale, 262

assimilation, desirability, 262practical considerations, 262, 264prior or cognate treaties, 262

non-discrimination as between refugees, 175rights entitled to, 261. See also courts, access to (CRSR Art. 16); education, right

to, elementary (CRSR Art. 22(1)); employment rights (labor legislation(CRSR Art. 24)); fiscal charges (CRSR Art. 29); intellectual property rights(CRSR Art. 14); public relief and assistance (CRSR Art. 23); rationing(CRSR Art. 20); religious freedom (CRSR Art. 4), national treatment;social security (CRSR Art. 24(1)(b))

state practice. See also customary international law, requirementsas aid to treaty interpretation. See treaty interpretation, aids and guidelines (with

particular reference to the 1951 Convention), state practice as aid tointerpretation (VC Art. 31(3)(b))

association, right of, 1052–1057employment, right to seek/engage in. See employment, right to seek/engage in

wage-earningfamily unity/reunification, 677leave the country, freedom to, 352non-refoulement, 450–459in case of mass influx, 429

visa controls, 350, 351state practice (VC Art. 31(3)(b)), 161–172, 197

consistency, 450–459lawmaking treaties, 163opinio juris in relation to, 455–459

state responsibility for acts committed by agentsact or omission and, 621administrative assistance (CRSR Art. 25(1)) and, 789food (ICESCR Art. 11), 622life, right to, 567

state responsibility for acts outside territory, 384–390in absence of lawful jurisdiction, 384control/effective jurisdiction testactions adopted by state, 389

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state responsibility for acts outside territory (cont.)exercise of public power by state agents, 353, 384,

389, 1163extraterritorial controls, 353, 389

“extraterritorial”/international zones distinguished, 365–366flag state, jurisdiction in absence of, 388high seas, 317, 379, 381, 384–390, 581ICCPR Art. 2(1) and, 1163jurisprudence, 353, 365, 384, 1163non-refoulement and, 325, 389non-state actors, 360security of person (ICCPR Art. 9), 1163torture (ICCPR Art. 7), 1163

statelessnesscessation due to changed circumstances, 1149diplomatic protection and, 14, 20, 779and Law of Nations, 14reciprocity and, 20

status, personal. See personal status entriesstrike, right to (ICESCRArt. 8(1)(d)), 1076. See also association, right of (ICCPRArt.

22), trade unionssuccession and inheritanceapplicable law (CRSR Art. 12(2)), 240, 250–252part of family law, whether, 240

Sudanfreedom of movement, restriction of, 861, 864freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 703, 706freedoms of expression and association, 1050housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031, 1033non-discrimination, 268, 283physical harming of refugees, 559professional practice, right to engage in, 993public or private assistance, access to, 1011, 1013right to work, 926taxation, 656

Sudanese refugeeseducation, access to, 734, 735expulsion of, 812food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 598freedom of movement, restriction of, 873non-discrimination, 267non-recognition of status, 326physical harming of, 557, 559, 560, 562right to work, 927taxation, 657, 662

supervisory responsibility. See compliance mechanisms; repatriation, UNHCR role;UNHCR, role (CRSR Art. 35)

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Swazilandfood and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585freedoms of expression and association, 1050property rights, restriction or violation of, 641refugee self-sufficiency, 581revocation of refugee status, 49withdrawal of refugee status for non-compliance with law,

49Sweden

carrier sanctions, 483, 509education, access to, 736, 741employment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 605expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 830family unity/reunification, 667freedom of movement, restriction of, 476freedoms of expression and association, 1049non-discrimination, 113physical harming of refugees, 558public or private assistance, access to, 1018refugee status, physical presence, 207right to work, 930

Switzerlandemployment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 605family unity/reunification, 667freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 707freedoms of expression and association, 1055, 1061property rights, restriction or violation of, 641refugee status, urgent need of protection, 497

Syria, physical harming of refugees, 559Syrian refugees

armed attacks by border guards, 317border closures, 315carrier sanctions, 483detention of, 465documentation, 767education, access to, 737, 738expulsion of, 814, 834food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 596freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 697freedoms of expression and association, 1052, 1057healthcare, access to, 633housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1032physical harming of, 563professional practice, right to engage in, 995public or private assistance, access to, 606, 1014right to work, 928self-employment, right to engage in, 887

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Syrian refugees (cont.)shelter, rationing or denial of, 604visa requirements, 329

Tajikistanborder closures, 314extradition requests by, 322freedom of movement, restriction of, 469, 867

Tamil refugeesexpulsion of, 814, 840freedoms of expression and association, 1055

Tanzaniaborder closures, 314, 435detention of refugees, 478dispute settlement provisions, reservation, 55education, access to, 734, 738family unity/reunification, 671food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 596, 597freedom of movement, restriction of, 863healthcare, access to, 633housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1028physical harming of refugees, 560property rights, restriction or violation of, 641public or private assistance, access to, 1014self-employment, right to engage in, 889voluntary repatriation, 1154

taxation. See fiscal charges (CRSR Art. 29)temporal limitation of obligations (CRSR Art. 1(B)), 35–37, 2911967 Protocol and, 35

temporary protection status. See also “lawfully staying”/“résidant régulièrement”employment, right to seek/engage in, 928“lawfully staying”/“résidant régulièrement” and, 925public relief and assistance, 1017, 1034

temporary residence, habitual residence distinguished, 908territory. See physical presence, territory for purposes of; state responsibility for acts

outside territoryterrorism. See national security, terrorism, relevanceThailanddetention of refugees, 464, 477, 479, 482education, access to, 733, 734food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585freedom of movement, restriction of, 862, 873freedoms of expression and association, 1056healthcare, access to, 631housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031interdiction measures, 318physical harming of refugees, 551, 552, 554

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property rights, restriction or violation of, 643refugee status, documentation, 765, 768revocation of refugee status, 49self-employment, right to engage in, 889summary ejection of refugees, 325withdrawal of refugee status for non-compliance with law, 49

thought, conscience, and religion, freedom of. See religious freedom (freedom topractice/manifest one’s religion or beliefs) (ICCPR Art. 18)

Tibetan refugeesextradition of, 322freedoms of expression and association, 1050, 1055, 1062non-discrimination, 268, 279passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of,

1089refugee status, documentation, 765

torture, freedom from (ICCPR Art. 7), 571–578. See also cruel, inhuman, ordegrading treatment (ICCPR Art. 7); life, right to (ICCPR Art. 6)

definition (Torture Convention), 572definition/requirements, 572as non-derogable right, 89, 571as persecution, 344positive measures to protect, need for/duty of care, 571repatriation in “safety and with dignity” and, 1163state responsibility for acts outside territory, 1163

trade unions. See association, right of (CRSR Art. 15), trade unions; association, rightof (ICCPR Art. 22), trade unions; employment rights (labor legislation(CRSR Art. 24))

trafficking. See smuggling and trafficking networkstransit zones, 336–337travaux préparatoires. See “drafting history” under individual subject headings; treaty

interpretation, aids and guidelines (with particular reference to the 1951Convention), drafting history (VC Art. 32)

travel documentsas absolute right, 264administrative autonomy, 1107, 1127alternative documentation, availability of, 1103delays in grant or renewal, 1089determination of status, relevance, 1088, 1095, 1097drafting history, 1094–1127failure to make necessary administrative and legislative changes,

1086false documentation, 1085geographical restrictions, 1088, 1107, 1109language of CTD, 1102“lawfully staying”/“résidant régulièrement” and, 1095–1100, 1106leave the country, freedom to (ICCPR Art. 12(2)) and, 1099, 1179passport, equivalence to, 1086, 1090, 1094, 1127

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travel documents (cont.)physical presence, relevance, 1088, 1097pre-1951 Conventions compared, 1094

recognition of documents issued under (CRSR Art. 28(2)), 1103purpose of documentation, 1100

business or holiday travel, 1094onward travel, 1094, 1126

reciprocal recognition, 1103re-entry to issuing country, 1087, 1090, 1097, 1118–1123, 1127refugee status, 1085refugee status, whether evidence of, 1100–1102refusal to issue, 1086, 1103. See also withhold, right of belowright to re-enter issuing country, compliance with formalities,

1118–1123standard of treatment, national treatment, rejection, 1111–1112visa controls, 1090, 1122–1126, 1127withhold, right of, 1085–1127. See also refusal to issue above

treaties. See also compliance mechanisms, national courts; Minorities Treaties (post-WWI); Refugee Problems in Africa, Convention Governing SpecificAspects of (AU) (1969); refugee rights regime, evolution, pre-1951 refugeeconventions; Refugees, Convention relating to the Status of (1951);Refugees, Protocol relating to the Status of (1967); Table of Treaties andOther International Instruments for treaties by article

lawmaking treaties, 163pacta sunt servanda (VC Art. 26), 157, 180

treaty interpretation, aids and guidelines (with particular reference to the 1951Convention)

“any relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between theparties,” 159

avoidance of absurdity, 1163conflicting provisions, primacy in cases of, 289context (VC Art. 31(2)), 139–148, 193dictionary, 137drafters’ intentions, 193, 345drafting history (VC Art. 32), 134, 1202effectiveness principle, 148–161

changed political, social, and economic circumstances, 157in face of clear language, 157purposive reading, 283

evolution of customary international law, 344good faith (VC Art. 31(1)), 157, 348, 578headings, status, 744interactive approach to, 128–134

definition, 136literal approach, preference for, 137location in text, 1213most-favoured-nation treaties, difficulties, 12

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multiple languages, 137, 212–216, 514, 834authentic languages (VC Art. 33(1)), 137

object and purpose of treaty, 134, 148–161, 302, 345, 382, 514, 858,1163

“ordinary meaning” (VC Art. 31(1)), elusiveness, 134–139other treatiescognate treaties, 158–161, 273, 344ICJ jurisprudence, 159

parties’ agreement in connection with conclusion of treaty (VC Art. 31(4)), 134agreement to adopt narrow interpretation by reference to travaux

préparatoires, 850Final Act of the Conference of Plenipotentiaries, 140

plain language, 193, 382preamble, 140, 431state practice as aid to interpretation (VC Art. 31(3)(b)), 161–172structure of agreement, 345

Trinidad and Tobago, non-discrimination, 104Tunisia, freedom of movement, restriction of, 866Tunisian refugees

freedom of movement, restriction of, 885summary ejection of, 324

Turkeyaccess to courts, 916armed attacks by border guards, 317border closures, 314, 315education, access to, 737food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 585freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 710freedoms of expression and association, 1055geographical limitation, 36healthcare, access to, 633housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1029, 1033passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1089physical harming of refugees, 553professional practice, right to engage in, 993public or private assistance, access to, 1014and Refugee Protocol, 36refugee status, deadline for claims, 495right to work, 928self-employment, right to engage in, 887

Turkish refugees, summary ejection of, 322

Ugandaaccess to courts, 917carrier sanctions, 484detention of refugees, 477education, access to, 731, 733

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Uganda (cont.)expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 814first country of arrival regime, 331food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 596freedoms of expression and association, 1050, 1056, 1057healthcare, access to, 631housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1031passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1087physical harming of refugees, 560refugee self-sufficiency, 582shelter, rationing or denial of, 604summary ejection of refugees, 322

Ugandan refugees, freedoms of expression and association, 1055Uighur refugees, extradition of, 322Ukraine, summary ejection of refugees, 322UNHCRConclusions on the International Protection of Refugees, 56–67

conformity with, 58decline of, 59enumeration, 56issuing of, 56legal effect, 57, 58, 59weight given to, 58

establishment of, 27Executive Committee, 56Guidelines on International Protection

conflict with Handbook, 63–67legal effect, 63–67

Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status, legal effect,60–66

decline in respect for, 62–67Guidelines, effect, 63–67not recognized as source of law, 60weight given to, 60

role (CRSR Art. 35)obligation of state parties to cooperate (Art. 35(1)), 58supervision of application of Convention provisions (Statute Art. 8(b)), 176surrogate protector, 176

United Arab Emiratesfreedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 699passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1090

United Kingdomaccess to courts, 918arbitrary detention, freedom from, 535Conclusions on International Protection of Refugees, legal effect, 59cruel or inhuman treatment, 576definition of refugee, 1137

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detention of refugees, 466, 472, 474, 490education, access to, 735, 741, 742expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 812, 817, 826, 842family unity/reunification, 669, 690food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 588freedom of movement, restriction of, 866, 874freedoms of expression and association, 1049Handbook and Guidelines, legal effect, 65Handbook, legal effect, 60healthcare, access to, 634housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1037interdiction measures, 321judicial assistance, access to, 784, 798, 806non-discrimination, 281non-refoulement, 339, 345, 347, 351, 352, 363, 365, 366, 370, 373, 375, 384, 392,

404, 415, 416, 487, 489passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1089physical barriers at borders, 316professional practice, right to engage in, 996public or private assistance, access to, 607, 620, 1016refugee statuscessation of, 1172entitlement, 173, 176, 179, 186exemption from insurmountable requirements, 236exemption from penalization, 517, 518inadequate or inefficient systems for determination of, 326jurisdiction, 186, 189most-favored-nation treatment, 258national security restrictions, 300non-discrimination, 281personal status, 245, 246, 247physical presence, 196, 202–206urgent need of protection, 498, 505–507

repatriation of refugees, 1185right to work, 944, 957safe country of origin regime, 281self-employment, right to engage in, 891shelter, rationing or denial of, 609treaty interpretation, 131, 137, 138, 140, 151, 153, 157, 159, 160and UNHCR Executive Committee Conclusions, 59

United Statesaffirmative action, 105arbitrary detention, freedom from, 526–528, 530detention of refugees, 266, 466, 472, 477, 479employment, restriction of right to seek/engage in, 605expulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 812, 813family unity/reunification, 670, 672

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United States (cont.)first country of arrival regime, 330freedom of movement, restriction of, 476, 861freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 707freedoms of expression and association, 1057Guantánamo Bay, jurisdiction, 186healthcare, access to, 634housing and housing assistance, provision of, 1034interdiction measures, 317, 319Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany, 314judicial assistance, access to, 783, 784non-discrimination, 266, 270, 282non-refoulement, 343, 361, 380, 410, 422passports and travel documents, right to and recognition of, 1088, 1115physical harming of refugees, 553professional practice, right to engage in, 994, 995property rights, restriction or violation of, 642public or private assistance, access to, 1017refugee status

cessation of, 1176entitlement, 173extraterritorial processing, 327inadequate or inefficient systems for determination of,

326jurisdiction, 186non-discrimination, 266, 270, 282personal status, 247physical presence, 195, 244refusal of claims, 467, 477, 516

right to work, 930safe third country regime, 334treaty interpretation, 153and UNHCR Handbook, 60

Universal Declaration of Human Rights. See Human Rights, Universal Declarationof (1948)

universal human rights law. See human rights law post-1951; international lawsources; refugee rights regime, evolution

Uruguay, non-discrimination, 117Uzbek refugeesfood and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 600summary ejection of, 321

Uzbekistanborder closures, 315freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 700, 710

Venezueladispute settlement provisions, reservation, 54

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food and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 584self-employment, right to engage in, 887shelter, rationing or denial of, 604summary ejection of refugees, 324

Vietnam, freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 701Vietnamese refugees

detention of, 478education, access to, 736physical harming of, 551summary ejection of, 325

vigilante attacks on refugees, 563visa controls, 329–330, 350–355. See also carrier sanctions

asylum-seekers as target, 350extraterritorial controls and, 351state responsibility and, 353

leave the country, freedom to (ICCPR Art. 12(2)) and, 352–355legality (CRSR Art. 33), 351state practice, 329–330, 351

vocational training, 25voluntary reestablishment. See reestablishment in country of origin (CRSR Art.

1(C)(4))“voluntary” repatriation, 360–362. See also repatriation

appropriateness of use of term, 1130, 1134and cessation of refugee status, 1128necessities of lifedeprivation of, 585, 587right to and, 600

negative consequences of, 1152occurrence of, 1153physical abuse as tool for, 563premature ending of protection, 1154as refoulement, 327–329, 360–362, 587as replacement for CRSR Art. 1(C)(5)–(6) requirements, 1150–1156“voluntary” requirement, 360–362

vulnerable groups. See marginalized and vulnerable groups

water, right to, 624–625as core obligation, 624definition of, 624marginalized and vulnerable groups and, 624standard of, 624ICESCR Arts. 11 and 12 as basis, 624national treatment, 624physical security and, 624

water shortages, 602welfare. See public relief and assistance (CRSR Art. 23); social security (CRSR Art.

24(1)(b)); social security (ICESCR Art. 9)

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well-founded fear of persecution. See persecuted, well-founded fear of being (CRSRArt. 1(2))

women refugees. See also married womendifferential treatment on grounds of sex, 270, 285, 612food, right to, 612healthcare, 633, 640lack of protection for physical security, 564necessities of life, right to and, 599personal status, applicable law (CRSR Art. 12(1)), 238security of person, 580

work permits, 606work, right to. See employment, right to seek/engage in wage-earning (CRSR Art.

17); employment, right to seek/engage in wage-earning (ICESCR Art. 6);liberal professions, right to practice (CRSR Art. 19); self-employment,right to engage in (CRSR Art. 18)

Yemenfood and other necessities, rationing or denial of, 1012freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 703freedoms of expression and association, 1052physical harming of refugees, 551refugee status

documentation, 765non-discrimination, 267, 283

Yemeni refugees, housing and housing assistance provided to, 1031

Zaïre. See Congo, Democratic Republic of (Zaïre)Zambiaexpulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 814family unity/reunification, 673freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, 704freedoms of expression and association, 1050public or private assistance, access to, 1014refugee self-sufficiency, 582right to work, 926self-employment, right to engage in, 889water, rationing or denial of, 602

Zimbabweexpulsion of persons lawfully in the territory, 815freedom of movement, restriction of, 866freedoms of expression and association, 1052right to work, 927

Zimbabwean refugeeseducation, access to, 733non-recognition of status, 326

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