12

Kingdoms and Trading States of Africa 750 b.c.–a.d. 1586

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1 Early Civilizations of Africa

2 Kingdoms of West Africa

3 Trade Routes of East Africa

4 Many Peoples, Many Traditions

Chapter Review and Assessment

Geography and Climates of Africa Africa's many climate zones and landforms have encouraged the development of a wide variety of cultures.

CHAPTER EVENTS GLOBAL EVENTS

SECTION 1 Early Civilizations of Africa

Reading Focus

How did geography affect cultural development and the migration of peoples?

Vocabulary

savanna desertification

outpost

Taking Notes

Print out this concept web. As you read the section, complete the circles with important facts to remember about

What were the achievements of the kingdom of Nubia?

How did outside influences lead to change in North Africa?

desertification. Add as many circles as you need.

Africa's geographic features had a major impact on the development of societies.

Setting the Scene

As the sun rose above the east bank of the Nile, workers hurried to the

construction site. They had only a few hours to work in comfort before the

sun turned the desert into a furnace. Still, as long as King Taharqa (tuh

hahr kuh) was determined to turn the old mud-brick temple into a

magnificent monument, their work would continue. An ancient inscription

explains how the monument was “built of good white sandstone, excellent,

hard, … the house being of gold, the columns of gold, the inlays thereof

being of silver.”

About 680 b.c., Taharqa commanded the Nile Valley from Nubia to the

Mediterranean. By that time, Nubia was already 3,000 years old. Along

with Egypt, it stood as one of the world's early civilizations.

The Geography of Africa

After Asia, Africa is the second largest continent, covering one fifth of all the

Earth's land surface. Its geography is immensely varied. However, certain

geographic features, such as distinct climate zones, have had a major impact on its

development.

Climate Zones Many outsiders, misled by movies, imagine Africa as a continent

covered with thick jungles. In fact, tropical rain forests cover less than five percent

of the land, mostly along the Equator. Thick trees and roots make this region

unsuitable for farming.

Africa's largest and most populated climate zone is the savanna, or grassy plain,

which stretches north and south of the forest zone. Although the savanna has good

soil, irregular patterns of rainfall sometimes cause long, deadly droughts. In parts

of the savanna, the tsetse fly infects people and cattle with sleeping sickness. But

in other parts, cattle herding is a common occupation.

The savanna belts trail off into increasingly dry steppe zones and then into two

major deserts. The blistering Sahara in the north is the world's largest desert.

Although the Sahara did become a highway for migration and trade, its size and

harsh terrain limited movement. The Kalahari and Namib in the south are smaller

but equally forbidding. Finally, along the Mediterranean coast of North Africa and

at the tip of southern Africa lie areas of fertile farmland. These varied regions also

The Tsetse Fly

The tsetse fly carries one of Africa's most troublesome diseases—sleeping sickness. Flies pass on the deadly disease by biting humans and large animals. Some people have abandoned their villages in heavily infested areas. In other regions, people have stopped raising

offer a variety of mineral resources, such as salt, gold, iron, copper, diamonds, and

oil, all of which have spurred trade.

Movement In addition to deserts and rain forests, other geographic features have

acted as barriers to easy movement of people and goods. Africa has an enormous

coastline, but few good natural harbors. In addition, much of the interior is a high

plateau. As rivers approach the coast, they cascade through a series of rapids and

cataracts that hinder travel between the coast and the interior.

Despite geographic barriers, people did migrate within Africa and to neighboring

lands. The Great Rift Valley of East Africa served as one interior corridor. Many

rivers were navigable in the interior of the continent. The Red Sea and Indian

Ocean linked East Africa to the Middle East and other Asian lands, while North

Africa was a part of the Mediterranean world.

Resources Mineral resources spurred trade among various African regions. Salt,

gold, iron, and copper were particularly valuable to early trade. In later centuries,

diamonds and oil would also gain importance.

horses and cattle because of the pests. Many tourists arrange their trips to avoid the tsetse fly.

How can Africans overcome this menace? Tsetse flies are attracted to moving vehicles, dark colors, and perfume and aftershave. Using this knowledge, scientists have built traps. A dark blue cloth, treated to smell like ox breath—irresistible to the tsetse fly—acts as a lure. The cloth is also treated with insecticide, to kill the flies.

Theme: Economics and TechnologyHow might African economies be affected by eliminating the tsetse fly?

Migration of Peoples

Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that the Great Rift Valley of East Africa was the home of

the earliest people. Gradually, their descendants spread to almost every corner of the Earth.

The Changing Sahara In Africa, as elsewhere, Paleolithic people developed skills as hunters and

food gatherers. By 5500 b.c., Neolithic farmers had learned to cultivate the Nile Valley and to

domesticate animals. As farming spread across North Africa, Neolithic villages even appeared in the

Sahara, which was then a well-watered zone. Ancient rock paintings show a Sahara full of forests

and rivers.

About 2500 b.c., a climate change slowly dried out the Sahara. As the land became parched, the

desert spread. This process of desertification has continued to the present, devouring thousands of

acres of cropland and pastureland each year. Desertification has also encouraged migration, as

people are forced to seek new areas to maintain their ways of life.

The Bantu Migrations Over thousands of years, migrations contributed to the rich diversity of

peoples and cultures. Scholars have traced these migrations by studying language patterns. They

have learned that West African farmers and herders migrated to the south and east between about

b.c. 500 and a.d. 1500. Like the Indo-European peoples of Europe and Asia, these West African

peoples spoke a variety of languages that derived from a common root language. We call this root

language Bantu.

As people migrated across Africa, they adapted to its many climates and developed a diversity of

cultures. While some were nomadic cattle herders, others cultivated grain or root crops. In several

regions, farming people built great empires.

The Nile Kingdom of Nubia

While Egyptian civilization was developing, another African civilization took

shape on a wide band of fertile land among the cataracts of the upper Nile. The

ancient kingdom of Nubia, also called Kush, was located in present-day Sudan.

From time to time, ambitious Egyptian pharaohs subdued Nubia, but the

Nubians always regained their independence. As a result of conquest and trade,

Nubian rulers adapted many Egyptian traditions. They modeled palaces and

pyramids on Egyptian styles. About 750 b.c., the Nubian king Piankhi (pee

ahng kee) conquered Egypt. For a century, Nubian kings ruled Egypt. But their

armies could not match the iron weapons of the invading Assyrians. The

Nubians retreated south from Egypt.

Conquest and trade provided Nubia with opportunities to learn about

Egyptian culture. Many traditions and beliefs were adapted to become

part of Nubian civilization.

The Furnaces of Meroë By 500 b.c., Nubian rulers moved their capital to Meroë

(mehr uh wee). Meroë commanded both the north-south Nile route and the

east-west route from the Red Sea into the savanna and North Africa. Along

this wide trade network, Nubia sent gold, ivory, animal skins, perfumes, and

slaves to the Mediterranean world and the Middle East.

Equally important, Meroë was rich in iron ore. Its furnaces, fueled by large

quantities of timber, produced iron. Today, giant heaps of iron waste remain as

evidence of ancient Meroë's industry.

Splendor and Decline Although Nubia absorbed much from Egypt, it later

followed an independent course. Nubians worshiped their own gods including

Apedemak, a lion-headed warrior god. At Meroë, artistic styles reflected a

greater sense of freedom than did Egyptian styles. Nubians also created their

own system of writing, using an alphabet instead of hieroglyphics.

Unfortunately, the Nubian alphabet has yet to be deciphered.

After the joint reign of King Natakamani and Queen Amanitere in the first

century a.d., Nubia's golden age dimmed. Finally, about a.d. 350, armies from

the kingdom of Axum on the Red Sea overwhelmed Nubia. King Ezana of

Axum boasted, “I burnt their towns, both those built of brick and those built of

reeds, and my army carried off their food and copper and iron … and

destroyed the statues in their temples.” As you will read later, Axum would

make its own mark on this region beyond the Nile.

North Africa

Early African civilizations had strong ties to the Mediterranean world. At

the opposite end of the Mediterranean from Nubia and Axum, Carthage

rose as a great North African power. Like Nubia, its wealth came from

trade. Founded by Phoenician traders, Carthage came to dominate trade in

the western Mediterranean and North Africa. Between 800 b.c. and 146

b.c., it forged an empire that stretched from the Maghreb (present-day

Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) to southern Spain and Sicily. Carthage also

established outposts, or distant military stations, in England and France.

As Rome expanded, territorial and trade rivalries erupted between the two

powers, resulting in the Punic Wars. Despite the efforts of Hannibal, Rome

eventually crushed Carthage. Trade, however, continued.

Roman Rule The Romans built roads, dams, aqueducts, and cities across

North Africa. They developed its farmlands and imported lions and other

fierce animals to do battle with gladiators. North Africa also provided

soldiers for the Roman army. One of them, Septimius Severus, later

became emperor of Rome.

Under Roman rule, Christianity spread to the cities of North Africa. St.

Augustine, the most influential Christian thinker of the late Roman empire,

was born in present-day Algeria. From a.d. 395 to a.d. 430, Augustine was

bishop of Hippo, a city near the ruins of ancient Carthage.

Camels and Trade By a.d. 200, camels had been brought to North Africa

from Asia. These hardy “ships of the desert” revolutionized trade across

the Sahara. Camels could carry loads of up to 500 pounds and could plod

20 or 30 miles a day, often without water. Although daring traders had

earlier made the difficult desert crossing in horse-drawn chariots, camel

caravans created new trade networks.

Spread of Islam Further changes came in the 600s, when Arab armies

carried Islam into North Africa. At first, the Arabs occupied the cities and

battled the Berbers in the desert. Later, Berbers and Arabs joined forces to

conquer Spain. Islam replaced Christianity as the dominant religion of

North Africa, and Arabic replaced Latin as its language.

North Africa benefited from the blossoming of Muslim civilization. Cities

like Cairo, Fez, and Marrakesh were famed for their mosques and libraries.

Linked into a global trade network, North African ports did a busy trade in

grain, wine, fruit, ivory, and gold. Along with their goods, Muslim traders

from North Africa carried Islam into West Africa.

SECTION 2 Kingdoms of West Africa

Reading Focus

Why were gold and salt important in early Africa?

How did the rulers of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai build strong kingdoms?

How did other West African kingdoms develop?

Vocabulary

surplus

commodity

mansa oba

Taking Notes

Print out and complete the timeline below. As you read, add entries for the establishment of kingdoms mentioned in this section. One has been included as an example.

Between about a.d. 800 and a.d. 1600, several powerful kingdoms won control of the Sahara trade and built prosperous cities in West Africa.

Setting the Scene

In the early 1500s, the scholar Hassan ibn Muhammad—known in the

West as Leo Africanus—described the commercial wealth and bustling

markets of the West African city of Timbuktu:

“Here are many shops of … merchants, and especially such as

weave linen and cotton cloth. And here do the Barbary (North

African) merchants bring the cloth of Europe. All the women of

this region, except maidservants, go with their faces covered

and sell all the necessary foods.”

—Hassan ibn Muhammad, quoted in Ancient African Kingdoms (Shinnie)

Timbuktu stood at one end of a trade network that reached north to Cairo

and then across the Mediterranean Sea to Italy. Between about 800 and

1600, several powerful kingdoms in turn won control of the prosperous

Sahara trade. Among the richest of these West African states were Ghana,

Mali, and Songhai.

Trading Gold and Salt

As the Sahara dried out, you will recall, some Neolithic people migrated southward into the savanna.

There, farmers grew beans, melons, and cereal grains. By a.d. 100, settled farming villages were

expanding, especially along the Senegal and Niger rivers and around Lake Chad.

Villagers traded any surplus, or excess, food they produced. Gradually, a trade network linked the

savanna to forest lands in the south and then funneled goods across the Sahara to civilizations along the

Mediterranean and in the Middle East.

Two products, gold and salt, dominated the Sahara trade. Gold was plentiful in present-day Ghana,

Nigeria, and Senegal. Men dug the gold-bearing soil from pits. Women then washed the soil to extract

the gold dust. The precious metal was stuffed into hollow feather quills for safe travel to the markets of

North Africa and Europe.

The Salt Trade

The camel changed the Saharan salt trade. For centuries, trade was limited because the horses that transported the salt were not suited to desert travel. However, about a.d. 300, the Berbers, an Arabic

In return, West Africans received an equally important commodity, or valuable product, salt. People

need salt in their diet to prevent dehydration, especially in hot, tropical areas. The Sahara had an

abundance of salt. At Taghaza, in the central Sahara, people even built homes of salt blocks. But in the

savanna, several hundred miles south, salt was scarce. A block of salt was easily worth its weight in

gold.

As farming and trade prospered, cities developed on the northern edges of the savanna. Strong monarchs

gained control of the most profitable trade routes and

Gold Wealth of Ghana

By a.d. 800, the rulers of the Soninke people had united many farming

villages to create the kingdom of Ghana.* Ghana was located in the broad

“V” made by the Niger and Senegal rivers. From there, the king controlled

gold-salt trade routes across West Africa. The two streams of trade met in

the marketplaces of Ghana, where the king collected tolls on all goods

entering or leaving his land. So great was the flow of gold that Arab writers

called Ghana “land of gold.”

Capital and King The capital of Ghana was Kumbi Saleh, made up of two

separate, walled towns, some six miles apart. The first town was dominated

by the royal palace, surrounded by a complex of domed buildings. Here, in

a court noted for its wealth and splendor, the king of Ghana presided over

elaborate ceremonies. To the people, he was a semidivine figure who

dispensed justice and kept order.

In the second town of Kumbi Saleh, prosperous Muslim merchants from

north of the Sahara lived in luxurious stone buildings. Lured by the gold

wealth of Ghana, these merchants helped make Kumbi Saleh a bustling

center of trade.

Influence of Islam Muslim merchants, settled in their own communities

throughout the kingdom, brought their Islamic faith to Ghana. Islam spread

slowly at first. The king employed Muslims as counselors and officials,

gradually absorbing Muslim military technology and ideas about

government. Muslims also introduced their written language, coinage,

business methods, and styles of architecture. In time, a few city dwellers

adopted Islam, but most of the Soninke people continued to follow their

own traditional beliefs.

About 1050, the Almoravids (al mor uh veedz), pious Muslims of North

Africa, launched a campaign to spread their form of Islam. They eventually

overwhelmed Ghana, but were unable to maintain control over such a

distant land. In time, Ghana was swallowed up by a rising new power, the

West African kingdom of Mali.

*Ghana, meaning ruler, was the name used for the kingdom by Arab traders. The modern nation of Ghana is not located on the site of the ancient kingdom, but lies several hundred miles to the south.

built powerful kingdoms.

people of North Africa, began using camels to carry their goods. When the caravans reached Ghana, merchants would pay one pound of gold dust for one pound of salt. The salt trade began to thrive.

Now, more than 1,000 years later, the salt trade still exists. As late as 1975, workers in Taghaza (now called Taoudenni) were living in salt huts and mining several thousand tons of salt per year. Small caravans of camels carrying salt still arrive in Timbuktu today.

Theme: Continuity and Change Why are camels still used in the salt trade in today's technological age?

The Kingdom of Mali

Amid the turmoil of Ghana's collapse, the Mandinka people on the upper Niger

suffered a bitter defeat by a rival leader. Their king and all but one of his sons

were executed. According to tradition, the survivor was Sundiata. By 1235, he had

crushed his enemies, won control of the gold trade routes, and founded the empire

of Mali.

Mali is an Arab version of the Mandinka word meaning “where the king dwells.”

The mansas, or kings, expanded their influence over both the gold-mining regions

to the south and the salt supplies of Taghaza. Where caravan routes crossed, towns

like Timbuktu mushroomed into great trading cities.

Sundiata (?)–1255

During the early 1200s, a tyrant named Sumanguru ruled in western Africa. According to legend, Sumanguru feared a royal Mandinka family. He killed 11 brothers in the family. But he spared the life of one brother,

The greatest emperor of Mali was Mansa Musa (mahn sah moo sah), who came to

the throne in about 1312. He expanded Mali's borders westward to the Atlantic

Ocean and pushed northward to conquer many cities. During Mansa Musa's 25-

year reign, he worked to ensure peace and order in his empire. “There is complete

and general safety throughout the land,” commented Ibn Battuta when he visited

Mali. “The traveler here has no more reason to fear thieves than the man who stays

at home.”

Mansa Musa converted to Islam and based his system of justice on the Quran. At

the same time, he did not adopt all customs associated with some nearby Muslim

societies. For example, women in Mali wore no veils and were not secluded within

the home.

In 1324, Mansa Musa fulfilled one of the Five Pillars of Islam by making the hajj,

or pilgrimage to Mecca. Through his pilgrimage, Mansa Musa showed his

devotion to Islam. He also forged new diplomatic and economic ties with other

Muslim states. The movement of wealth, people, and ideas increased Mali's

renown. By the 1400s, Timbuktu had become a leading center of learning. The

city drew some of the best scholars from all over the Muslim world.

Sundiata, who appeared to be sickly and already near death. Sundiata survived and recruited an army. In 1235, Sundiata defeated Sumanguru and quickly persuaded other Mandinka chiefs to surrender to his rule.

History tells us that over the next two decades, Sundiata expanded his power. He founded the empire of Mali, which lasted for 200 years. Sundiata became a great hero, and West Africans have told stories about his exploits for hundreds of years.

Theme: Impact of the IndividualWhy did West Africans tell stories about Sundiata long after his death?

A New Empire in Songhai

In the 1400s, disputes over succession weakened Mali. Subject peoples broke

away, and the empire shriveled. By 1450, the wealthy trading city of Gao (gow)

had emerged as the capital of a new West African kingdom, Songhai (sawng

hī).

Two Great Leaders Songhai grew up on the bend of the Niger River in present-

day Niger and Burkina Faso. Between 1464 and 1492, the soldier-king Sonni

Ali used his powerful army to forge the largest state that had ever existed in

West Africa. Sonni Ali brought trade routes and wealthy cities like Timbuktu

under his control. Unlike the rulers of Mali, he did not adopt the practices of

Islam. Instead, he followed traditional religious beliefs.

Soon after Sonni Ali's death, though, the emperor Askia Muhammad set up a

Muslim dynasty. He further expanded the territory of Songhai and improved the

government. Askia Muhammad set up a bureaucracy with separate departments

for farming, the army, and the treasury.

Like Mansa Musa, Askia Muhammad made a pilgrimage to Mecca that led to

increased ties with the Muslim world. Scholars and poets from Muslim lands

flocked to his court at Gao. In towns and cities across Songhai, Askia

Muhammad built mosques and opened schools for the study of the Quran.

Invaders From the North Songhai prospered until about 1586, when disputes

over succession led to civil war. Soon after, the ruler of Morocco sent his

armies south to seize the West African gold mines. The invaders used

gunpowder weapons to defeat the disunited forces of Songhai.

Like the Almoravids in Ghana, however, the Moroccans were not able to rule

an empire across the Sahara. With the downfall of Songhai, this part of West

Africa splintered into many small kingdoms.

Other Kingdoms of West Africa

In the period from 500 to 1500, other kingdoms flourished in various parts of

West Africa. The fertile northern lands of modern-day Nigeria were home to

the Hausa people, who had probably migrated there when the Sahara dried

out. They were successful at both farming and trading.

Walled City-States of the Hausa By the 1300s, the Hausa had built a number of

clay-walled cities. While these city-states remained independent of one

another, in time they expanded into thriving commercial centers. In the cities,

cotton weavers and dyers, leatherworkers, and other artisans produced goods

for sale. Merchants traded with Arab and Berber caravans from north of the

Sahara. Hausa goods were sold as far away as North Africa and southern

Europe.

Kano was the most prosperous Hausa city-state. Its walls, 14 miles in

circumference, protected a population of more than 30,000. Kano's greatest

king, Muhammad Rumfa, was a Muslim, as were many merchants and

officials. The Hausa developed a written language based on Arabic.

Many Hausa rulers were women, such as Amina of the city-state of Zaria. In

the 1500s, she conquered Kano and expanded the boundary of Zaria as far as

the Niger River. Under Amina, the Hausa came to dominate many Saharan

trade routes.

The Forest Kingdom of Benin South of the savanna, Benin (beh nin) rose in the

rain forests of the Guinea coast. The forest peoples carved out farming

villages and traded pepper, ivory, and, later, slaves to their neighbors in the

savanna.

The rulers of Benin organized their kingdom in the 1300s, probably building

on the achievements of earlier forest cultures. An oba, or king, was both a

political and a religious leader. Still, much power was spread among other

figures, including the queen mother and a council of hereditary chiefs. A

three-mile-long wall surrounded the capital, Benin City. Its broad avenues

were dotted with tidy homes and a great palace.

The palace, in particular, was decorated with elaborate brass plaques and

sculptures. According to tradition, artisans from Ife (ee fay), an earlier forest

society, had taught the people of Benin how to cast bronze and brass. Benin

sculptors developed their own unique style for representing the human face

and form. Their works depicted warriors armed for battle, queen mothers with

upswept hairstyles, and the oba himself.

Looking Ahead

Later Benin bronzeworks showed helmeted and bearded Portuguese

merchants. These newcomers began to arrive in growing numbers in the

1500s. At first, Benin benefited from the new trade with European countries.

However, increasing contacts with Europe opened the door to a booming

slave trade that would have far-reaching consequences for all of West

Africa.

SECTION 3 Trade Routes of East Africa

Reading Focus

How did religion influence the development of Axum and Ethiopia?

What effects did trade have on city-states in East Africa?

What have archaeologists discovered about Great Zimbabwe?

Taking Notes

Print out this table. As you read, fill in the columns with trade goods from Africa, Asia, and Europe and the Mediterranean that passed through the markets of Axum and the East African coast.

Religion and trade played an important role in Ethiopia and East African city-states.

Setting the Scene

According to Ethiopian tradition, the first emperor of Ethiopia was the son

of the Israelite king Solomon and Makeda, the queen of Sheba. An ancient

chronicle described how Makeda decided to journey to Jerusalem after

hearing of Solomon's wisdom. “Learning is better than treasures of silver

and gold,” she said. The queen spent six months at Solomon's court,

gathering knowledge to bring back to her people.

According to the chronicle, when Makeda was about to return to Sheba,

Solomon gave her a ring and a blessing:

“May the peace of God be with thee. While I was sleeping … I

had a vision. The sun which before my eyes was shining upon

Israel, moved away. It went and soared above Ethiopia. It

remained there. Who knows but that thy country may be blessed

because of thee? Above all keep the truth which I have brought

thee. Worship God.”

—The Glory of Kings

The kingdom of Ethiopia was proud of its ancient Jewish roots and

Christian traditions of Byzantine origin. In later centuries, other areas in

Africa were joining the Islamic world. Ethiopia, however, remained mainly

Christian and established the Coptic church.

Axum and Its Successors

About a.d. 350, as you will recall, King Ezana of Axum conquered and

absorbed the ancient Nile kingdom of Nubia. Located to the southeast of

Nubia, Axum extended from the mountains of present-day Ethiopia to the

sun-bleached shores of the Red Sea. The peoples of Axum were descended

from African farmers and from traders who brought Jewish religious

traditions through Arabia. This merging of cultures introduced another

religion to Axum. It also gave rise to a unique written and spoken

language, Geez.

A Trade Network The kingdom of Axum profited from the strategic location

of its two main cities, the port of Adulis on the Red Sea and the upland

capital city of Axum. From about 200 b.c. to a.d. 400, Axum commanded a

triangular trade network that connected Africa to India by way of the

Arabian Sea and to the Mediterranean world.

From the interior of Africa, traders brought ivory, animal hides, rhinoceros

horns, and gold to the markets of Axum. Goods from farther south along

the African coast came to the harbor of Adulis. There, too, markets offered

iron, spices, precious stones, and cotton cloth from India and other lands

beyond the Indian Ocean. Ships bore these goods up the Red Sea, where

they collected linen cloth, brass, copper, iron tools, wine, and olive oil

from Europe and countries along the Mediterranean.

The Spread of Christianity In these great centers of international trade,

Greek, Egyptian, Arab, and Jewish merchants mingled with traders from

Africa, India, and other regions. As elsewhere, ideas spread along with

goods. In the 300s, Axum's great king, Ezana, converted to Christianity. As

the new religion took hold among the people, Christian churches replaced

older temples.

At first, Christianity strengthened the ties between Axum, North Africa,

and the Mediterranean world. Axum's other African neighbors, however,

were not Christian. In the 600s, Islam began spreading across Africa. Many

African rulers embraced this new faith, creating strong cultural ties across

much of the continent. Axum was now isolated from its own trade

network—by distance from Europe and by religion from many former

trading partners. Civil war and economic decline combined to weaken

Axum, and the kingdom slowly declined.

Ethiopia, a Christian Outpost Though Axum's political and economic power

faded, its cultural and religious influence did not vanish. This legacy

survived among the peoples of the interior uplands, in what today is

Ethiopia. Protected by rugged mountains, descendants of the Axumites

were able to maintain their independence for centuries. Their success was

due in part to the unifying power of their Coptic Christian faith, which

gave them a unique sense of identity and helped establish a culture distinct

from that of neighboring peoples.

During the reign of King Lalibela in the early 1200s, Christian monks built

a number of remarkable churches. They were carved into the solid rock of

the mountains. According to Ethiopian chronicles, the builders had divine

help:

“Angels joined the workers, the quarry men, the stone cutters,

and the laborers. The angels worked with them by day and by

themselves at night. The men … doubted whether the angels

were doing this work because they could not see them, but

Lalibela knew, because the angels, who understood his virtue,

did not hide from him.”

—The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles

Despite their isolation, Ethiopian Christians kept ties with the Holy Land.

Some made pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Ethiopians also were in touch with

Christian communities in Egypt. Still, Ethiopians saw their country as a

Christian outpost. Over time, Ethiopian Christians absorbed many local

customs. They adapted traditional East African drum music and dances that

are still used in church services today.

The kings of Ethiopia claimed descent from the Israelite king Solomon and

the queen of Sheba. This belief was recorded in an ancient Ethiopian book

called The Glory of Kings and reinforced by observing Jewish holidays and

dietary laws. One group of Ethiopians practiced Judaism rather than

Christianity. These Ethiopian Jews, known as the Falasha, survived in the

mountains of Ethiopia until recent years, when they were evacuated to

Israel during a famine.

East African City-States

While Axum declined, a string of commercial cities—including Kilwa,

Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Sofala—gradually rose along the East African

coast. Since ancient times, Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and Indian traders

had visited this coast. Under the protection of local African rulers, Arab

and Persian merchants set up Muslim communities beginning in the a.d.

600s. Later, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated into the region and adopted

Islam. Port cities, as well as offshore islands like Lamu and Zanzibar, were

ideally located for trade with Asia. As a result, Asian traders and

immigrants from as far away as Indonesia soon added to the rich cultural

mix.

Growing Trade Early mariners learned that the annual monsoon winds

could carry sailing ships northeast to India in summer and back to Africa in

winter. On the East African coast, rulers saw the advantages of trade. They

welcomed ships from Arabia, Persia, and China. Traders acquired ivory,

leopard skins, iron, copper, and gold from the interior of Africa, as well as

from coastal regions. From India, Southeast Asia, and China came cotton

cloth, silk, spices, porcelain, glassware, and swords. A thriving slave trade

also developed, sending captured people from the African interior to the

Middle East and beyond.

Trade helped local rulers build strong city-states. A Muslim visitor

described Kilwa as “one of the most beautiful and well-constructed towns

in the world.” Its royal palace stands on cliffs that today overlook the

modern city. The complex of courtyards and large rooms runs for two

acres. Built of coral and cut stone, the structure is evidence of the city's

splendor.

A Blend of Cultures International trade created a rich and varied mix of

cultures in the East African city-states. Bantu-speaking Africans, Arabs,

and other Middle Easterners mingled in the streets with people from

Southeast Asia, India, and China. With the spread of Islam, Middle Eastern

influences grew stronger. Marriages between African women and non-

African Muslim men furthered the spread of Muslim culture. An African

wife's traditional property rights allowed her husband to settle and own

land, creating opportunities for these non-African men. Their children

often gained positions of leadership.

Both private houses and palaces show strong Arab and Middle Eastern

influences in the East African cities. Additionally, the blend of cultures

gave rise to a new language. Known as Swahili, it fused many Arabic

words onto a Bantu base and was written in Arabic script.

Great Zimbabwe

To the south and inland from the coastal city-states, massive stone ruins

sprawl across rocky hilltops near the great bend in the Limpopo River. The

looming walls, great palace, and cone-shaped towers testify that these

structures were part of the powerful and prosperous capital of a great

inland empire. Today, these impressive ruins are known as Great

Zimbabwe, which means “great stone buildings.”

Europeans who came upon these ruins in the 1800s thought they were the

work of the ancient Phoenicians. In fact, the builders were a succession of

Bantu-speaking peoples who settled in the region between 900 and 1500.

The newcomers brought improved farming skills, iron, and mining

methods. On the relatively fertile land, they produced enough food to

support a growing population.

Economy and Government We know little about how this civilization

developed. Early settlers raised cattle. They built stone enclosures to

protect their livestock. In time, they improved their building methods and

erected large walls and palaces. The capital probably reached its height

about 1300. By then, it had tapped nearby gold resources and created

profitable commercial links with coastal cities like Sofala. Archaeologists

have found beads from India and porcelain from China, showing that Great

Zimbabwe was part of a trade network that reached across the Indian

Ocean.

Besides controlling trade, Zimbabwe was a center for manufacturing.

Artisans turned gold and copper into beautiful jewelry and made iron tools

for everyday use. Weaving cotton into cloth seems to have been an

important craft.

Very little is known about the government in Great Zimbabwe. Some

scholars have suggested, however, that the ruler was a god-king who

presided over a large court. He may have shared authority with a powerful

queen mother as well as nine queens, each of whom had her own court.

Below the king, a central bureaucracy may have ruled an inner ring of

provinces, while appointed governors had authority in more distant

villages.

Decline By 1500, Zimbabwe was in decline. Some scholars suggest that

overfarming had exhausted the soil. In addition, civil war and dwindling

trade probably contributed to the breakup of Zimbabwe. By then,

Portuguese traders were pushing inland to find the source of gold that they

were able to buy in cities along the coast. They failed to discover the gold

mines, and their intrusion helped undermine later small states that formed

in the region.

SECTION 4 Many Peoples, Many Traditions

Reading Focus

How did the interaction of people and the environment lead to diverse societies?

How did government, family, and religion hold African societies together?

How did artistic and literary traditions reflect the values of African societies?

Vocabulary

slash-and-burn agriculture

nuclear family patrilineal matrilineal

lineage

griot

Taking Notes

As you read, prepare an outline of this section. Use Roman numerals to indicate the major headings of the section, capital letters for the subheadings, and numbers for the supporting details. Print out the sample to help get you started.

The process of adapting to the land contributed to the development of many different cultures in Africa.

Setting the Scene

At harvest time, the Kikuyu (kee koo yoo) people of East Africa offered

prayers of thanksgiving to their traditional gods. A modern writer recorded

one ancient prayer:

“Mwene-Nyaga, you who have brought us rain and have given

us good harvest, let people eat grain of this harvest calmly and

peacefully…. Guard us against illness of people or our herds

and flocks so that we may enjoy this season's harvest in

tranquility.”

—Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya

In West African mosques, Muslims recited a different prayer:

“Praise be to God, Lord of the Universe, the Compassionate,

the Merciful.”

Differing religious traditions contributed to the diversity of the vast

continent of Africa. At the same time, religious beliefs formed deep bonds

that united individual societies.

People and the Environment

Over thousands of years, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated across Africa.

With them, they carried farming skills and knowledge of ironworking to its

many regions. Wherever these people settled, they adapted to local

environments and absorbed ideas from the peoples they encountered. Trade

or other contacts brought additional changes. As a result, the ways of life of

African societies varied greatly from place to place.

Hunting and Food Gathering Bantu migrations pushed many hunting and

food-gathering peoples of Africa to fringe areas. The Khoisan people, for

example, adapted to the harsh conditions of the Kalahari Desert by

gathering roots and herbs and hunting small game.

Because food was scarce, hunting-gathering people lived in small bands

numbering only about 20 or 30. Their knowledge of the natural world,

however, was unmatched by city dwellers or farming villagers. They could

track animals across long distances and identify the food and healing

properties of many different plants.

Herding and Fishing In parts of the savanna free from the tsetse fly, some

peoples raised herds of cattle. Because grazing areas were limited, these

societies were often nomadic. To protect their herds against raiders, these

peoples perfected skills in warfare.

Along the coasts and rivers, fish was the basic food for some people. Most

fishing peoples used nets. They traded any surplus fish for grain, animal

skins, and other products made by people who lived inland. Some fishing

areas had enough food resources to support large populations.

Settled Farming Societies Farming communities raised a variety of crops

from grains to root crops like yams or tree crops like bananas. Most

farming peoples practiced a method that is today called slash-and-burn

agriculture. They cleared forest and brush land with iron axes and hoes,

then burned the remains, using the ash for fertilizer. Because the land lost

its fertility within a few years, villagers would move on to clear other land.

Eventually, after giving the soil time to renew its fertility, they might return

to the abandoned fields.

Sculpted panel of an African farming village

Forms of Village Government

Farming peoples generally lived in tightknit communities and helped one

another in tasks such as clearing the land, planting, and harvesting. Both

men and women planted, but they usually were responsible for different

crops. Political patterns varied, depending in part on the size of the

communities. However, village governments often had similar features.

Sharing Power In these pre-urban societies, power was usually shared

among a number of people rather than centralized in the hands of a single

leader. In some villages, a chief had a good deal of authority, but in many

others, elders made the major decisions. In some places, especially in parts

of West Africa, women took the dominant role in the marketplace or acted

as official peacemakers in the village.

Villages often made decisions by a process known as consensus. In open

discussions, people whose opinions were valued voiced their views before

a general agreement was reached. The opinions of older women and men

usually held the greatest weight.

Villages within a large kingdom like that of Songhai had to obey decisions

made at a distant court. These villagers had to pay taxes and provide

soldiers to the central government.

The Kingdom of Kongo The kingdom of Kongo, which flourished about

1500 in central Africa, illustrates one of the many forms of government

organization in Africa. It consisted of many villages grouped into districts

and provinces and governed by officials appointed by the king. Each

village had its own chief, a man chosen on the basis of the descent of his

mother's family.

The king of Kongo might seem to have absolute power, but actually that

power was limited. The king was chosen by a board of electors and had to

govern according to traditional laws. Unlike rulers of West African states,

who maintained strong standing armies, kings of Kongo could only call

upon men to fight in times of need. Through local governors, the king

collected taxes either in goods or in cowrie shells, a common African

currency.

Family Patterns

In Africa, as elsewhere, the family was the basic unit of society. Patterns of

family life varied greatly. In hunting-and-gathering societies, for example,

the nuclear family was typical, with parents and children living and

working together as a unit. In other African communities, people lived in

joint families. Several generations shared the same complex of houses.

Lines of Descent Family organization varied in other ways. Some families

were patrilineal. In these families, important kinship ties and inheritance

were passed through the father's side. Other families were matrilineal, with

inheritance traced through the mother's side. In a patrilineal culture, a bride

would move to her husband's village to become part of his family. In a

matrilineal culture, the husband joined his wife's family.

Matrilineal cultures also forged strong ties between brothers and sisters.

Brothers were expected to protect their sisters, and sisters made their sons

available to help their brothers whenever needed.

Wider Ties Each family belonged to a lineage, or group of households who

claimed a common ancestor. Several lineages formed a clan that traced its

descent to an even more remote and often legendary ancestor. Belonging to

a particular family, lineage, or clan gave people a sense of community.

An individual's place in society was also determined by a system of age

grades. An age grade included all girls or boys born in the same year. Each

age grade had particular responsibilities and privileges. In the older age

grades, children began to take part in village activities, which created

social ties beyond the family.

Religious Beliefs

Across Africa, religious beliefs were varied and complex. Like Hindus or

ancient Greeks and Romans, village Africans worshiped many gods and

goddesses. They identified the forces of nature with divine spirits and tried

to influence those forces through rituals and ceremonies.

Many African peoples believed that a single, unknowable supreme being

stood above all the other gods and goddesses. This supreme being was the

creator and ruler of the universe and was helped by the lesser spirits, who

were closer to the people. Like the Chinese, many African peoples believed

that the spirits of their ancestors could help, warn, or punish their

descendants on Earth. Just as Christians in medieval Europe called on the

saints, people in Africa turned to the spirits of their departed ancestors.

Christianity and Islam, as you have seen, influenced peoples in some parts

of Africa. Converts often associated the God of Christians and Muslims

with their traditional supreme being. In this way, Christianity and Islam

absorbed many local practices and beliefs.

Artistic and Literary Traditions

In art and architecture, African traditions extend far back in time to the

ancient rock paintings of the Sahara. The pyramids of Egypt and Nubia, the

rock churches of Ethiopia, and the palace of Great Zimbabwe bear lasting

witness to the creative power of these early civilizations. Sadly, many

wooden buildings and works of art have not survived.

Arts African artists created works in ivory, wood, and bronze. Sometimes,

their work was decorative. Artisans wove and dyed cloth, inscribed jugs

and bowls, and shaped bracelets and neck ornaments simply for beauty.

Much art, though, served social and religious purposes.

Art strengthened bonds within the community and linked both the makers

and the users of the work. Patterns used to decorate textiles, baskets,

swords, and other objects had important meanings. Often, they identified

an object as the work of a particular clan or the possession of royalty.

In Africa, as elsewhere, much art was closely tied to religion. Statues and

other objects were used in religious ceremonies. In many rituals, leaders

wore impressively carved wooden masks decorated with cowrie shells or

grass. Once the mask was in place, both the wearer and the viewers could

feel the presence of the spiritual force it represented.

Literature African societies preserved their histories and values through

both oral and written literature. Ancient Egypt, Nubia, and Axum left

written records of their past. Later, Arabic provided a common written

language in parts of Africa influenced by Islam. African Muslim scholars

gathered in cities like Timbuktu and Kilwa as well as in North African

cities. Documents in Arabic offer invaluable evidence about law, religion,

and history.

Oral traditions date back many centuries. In West Africa, griots (gree ohs),

or professional poets, recited ancient stories. They preserved both histories

and traditional folk tales in the same way that the epics of Homer or Aryan

India were passed orally from generation to generation.

Kente Cloth

Centuries ago, the Asante people of Ghana developed a colorful, intricately designed cloth called kente. Once the apparel of Asante royalty, today kente designs represent the philosophy, moral values, and code of conduct in Ghanaian culture. Some designs symbolize good omens and spiritual rebirth, while others may represent family unity, cooperation, or sharing.

In recent years, many Americans have begun wearing kente cloth as a celebration of their African heritage. Traditionally the garb of joyous occasions, imported kente is used in a wide variety of items, from shirts to neckties to backpacks.

Histories praised the heroic deeds of famous ancestors or kings. Folk tales,

which blended fanciful stories with humor and sophisticated word play,

taught important moral lessons. Oral literature, like religion and art, thus

encouraged a sense of community and common values.