Chemistry as a Second Language: The All-Important Mole - Grade 11 Close Reading Plans

Hanes, C. (2004). Chemistry as a second language. The Science Teacher, 71, 42-45.

Learning Objective:

This multi-day exercise will allow students to practice reading habits to explore how seminal concepts in chemistry, science teaching, and teacher-student relationships foster learning in the classroom. This article for this exemplar has layers of scientific information and is of sufficient complexity itself; however, this article is based upon research on teaching published in the journal of the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) The Science Teacher (Hanes, 2004). Students will read this text multiple times to gain meaning with respect to the concept of the molearguably the most important and abstract concept for students to learn in a chemistry class. Another interesting tenet of this article is that the mole holds everything in chemistry together conceptually, yet it is so inextricably challenging for students to visualize this concept. The aim of this exercise is to help students to visualize this ostensibly abstract and complex subject so that they can better themselves as scientists and also understand my role as educator and their role as students. The students will use focus questions to direct their draft readings of the passage and associated activities and writing projects. The end result will be that students will be able to apply classroom concepts to real-life research and, vice-versa, in written and practical form.

Reading Task:

The students are to begin by reading the passage silently and individually. Next, the teacher will do a read aloud (Fisher & Frey, 2008). Although an option exists to reverse the aforementioned order, this will not be needed for the chemistry class. The goal of the above is to allow students to interact with challenging and practical text passages independently and without teacher-generated background knowledge. After steps (a) and (b) occur, step (c) will be for the students to access passage-dependant questions that permit them to investigate text meaning within the broader curriculum context and according to technical writing national standards outlined below.

Vocabulary Task:

The students will investigate the vocabulary by exploring the contextual meanings of words in the passage. At this point, the teacher may initiate a discussion about how to learn vocabulary meaning from the text. If the vocabulary meaning cannot be gleaned from textural clues, words will be defined for the students to the right of the text sample, and those terms will be underlined in the passage. If a term is still unclear, the teacher will spend more time discussing theme. Vocabulary words especially useful to the chemistry curriculum content are emboldened in the text excerpt. These words will be reinforced throughout the lesson and beyond.

Sentence Syntax Task:

Sometimes, students will stumble upon very difficult sentences. Teachers should aid the students when they need assistance deciphering such complex sentences. The students will practice and extract meaning from syntax within the text.

Discussion Task:

The students will discuss the text in detail in small groups and whole-class settings; the goal is to bolster their confidence and motivation. The group setting and peer motivation will be especially relevant for differentiating instruction for students with reading or writing specific learning disabilities. The concept of rereading the text is especially critical for chemistry passages and even more so in math, though math is outside the scope of these lessons.

Writing Task:

This part will be differentiated for universal design of learning for all students. The students will be directed to write answers to particular focus questions about the text passages from the referenced article. In Part III and IV (Days 3 and 4) the students will then write an essay about deeper reflections about learning and the content material studied in Parts I and II (Days 1 and 2). The students will be expected to revise their work based upon class or small-group discussions. The teacher will assist students with this goal.

Text Selection:

This text passage was recommended by an expert in content reading theory and curriculum planning as an excellent pedagogical tool due to its deep and layered meaning and novel way of communicating science through language. My collaboration with this colleague was invaluable in providing an impetus for this project. Furthermore, as captured above, I wanted to stress the importance of the mole in chemical reasoning and hypothesis postulation processes, otherwise known as the scientific method. Essentially, the mole is to chemistry as the base ten number system is to practical and applied mathematics. Additionally, I believe that this article is also an example of superb, clear, and purposeful writing with the aim of reaching diverse student populations. Interestingly, Long Beach Polytechnic High School, the authors high school, is considered to be among Americas great high schools in academics (Wikipedia, 2012).

Outline of Lesson Plan:

This close reading lesson is intended to be a multi-day lesson to differentiate instruction and engage the class through a multiple-modality approach. It is anticipated to take four lesson days. The days, however, do not need to be consecutive. Breaking up the lesson is designed to engage the class and allow supplementary content instruction and activities (labs). In sum, the lesson may be adapted as diverse content standards are introduced in separate units over the span of weeks to months. It will be worthwhile to see how the students grow their understanding and reflective investigation skills in this intervening time.

Science Reading Standards Addressed: The following Common Core Standards for reading science are the focus of this assignment:

Text Types and Purposes

WHST.11-12.1. Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.

Introduce precise, knowledgeable claim(s), establish the significance of the claim(s), distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that logically sequences the claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.

Develop claim(s) and counterclaims fairly and thoroughly, supplying the most relevant data and evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and limitations of both claim(s) and counterclaims in a discipline-appropriate form that anticipates the audiences knowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases.

Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims.

Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing.

Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from or supports the argument presented.

WHST.11-12.2. Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/ experiments, or technical processes.

Introduce a topic and organize complex ideas, concepts, and information so that each new element builds on that which precedes it to create a unified whole; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension.

Develop the topic thoroughly by selecting the most significant and relevant facts, extended definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples appropriate to the audiences knowledge of the topic.

Use varied transitions and sentence structures to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships among complex ideas and concepts.

Use precise language, domain-specific vocabulary and techniques such as metaphor, simile, and analogy to manage the complexity of the topic; convey a knowledgeable stance in a style that responds to the discipline and context as well as to the expertise of likely readers.

Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation provided (e.g., articulating implications or the significance of the topic).

Production and Distribution of Writing

WHST.11-12.4. Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.

WHST.11-12.5. Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach, focusing on addressing what is most significant for a specific purpose and audience.

WHST.11-12.6. Use technology, including the Internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing products in response to ongoing feedback, including new arguments or information.

Research to Build and Present Knowledge

WHST.11-12.9. Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.

Range of Writing

WHST.11-12.10. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for reflection and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks, purposes, and audiences.

Chemistry as a Second Language: The All-Important Mole

Text Passage (Provided to Students)

Vocabulary

Learning how to balance equations leads students naturally into exploration of the concept of a mole. Because learning has been related to an atomic level, students will more easily grasp the true purpose of using the mole within chemistry. If the mole is introduced without the context of the importance of the atoms in the equation, chemical reaction, and balanced equation, it is simply an abstract description using a large number (602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000). I assist students with this concept by showing a powers of ten demonstration that shows exponents with pictures starting in space and ending inside an atom (Davidson, Parry-Hill, and Burdett 2003). Students are able to explain the significance of the mole once I integrate the concept by providing schemata of chemical reactions on an atomic level and creating the framework for students to relate the mole to the core of a chemical reactionwhat is happening to the atoms. When learners are confronted with new information, they will try to place it into a context with previous learning.

Following the initial introduction of the mole, students work in lab groups to create a poster that illustrates the meaning of the mole. Because we have covered many different aspects of the moleits origins, calculation of molar mass, and its use in a chemical equationthere is a great deal to draw upon at the lower levels of thinking. To stimulate critical thinking I provide students with a caricature of Avogadro they can interpret within the context of the poster (Jensen, 1992). Students have a general understanding of this concept, but the pictures challenge them to explain and to talk about the concept. This provides second-language learners opportunities to talk about the concept with their peers rather than the teacher. By working together, interpersonal learners can learn the material in their area of strength. Following the creation of the posters, I select a poster that has presented a clear interpretation of the caricature for class discussion. Students are asked to discuss with a partner the strengths of the poster, then write their ideas down. We compare the lists created by students with my evaluation; this is meant to help students self-assess their own understanding and reveal areas that need clarification.

Following this assessment we continue to practice molar mass and conversions between a mole and grams. Students are applying their knowledge in the laboratory throughout this time. The follow-up assessment is a writing assignment. To reduce the stress of writing, I teach prewriting techniques in the class. As a class we create a graphic organizer that represents all the aspects of the mole that we have discussed in class, including molar mass, equations, Avogadros number, and the relationship to the atoms. Using the graphic organizer, students compose a letter to an alien explaining a mole. Students are told that the alien doesnt know any chemistry, so they must be very clear. Using this writing tone lowers the affective filter for second-language learners and students who do not excel with writing. Students are evaluated on their content, not grammar or spelling. This assessment provides the teacher with a clear picture of how in-depth students understand the concept. Some students generate responses that focus on mathematic [sic] and others only remember key words that were placed in the graphic organizer. This gives more insight into my students minds than a standardized paper test would provide.

For example, in one students letter she wrote, The definition of a mole is a measurement term in chemistry to specify 6.02 1023 atoms or the sum of atomic masses for all the atoms in a molecule. This indicated that she had combined her understanding of the mole with the calculation of molar mass. However, she did connect the term mole to measurement of an atom. Some students provide a great description of the method of calculating molar mass, but never mention the connection between the mole and the counting of atoms. Another student provided the method for calculating molar mass, but concluded with a mole refers to Avogadros number of representative particles of any substance. This student understood the mathematical process to calculate the molar mass, but only added the connection between the mole and atoms at the end. As a teacher, this assessment provides information about students comprehension of similar words and concepts, such as mole and molar mass. In this particular group of students, I realized that I had myopically focused on assessing the mathematical skills surrounding this unit without verifying that students even understood the language I was using.

In conclusion, all students can access the language of chemistry if the teacher is willing to create more avenues for students to learn. The examples of using visual tools, small group work, investigations, and directed vocabulary instruction are all SDAIE methods aimed at second-language learners. As a teacher, I learned that these methods help all my students succeed in chemistry.

Cara Hanes is a chemistry teacher at Long Beach Polytechnic High School, 3742 Lemon Avenue, Long Beach, CA 90807; e-mail: chanes@ lbusd.k12.ca.us.

Knowledge used for comprehension

Inability to see the larger picture, short-sightedness

Specially designed academic instruction in English

Chemistry as a Second Language: The All-Important Mole Part I

Student friendly summary

1. I place the warm-up sheet under the document camera, and it also contains todays student friendly objective that students are to read the text passage handout individually and silently.

2. When the students are done, I conduct a read aloud as the students read their handouts.

3. Next, I ask the students to discuss the days text question set in their flexible grouping arrangements (glassware groups).

4. After the students have discussed the text they complete text tasks. Their work product is differentiated according to custom graphic organizers, Cornell notes, text annotations, or expository prose as they are free to choose, laboratory activities and technology.

5. The student homework assignment is to (a) read the passage again and (b) make, review and edit their answers to the text questions.

Text Passage Discussed

Teacher Directions & Student Friendly Questions

Learning how to balance equations leads students naturally into exploration of the concept of a mole. Because learning has been related to an atomic level, students will more easily grasp the true purpose of using the mole within chemistry. If the mole is introduced without the context of the importance of the atoms in the equation, chemical reaction, and balanced equation, it is simply an abstract description using a large number (602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000). I assist students with this concept by showing a powers of ten demonstration that shows exponents with pictures starting in space and ending inside an atom (Davidson, Parry-Hill, and Burdett 2003). Students are able

1. Ask the students to read the text passage silently and individually.

I ask a student volunteer to hand out the entire text passage which is broken into numbered sections labeled Part I and Part II to divide the passage into days of instruction. The student passes out Part I for todays lesson. I underlined vocabulary they would not understand from the text. The students will determine the meaning of the bold vocabulary by examining contextual clues within their color groups. I do not give them background guidance. The goal is to have students engage the text in a more natural setting as if they picked up a new book in the library and wanted to examine it.

2. Conduct a read aloud of the text passage (Fisher & Frey, 2008).

When students engage the passage a second time through my read aloud, they experience the ebb and flow of language through auditory learning as distinct from visual learning when they read the text in step I. I read clearly and at normal pace to allow all students access to pronunciation and syntax. Reading aloud also allows for a differentiated, universal design classroom experience for all learners.

[Continued from above]

to explain the significance of the mole once I integrate the concept by providing schemata of chemical reactions on an atomic level and creating the framework for students to relate the mole to the core of a chemical reactionwhat is happening to the atoms. When learners are confronted with new information, they will try to place it into a context with previous learning.

Following the initial introduction of the mole, students work in lab groups to create a poster that illustrates the meaning of the mole. Because we have covered many different aspects of the moleits origins, calculation of molar mass, and its use in a chemical equationthere is a great deal to draw upon at the lower levels of thinking. To stimulate critical thinking I provide students with a caricature of Avogadro they can interpret within the context of the poster (Jensen, 1992). Students have a general understanding of this concept, but the pictures challenge them to explain and to talk about the concept. This provides second-language learners opportunities to talk about the concept with their peers rather than the teacher.

Knowledge used for comprehension

3. Ask the class to discuss the text question set in their glassware groups and perform text dependent tasks. Allow for responses differentiated by product such as essays, notes, annotations, or graphic organizers. They define all bold terms and complete unfinished work for homework (tell them now).

The teacher should walk around the room to check on group progress and content vocabulary comprehension (bold in text).

(Q1) (Logos) Would you agree with the authors claim that balancing equations leads you to the mole?

The students may agree or disagree with this statement. I would hope that they would activate prior knowledge to understand that balancing equations is related as the author asserts. Specifically, chemical reactions cannot generate products unless you have the right amount of ingredients in the right ratios. I think the best analogy they can make is what happened when they accidentally made ingredient error or forgot an ingredient in a recipe.

Transition: Powers of ten demonstration (Hanes, 2004) [note: computers need Java to run program]. This activity activates prior knowledge from other scientific disciplines and puts into perspective magnitudes of 10. The students start 10 million light years away from Earth and journey to the proton of a single atom of tree matter: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/scienceopticsu/powersof10/

(Q2) (Ethos) In the passage the author says that the mole is a very large number and provides a figure. Is the author being serious when she says a number that large is not abstract?

Here we want the students to realize that things we cannot see are not automatically abstract. Chemistry is a descriptive and concrete science bound by physical and mathematical principals. That being said chemistry and the mole is concrete but hard to visualize.

(Q3) (Pathos) When you viewed the internet link above, how does that link affect you emotionally and put into perspective our place in the universe? Do a journal reflection of 2 or 3 paragraphs on this topic.

This is a great way to get students to reflect and internalize the truly remarkable context of the size of the atom. It is essential to do this before moving forward.

[Continued from above]

By working together, interpersonal learners can learn the material in their area of strength. Following the creation of the posters, I select a poster that has presented a clear interpretation of the caricature for class discussion. Students are asked to discuss with a partner the strengths of the poster, and then write their ideas down. We compare the lists created by students with my evaluation; this is meant to help students self-assess their own understanding and reveal areas that need clarification.

(Q4) The author uses the word schemata in paragraph one (underlined). Why do you think the author used that word and how does it link the concepts of balancing equations and the mole? Support your reasoning.

According to Alvermann, Phelps, & Ridgeway (2007) prior knowledge covers a wide array of concepts, strengths, and feelings. The term, as defined in italics, emphasizes activating prior knowledge. Yet, the theory behind the term also means to organize that prior knowledge into patterns for future applicationsjust like the students schema for baking a cupcake might include getting a pan, presetting the oven, pouring ingredients in the right ratios, ensuring there is enough of each ingredient to allow the batter to rise, etc. Students should be able to look to the text for clues that lead to the reactions they have balanced in the past and lead them into the main activity for the day.

Transition: The teacher will illustrate traditional gram to mole conversions on the document camera or PowerPoint using the generic formula mol x (grams/mol) = grams; grams x (mol/grams) = mol. Examples from textbook may be included as well.

Activity: (a) Students are asked to look at the following website link of a special collection of caricatures, specifically Avogadro (Jensen, 2010, p. 9):

http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Books/Chemical%20Caricatures.pdf

(b) Students then use the Give One, Get One strategy to brainstorm the strengths of the caricature (Lemon, 2004). Graphic organizers for Give One, Get One are included to distribute to students (see appendix).

(c) Students then use the remainder of the class period to work in groups to create artistic posters about the true meaning of the mole.

Exit: Tweet back slips ask Where do you think I will take the lesson tomorrow?

Chemistry as a Second Language Part II

Student friendly summary

1. I place the warm-up sheet on the document camera, and it also contains todays student friendly objective that students are to read the text passage individually.

2. When the students are done, I conduct a read aloud as the students read their handouts.

3. Next, I ask the students to discuss the days text questions in their flexible grouping arrangements (glassware groups).

4. After the students have discussed the text, they complete text tasks. Their work product is differentiated according to custom graphic organizers, Cornell notes, text annotations, labs, multimedia experiences, and expository prose.

5. The student homework assignment is to (a) read the passage again and (b) make review and edit their answers to the text questions.

Text Passage Discussed

Teacher Directions & Student Friendly Questions

Following this assessment we continue to practice molar mass and conversions between a mole and grams. Students are applying their knowledge in the laboratory throughout this time. The follow-up assessment is a writing assignment. To reduce the stress of writing, I teach prewriting techniques in the class. As a class we create a graphic organizer that represents all the aspects of the mole that we have discussed in class, including molar mass, equations, Avogadros number, and the relationship to the atoms. Using the graphic organizer, students compose a letter to an alien explaining a mole. Students are told that the alien doesnt know any chemistry, so they must be very clear. Using this writing tone lowers the affective filter for second-language learners and students who do not excel with writing. Students are evaluated on their content, not grammar or spelling. This assessment provides the teacher with a clear picture of how in-depth students understand the concept. Some students generate responses that focus on mathematic [sic] and others only remember key words that were placed in the graphic organizer. This gives more insight into my students minds than a standardized paper test would provide.

1. Ask the students to read the text passage silently and individually.

I ask a student volunteer to hand out the entire text passage which is labeled Part II. I underlined vocabulary they would not understand from the text. The students will determine the meaning of the bold vocabulary by examining contextual clues within their color groups and document their responses. I do not give them background guidance. The goal is to have students engage a text in a more natural setting as if they picked up a new book in the library and wanted to examine it.

2. Conduct a read aloud of the text passage (Fisher & Frey, 2008).

When students engage the passage a second time through my read aloud, they experience the ebb and flow of language through auditory learning as distinct from visual learning when they read the text in step I. I read clearly and at normal pace to allow all students access to pronunciation and syntax. Reading aloud also allows for a differentiated, universal design classroom experience for all learners.

Text Passage Discussed

Teacher Directions & Student Friendly Questions

For example, in one students letter she wrote, The definition of a mole is a measurement term in chemistry to specify 6.02 1023 atoms or the sum of atomic masses for all the atoms in a molecule. This indicated that she had combined her understanding of the mole with the calculation of molar mass. However, she did connect the term mole to measurement of an atom. Some students provide a great description of the method of calculating molar mass, but never mention the connection between the mole and the counting of atoms. Another student provided the method for calculating molar mass, but concluded with a mole refers to Avogadros number of representative particles of any substance. This student understood the mathematical process to calculate the molar mass, but only added the connection between the mole and atoms at the end. As a teacher, this assessment provides information about students comprehension of similar words and concepts, such as mole and molar mass. In this particular group of students, I realized that I had myopically focused on assessing the mathematical skills surrounding this unit without verifying that students even understood the language I was using.

In conclusion, all students can access the language of chemistry if the teacher is willing to create more avenues for students to learn. The examples of using visual tools, small group work, investigations, and directed vocabulary instruction are all SDAIE methods aimed at second-language learners. As a teacher, I learned that these methods help all my students succeed in chemistry.

Cara Hanes is a chemistry teacher at Long Beach Polytechnic High School, 3742 Lemon Avenue, Long Beach, CA 90807; e-mail: chanes@lbusd.k12.ca.us.

Inability to see the larger picture, short-sightedness

Specially designed academic instruction

in English

3. Ask the class to discuss the text question set in their glassware groups and perform text dependent tasks. I allow for responses differentiated by product such as essays, notes, annotations, or graphic organizers. They are to define all bold terms (tell them again).

The teacher should walk around the room to check on group progress and content vocabulary comprehension (bold text).

(Q5) (Ethos) Based upon the authors credentials, can she speak with authority about chemical topics?

The students will answer that the authors credentials as a chemistry teacher allow her to speak about the topics written.

(Q6) (Pathos) When the author talks about directed vocabulary instruction aimed at second language learners, does this make you think that diversity only applies to a subset of the whole class?

I want students to reflect on cultural responsiveness themes that are becoming prevalent in modern secondary classrooms. This is also a key component of teacher-student and teacher-parent relationships. Thus, it will be valuable to see what the come up with regarding this topic. Broader responses will be encouraged too.

(Q7) The author uses the word myopically (underlined) in the second-to-last paragraph. Why do you think the author used that word and how does it link concepts explored in the powers of ten website yesterday with the process of laboratory investigation and scientific thinking? Support your reasoning.

I seek to have students see that one of the greatest virtues of thinking as a scientist is framing the problem and putting it in perspective. Just like the mole is ostensibly an abstract chemical moiety, so too someones view can be obscured by not activating schema as discussed in Part I. I want this question to guide the students and link the two lessons together conceptually. Essentially, the big picture analysis and having a reference to activate prior chemical knowledge is essential. This starts to lead students to a very deep and profound meaning which is really where science almost meets the realm of philosophy.

Activity: Students will engage in a laboratory activity that has them kinesthetically and visually engaged to explore two objectives (a) the concept of the mole and (b) the concept of molar mass. The students will learn from this investigation what the author means by the mole as a tangible quantity of counting atoms.

Exit: Tweet back ticket: Give one ballpark analogy for how big a mole is? (Examples might include a stack of pennies extending to the moon, etc.)

Homework: Brainstorm ideas for the writing assignment we are doing next class, which is: Imagine you are a teacher on a different planet and you want to have your students picture what a mole is. Use prior knowledge and information acquired in the readings and laboratory investigations to paint as clear a portrait as you can for your students. Also, talk about teaching strategies you will use to accomplish this task. Refer to the text passages for clues.

Chemistry as a Second Language Part III and IV (Day 3 and 4)

Writing Assignment: Teacher Directions and Student Friendly Language

Part III Activity: Students will write a draft essay on: Imagine you are a teacher on a different planet and you want to have your students picture what a mole is. Use prior knowledge and information acquired in the readings and laboratory investigations to paint as clear a portrait as you can for your students. Also, talk about teaching strategies you will use to accomplish this task. Refer to the text passages for clues.

I will guide the students back to the notes from the last two classes and also their observations from the laboratory experiments and website investigations. This article is especially valuable for students because I believe that what is missing from many students being motivated in science is just like what we encountered with the molea lack of perspective and an assumption that the abstract is unattainable. The profound meaning of this lesson as alluded to earlier is a duality: (a) students will gain schemata for understanding future chemistry based upon acquired knowledge of the mole and (b) they will understand more about how science is taught through reading from the teachers perspective. A powerful rationale for intrinsic motivation is having a clearer understanding of how and why something is taught. This lesson is applicable not just to my chemistry class, but to every other class my students take and to their broader life enrichment.

Part IV Activity: The students are to wrap-up their essays and conduct peer-editing on paper or computers. The students will either turn their products in at the end of day 4 or complete it for homework due on day 5.

References

Alvermann, D. E., Phelps, S. F., & Ridgeway, V. G. (2007). Content area reading and literacy: Succeeding in todays diverse classrooms (5th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.

Cline, Z., & Necochea, J. (2003). Specially designed academic instruction in english (SDAIE): More than just good instruction. Multicultural Perspectives, 5, 18-24.

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy: Content area strategies at work (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Hanes, C. (2004). Chemistry as a second language. The Science Teacher, 71, 42-45.

Jensen, W. B. (2010). Chymists: That strange class of mortals: Caricatures of famous chemists with a few physicists and biologists added. [Special collection of caricatures]. Oesper Collections. University of Cincinnati Department of Chemistry, Cincinnati, OH. Retrieved from http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Books/Chemical%20Caricatures.pdf

Maryland State Department of Education. (2012). Goal 4: Concepts of chemistry. Retrieved from http://www.mdk12.org/instruction/clg/chemistry/goal4.html

The College Board. (2011). AP chemistry curriculum framework, 2013-2014. Retrieved from http://media.collegeboard.com/digitalServices/pdf/ap/11_3461_AP_CF_Chemistry_WEB_110930.pdf

The IRIS Center for Training Enhancements. (2012). Differentiation for Science. Retrieved on August 11, 2012 from http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/resource_infoBrief/info_brief_files/k8accesscenter_org_training_resources_documents_science_differentiation_.html

Wikipedia. (2012). Long Beach Polytechnic High School. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach_Polytechnic_High_School

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