114-117 uo1-868874 12/30/04 10:31 am page 114 mesopotamia, … · 2019. 11. 22. · 1000 1000...

Each civilization that you will study in this unit madeimportant contributions to history.

• The Mesopotamians developed the world’s first law codes.• Egyptians built the pyramids and invented papyrus—the

world’s first paper.• Israelite scripture influenced religions in Europe and Asia.

8000 B.C. 5000 B.C. 2000 B.C.8000 B.C. 5000 B.C. 2000 B.C.

Hammurabi stands before a god

Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Israel

FirstCivilizations

FirstCivilizations

Cha p ter 1

AncientEgypt & Kush

Ancient Egypt & Kush

Chap ter 2

AncientIsraelitesAncient

IsraelitesChap ter 3

c. 1790 B.C.Hammurabi intro-duces code of laws

c. 5000 B.C.Hunter-gatherers settleNile River valley

c. 2540 B.C.Egyptians complete building of GreatPyramid

c. 1500 B.C.QueenHatshepsutbecomes pharaoh

c. 1800 B.C.Abraham enters Canaan

Pyramids at Giza, Egyptc. 2540 B.C.

c. 8000 B.C.Farming begins insouthwest Asia

Abraham leadsIsraelites to Canaan

c. 3200 B.C.Sumerians inMesopotamiadevelop writing

114

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1000 B.C. 750 B.C. 500 B.C. 250 B.C. A.D. 11000 B.C. 750 B.C. 500 B.C. 250 B.C. A.D. 1

N

S

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1,000 km0Mercator projection

1,000 mi.0 60°E30°E0° 90°E

30°N

EQUATOR

RedSea

PersianGulf

Black Sea

INDIANOCEAN

Caspian Sea

Indus R.

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eR.

Euphrates R.

TigrisR

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A F R I C A

A S I A

Chapter 2Chapter 2

Chapter 3Chapter 3Chapter 1Chapter 1

c. 1000 B.C.King David rules Israel

c. 612 B.C.Chaldeans captureAssyrian capital

c. 1000 B.C.Kush breaks free of Egypt

728 B.C.KushconquersEgypt

168 B.C.Maccabean revolt

A.D. 70Romansdestroy templein Jerusalem

Solomon’s temple,built c. 950 B.C.

Kushite king Taharqa c. 680 B.C.

Chapter 1Chapter 2Chapter 3

Ancient Jerusalem

c. 744 B.C.Assyria expandsinto Babylon

115

Hanging Gardens ofBabylon c. 600 B.C.

586 B.C.ChaldeanscaptureJerusalem

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116

Ruled c. 1792–1750 B.C.Babylonian kingChapter 1, page 138

Ruled c. 1473–1458 B.C.Egyptian pharaoh

Chapter 2, page 182

c. 3300 B.C.Iceman found in

the Alps Chapter 1, page 129

AFRICAAFRICA

RedSea

Mediterranean SeaIshtar Gate1

See First CivilizationsChapter 1

Sumerian figures2

See First CivilizationsChapter 1

5

3

4

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117

Ruled c. 1279–1213 B.C.Egyptian ruler

Chapter 2, page 185

Ruled c. 1000–970 B.C.King of Israel

Chapter 3, page 208

c. 1100 B.C.Israelite womenChapter 3, page 219

ASIAASIA

CaspianSea

PersianGulf

3 Egyptian sphinx

See Ancient Egypt and Kush Chapter 2

4 Kushite pyramids

See Ancient Egypt and Kush Chapter 2

5 Western Wall

See Ancient IsraelitesChapter 3

21

(t to b)Sylvain Grandadam/Getty Images, Timothy Kendall/Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Gary Cralle/Getty Images, (l to r)O. Louis Mazzatenta/National Geographic Society Image Collection, SuperStock,Bettmann/CORBIS

114-117 UO1-868874 7/8/05 4:46 PM Page 117

c. 3000 B.C.Bronze Agebegins

c. 1792 B.C.HammurabirulesMesopotamia

612 B.C.Nineveh captured;Assyrian Empirecrumbles

3000 B.C. 2000 B.C. 1000 B.C.3000 B.C. 2000 B.C. 1000 B.C.

Ruins of a ziggurat in Iraq

The First Civilizations

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Chapter OverviewVisit ca.hss.glencoe.com for a preview of Chapter 1.

Early HumansStudying the past helps to understand the present. Scientists who

study the past have learned that the earliest humans huntedanimals and gathered plants for food. When farming developed,people settled in villages and towns.

Mesopotamian CivilizationReligion shapes how culture develops, just as culture shapes how

religion develops. In early Mesopotamian civilizations, religion andgovernment were closely linked. Kings created strict laws togovern people.

New EmpiresConflict often brings about great change. New empires arose in

Mesopotamia around 900 B.C. These civilizations included theAssyrians and the Chaldeans. They used powerful armies and ironweapons to conquer the region.

View the Chapter 1 video in the Glencoe Video Program.

Compare and Contrast Make this foldable to help you compare and contrast the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia.

Reading and WritingAs you read the chapter,write notes under eachappropriate tab of yourfoldable. Keep in mindthat you are trying tocompare thesecivilizations.

Step 1 Fold a sheet of paperin half from side to side.

Fold it so the leftedge lies about inch from the

right edge.

12

This will makethree tabs.

The First Civilizations

EarlyHumans

Mesopo-tamia

NewEmpires

Step 2 Turn the paper andfold it into thirds.

Step 3 Unfold and cutthe top layer only alongboth folds.

Step 4 Label as shown.

119

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http://ca.hss.glencoe.com

Before you read, take time to preview the chapter. This will giveyou a head start on what you are about to learn. Follow the stepsbelow to help you quickly read, or skim, Section 1 on page 123.

Previewing

As you skim, also l

ook

at pictures, maps, a

nd

charts.

Early HumansPaleolithic people adapted to

their environment and invented many toolsto help them survive.Reading Connection What do you view as thegreatest human achievement—sending people tothe moon, perhaps, or inventing the computer?Read to learn about the accomplishments ofpeople during the Paleolithic Age.

History is the story of humans . . .

Tools of Discovery

1–Read the mainheadings in large redtype. Theyshow themain topicscovered inthe sectionor chapter.

4–Under each mainhead, read the sub-heads in blue type.Subheads break downeach main topic intosmaller topics.

3–The ReadingConnection helpsyou to link whatyou might alreadyknow to what youare about to read.

2–The under each mainhead tells you themain point ofwhat you areabout to read.

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Use each main head, the main ideas, and thesubheads in Section 2 of this chapter to createa study outline.

Read to Write

121

Skim Section 2 on your own. Writeone thing in your notebook that youwant to learn by reading this chapter.

Skim all of the main heads and main ideas in Section 3starting on page 142. Then, in small groups, discussthe answers to these questions.• Which part of this section do you think will be most

interesting to you?• What do you think will be covered in Section 3

that was not covered in Section 2?• Are there any words in the Main Ideas

that you do not know how to pronounce?• Choose one of the Reading

Connection questions to discuss in your group.

New Empires

Hanging Gardensof Babylon

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Early Humans

Looking Back, Looking AheadToday people live in towns and

cities of various sizes. Early humanslived by moving from place to place,forming settlements, and exploringdifferent ways to provide forthemselves and their families.

Focusing on the • Paleolithic people adapted to their

environment and invented many toolsto help them survive.(page 123)

• In the Neolithic Age, people startedfarming, building communities,producing goods, and trading.(page 127)

Locating PlacesJericho (JEHR• ih•KOH)Çatal Hüyük

(chah•TAHL hoo•YOOK)

Content Vocabularyanthropologist

(AN•thruh•PAH• luh• jihst)archaeologist

(AHR•kee•AH• luh• jihst)artifact (AHR•tih•FAKT)fossil (FAH•suhl)nomad (NOH•MAD)technology (tehk•NAH• luh• jee)domesticate (duh•MEHS•tih•KAYT)specialization

(SPEH•shuh• luh•ZAY•shuhn)

Academic Vocabularytask

revolution (REH•vuh•LOO•shuhn)

Reading StrategyDetermine Cause and Effect Draw a diagram like the one below. Use it to explain how early humans adaptedto their environment.

Effect:

Effect:

Cause:

Cause:

c. 8000 B.C.Jerichofounded

c. 6700 B.C.Çatal Hüyüksettled

c. 3000 B.C.Bronze Agebegins

8000 B.C. 6000 B.C. 4000 B.C. 2000 B.C.8000 B.C. 6000 B.C. 4000 B.C. 2000 B.C.

Jericho

¸CatalH¨uy¨uk

122 CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations

HistorySocial ScienceStandardsWH6.1 Studentsdescribe what is knownthrough archaeologicalstudies of the earlyphysical and culturaldevelopment ofhumankind from thePaleolithic era to theagricultural revolution.

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WH6.1 Students describe what is known through archaeological studies of the early physical and cultural development of humankindfrom the Paleolithic era to the agricultural revolution. WH6.1.1 Describe the hunter-gatherer societies, including the development oftools and the use of fire. WH6.1.2 Identify the locations of human communities that populated the major regions of the world anddescribe how humans adapted to a variety of environments. WH6.2.9 Trace the evolution of language and its written forms.

Early HumansPaleolithic people adapted to their

environment and invented many tools to help themsurvive.Reading Connection What do you view as the great-est human achievement—sending people to the moon, perhaps, or inventing the computer? Read to learnabout the accomplishments of people during thePaleolithic Age.

History is the story of humans in thepast. It tells what people did and what hap-pened to them. Historians are people whostudy and write about the human past.They define history as the period of timethat began after people learned to write,about 5,500 years ago. But the story of peo-ple really begins in prehistory—the timebefore people developed writing.

Tools of Discovery What we know aboutthe earliest people comes from the thingsthey left behind. Scientists have worked to uncover clues about early human life.Anthropologists (AN • thruh • PAH • luh • jihsts)focus on human society. They study howhumans developed and how they related to one another. Archaeologists (AHR • kee •AH • luh • jihsts) hunt for evidence buried inthe ground where settlements might oncehave been. They dig up and study artifacts(AHR • tih • FAKTS)—weapons, tools, and otherthings made by humans. They also look forfossils (FAH • suhls)—traces of plants or ani-mals that have been preserved in rock.

British archaeologists Louis and MaryLeakey and their son Richard are probablythe most-famous fossil hunters. Their find-ings convinced many scientists and anthro-pologists that the ancestors of humanbeings first appeared somewhere in EastAfrica millions of years ago.

In the 1930s, Louis and Mary Leakeybegan digging for fossils in the OlduvaiGorge in Tanzania. Archaeologists knowthat in certain areas of the world, layers ofdirt and rock have been piled up slowlyover time by the action of wind and water.If you dig in those places, the deeper youfind things, the older they are, because theywere buried further back in time. TheOlduvai Gorge is very deep, and along itswalls are layers of dirt from as far back as 2million years ago. This made it a very goodlocation to look for fossils.

In the 1940s and 1950s, Louis and Maryfound many fossils of hominids. Hominidsare creatures that walk on two legs. Humanbeings are the only type of hominid stillalive today. All the others are extinct.Anthropologists think that human beingsdeveloped from earlier types of hominids.

In 1959 Mary Leakey discovered theskull of a creature nearly 2 million yearsold. This showed that hominids lived atleast that long ago. In 1974 Donald

CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 123

Dr. Donald Johanson is shown here in 1982 with the skeletal remains of Lucy,a 3-million-year-old hominid

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hominids had begun walking on two legswhile living in Africa’s rain forests, beforethey moved out onto Africa’s plains.

Based on the work of these and otheranthropologists, many scientists today thinkthat the first human beings developed inEast Africa. Slowly, over thousands of years,human beings spread out of Africa, probablyin search of food and new places to live astheir population increased. Gradually, theysettled throughout the world.

Who Were the Hunter-Gatherers?Historians call the prehistoric period ofhuman history the Stone Age. The namecomes from the fact that people during thistime used stone to make tools and weapons.The earliest part of the period is thePaleolithic or Old Stone Age. Paleolithic

Johanson, an American anthropologist fromChicago, made an even more amazing dis-covery. He unearthed nearly an entire skele-ton of a female hominid in Ethiopia. Thehominid was nicknamed Lucy and wasnearly 3 million years old.

Before Lucy was found, anthropologiststhought hominids lived in the open onAfrica’s plains and used tools to hunt otheranimals. They thought hominids had begunwalking on two legs so they could carrytheir tools while they hunted. Lucy’sremains showed that hominids began walk-ing on two legs long before they used tools.

Scientists’ ideas about hominids werechanged again in 1992. That year TimWhite, an anthropologist from California,uncovered a hominid that was 4.4 millionyears old. Its teeth and bones showed that

PRESERVINGArchaeologists may use plaster to make a form or an imprint of

something they have found.BELOW THE SURFACE

Layers of soil are deposited one on

top of another. In gen-eral, the further the

layer is below the sur-face, the older its soil

and artifacts are.

CLEANINGArtifacts must be handled and

cleaned carefully, often with soft brushes or other instruments.

LOOKING FOR FRAGMENTSThis scientist uses a wire mesh

screen to sift the soil to discover small fragments

of artifacts.

GRIDSGrids like these help archaeologistsrecord and map any artifacts found.

Archaeological DigArchaeological DigArchaeologists use special techniques and tools when carryingout a dig. Artifacts are photographed or sketched, and their locations are mapped and noted. Soil is passed through a meshscreen to collect small fragments of tools or bone. What typesof artifacts do archaeologists look for?

Michael Holford

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means “old stone” in the Greek language.Paleolithic times began roughly 2.5 millionyears ago and lasted until around 8000 B.C.

Try to imagine the world during theStone Age, long before any roadways, farms,or villages existed. Early humans spent mostof their time searching for food. They huntedanimals, caught fish, ate insects, and gath-ered nuts, berries, fruits, grains, and plants.

Because they hunted and gathered food,Paleolithic people were always on themove. They were nomads (NOH • MADS), orpeople who regularly move from place toplace without fixed homes. They traveled inbands or groups of 30 or so membersbecause it was safer and made the searchfor food easier.

Men and women did different taskswithin the group. Women stayed close to thecampsite, which was typically near a streamor other water source. They cared for thechildren and searched nearby woods andmeadows for berries, nuts, and grains.

Men hunted animals—an activity thatsometimes took them far from camp. Theyhad to learn the habits of animals and maketools for hunting. At first, they used clubsor drove the animals off cliffs. Over time,Paleolithic people invented spears, traps,and bows and arrows.

Adapting to the Environment The waythat Paleolithic people lived depended onwhere they lived. Those in warm climatesneeded little clothing or shelter. People incold climates sought protection from theweather in caves. Over time, Paleolithicpeople created new kinds of shelter. Themost common was probably made of ani-mal hides held up by wooden poles.

Paleolithic people made a life-changingdiscovery when they learned to tame fire.Fire gave warmth to those gathered aroundit. It lit the darkness and scared away wild


Paleolithic Cave Paintings

The oldest examples of Paleolithic art arecave paintings found in Spain and France.Most of the paintings are of animals. The paintings show that Paleolithic artistsoften used several colors and techniques.They sometimes used the uneven surface ofthe rock to create a three-dimensional effect.

Why do you think Paleolithic artistspainted what they did?

Painting of bison in Spanish cave

animals. Food cooked over the fire tastedbetter and was easier to digest. In addition,cooked meat could be kept longer.

Archaeologists believe that early humansstarted fires by rubbing two pieces of woodtogether. Paleolithic people later made drill-like wooden tools to start fires.

What Were the Ice Ages? Paleolithic peo-ple needed fire in order to survive the IceAges. These were long periods of extremecold. The last Ice Age began about 100,000B.C. From then until about 8000 B.C., thickice sheets covered parts of Europe, Asia,and North America.

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The Ice Age was a threat to human life.People risked death from the cold and alsofrom hunger. Early humans had to adapt by changing their diet, building sturdiershelters, and using animal furs to makewarm clothing. The mastery of fire helpedpeople live in this environment.

Language, Art, and Religion Anotheradvance during Paleolithic times was thedevelopment of spoken language. Languagemade it far easier for people to worktogether and to pass on knowledge.

Early people expressed themselves notonly in words but in art. They crushed yel-low, black, and red rocks to make powdersfor paint. Then they dabbed this on cavewalls, creating scenes of lions, oxen, pan-thers, and other animals. Historians are notsure why cave paintings were created. Theymay have had religious meaning or beenused to explain people’s role in the uni-

Tools One of the most importantadvances of prehistoric people wasthe creation of stone tools. Toolsmade hunting, gathering, buildingshelter, and making clothing mucheasier.

The first tools were made ofstones. Early humans quickly

verse. Early people also might havethought that painting an animal wouldbring good luck in the hunt.

The Invention of Tools Paleolithic peoplewere the first to use technology (tehk• NAH•luh • jee)—tools and methods that helphumans perform tasks. People often used astone called flint to make tools. By hittingflint with a hard stone, they could make itflake into pieces with very sharp edges. Tomake hand axes or hunting spears, theytied wooden poles to pieces of flint thatwere the right shape for the tool.

Over time, early people grew moreskilled at making tools. They crafted smallerand sharper tools, such as fishhooks andneedles made from animal bones. Theyused needles to make nets and baskets andto sew animal hides together for clothing.

Contrast What is the dif-ference between a fossil and an artifact?

learned that grinding, breaking, andshaping stones to create sharp edgesmade them more useful.

As technology advanced, people beganmaking specific tools such as foodchoppers, meat scrapers, and spear points.In time, people learned that hitting a stonein a particular way would produce a flake—a long, sharp chip. Flakes were similar toknives in the way they were used.

Connecting to the Past1. Why do you think early people chose stones to

make their first tools?

2. How were flakes created?

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WH6.1.2 Identify the locations of human communities that populated the major regions of the world and describe how humans adapted to a variety of environments.

WH6.1.3 Discuss the climatic changes and human modifications of the physical environment that gave rise to the domestication of plants and animals and new sources of clothing and shelter.

The Agricultural RevolutionIn the Neolithic Age, people started

farming, building communities, producing goods,and trading.Reading Connection Did you know that, today, morethan a third of the world’s people work in agriculture?Read to learn how farming began and how it changedthe world.

After the last Ice Age ended, peopleentered the Mesolithic Age. Mesolithicmeans “middle stone” in Greek. At thistime, people changed from hunting to herd-ing animals. They began to domesticate (duh• MEHS• tih• KAYT), or tame animals for humanuse. Animals provided meat, milk, andwool. They also carried goods and peopleand pulled carts. Even so, most Mesolithicpeople remained nomadic. They movedfrom place to place in search of grass to feed

their herds. They also continued to gatherseeds, fruits, and vegetables to eat.

The Mesolithic Age came to an endwhen people made another important dis-covery. They realized that they could plantseeds and grow their own food. They mayhave learned this from the seeds they hadstored in dirt pits. Some of the seeds mighthave sprouted and shown people that ifthey put seeds in dirt and waited longenough, they could grow plants.

With this new knowledge, people couldstay in one place and grow grains and veg-etables. Gradually, farming began toreplace hunting and gathering for manypeople. They began to build villages andclaim land for their farms. This changed theway people lived and marked the begin-ning of the Neolithic Age, or New StoneAge, which began about 8000 B.C. andlasted until about 4000 B.C.

Why Was Farming Important?Historians call the changes in theNeolithic Age the agricultural rev-olution. The word revolutionrefers to changes that greatly affectmany areas of life. Some his-torians consider the farming revo-lution the most important event inhuman history.

Farming did not begin in oneregion and spread. People in differ-ent parts of the world discoveredhow to grow crops at about thesame time. In Asia, people grewwheat, barley, rice, soybeans, and agrain called millet. In Mexico, farmers grew corn, squash, andpotatoes. In Africa, they grew mil-let and a grain called sorghum.

Farming greatly increased thenumber of calories that could be

Flaking tools froma larger stone

Stonetools

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Mercator projection2,000 km0

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1. Human/Environment Interaction According tothe map, what crops were grown in NorthAmerica?

2. Region What are the major regions of theworld where farming communities appeared?

Find NGS online map resources @ www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

Barley

Beans

Cocoa

Coffee

Cotton

Emmer

Flax

Maize

Millet

Oats

Olives

Onions

Peanuts

Peppers

Potatoes

Rice

Rye

Soybeans

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Sugarcane

Sunflowers

Sweet potatoes

Tea

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Yams

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The Rise of Farming Communities 7000–2000 B.C.


produced from an area of land. This made itpossible to feed more people and led to anincrease in the world’s population. Farmingregions also had a higher population den-sity. People lived closer together and didnot have to spread out as much as they usedto when they hunted and gathered food.

Farming also changed the kind of food peo-ple ate. Instead of a diet rich in meat and veg-etables, people now ate a lot of grain—usuallyin the form of bread. Anthropologists think thatpeople in the early days of farming were not ashealthy as hunter-gatherers because they didnot have enough variety in their diet.

Farming required people to stay in oneplace for a long time. This made it easier fordiseases to spread and infect many people.Because people stayed in one place, theyalso tended to pollute their environment.Their water became dirty, and they left

garbage near their farms. This too helpedthe spread of disease.

People had to work harder and for muchlonger hours when farming. People had totill the soil in order to plant seeds. They hadto weed the fields by hand. Then they had togather the crops by hand when they wereready. There were no machines to make thework quick and easy. People had to walkthrough their fields, often bent over at thewaist, gathering the crops they had grown.

Despite the problems of diet and diseaseand the hard work people had to do, thefarming revolution greatly improved thelives of most people. Fewer people starvedto death, and more children lived to adult-hood. Settling in one place to farm also ledto a much more organized society andmade possible the world’s first towns andcities.

(tr)Giansanti Gianni/CORBIS Sygma, (bl)Kenneth Garrett

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http://www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

6.4.6. Compare and contrast life in Athensand Sparta, with emphasis on their rules inthe Persian and Peloponnesian Wars.

ÖTZI THE ICEMANc. 3300 B.C.How do archaeologists and historians know so

much about how people lived in the Stone Age? Inaddition to studying fossils, they have had the chanceto study an actual person from the Neolithic Age andhis tools. In A.D. 1991 two hikers discovered the frozenbody of a man near the border between Austria and Italy.The man was called “Ötzi” after the Ötztal Alps, themountains where he was found. Scientists studiedÖtzi’s body, his clothes, and the items found with himand learned that he lived 5,300 years ago, during theNeolithic Age.

Ötzi was dressed warmly because of the coldclimate. He was wearing a fur hat and a long grasscloak. Under the cloak was a leather jacket that waswell-made but had been repaired several times. To keephis feet warm, he had stuffed grass in the bottom of hisleather shoes. Ötzi was carrying a bow and arrows, acopper ax, and a backpack. Experts believe Ötzi was ashepherd who traveled with his herd. He probably returned to his village only twice a year.

From recent tests, scientists have learned more about the last hours of Ötzi’s life.Shortly before he died, Ötzi ate a type of flat bread that is similar to a cracker, an herb orother green plant, and meat. Pollen found in Ötzi’s stomach showed that he ate his lastmeal in the valley, south of where he was found. When Ötzi finished eating, he headed upinto the mountains. Eight hours later, he died. Scientists believe that Ötzi’s last hourswere violent ones. When found, he had a knife clutched in his right hand. Wounds on hisright hand suggest that he tried to fight off an attacker. His left shoulder had been deeplypierced by an arrow. Some scientists think Ötzi may have wandered into another tribe’sterritory. Ötzi is now displayed at theSouth Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, Italy.

129

If scientists 5,300 years from now discoveredthe remains of someone from our time, whatmight they conclude about our society?

WH6.1.2 Identify the locations of humancommunities that populated the major regions ofthe world and describe how humans adapted to avariety of environments.

WH6.1.3 Discuss the climatic changes andhuman modifications of the physical environmentthat gave rise to the domestication of plants andanimals and new sources of clothing and shelter.

Scientists created thisreproduction to show whatÖtzi may have looked like.

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Paleolithic Age

People hunted animals and gathered nuts, berries, and grains.

Neolithic Age

Description of Art and Crafts

How Humans Obtained Food

How Humans Adapted

Paleolithic people painted cave walls. They usually painted animals.

People learned to make fire, created a language, and made simple tools and shelters.

People began to farm in permanent villages. They continued to raise and herd animals.

Neolithic people made pottery and carved objects out of wood. They also built shelters and tombs.

People built mud-brick houses and places of worship. They specialized in certain jobs and used copper and bronze to create more useful tools.

Work of Women and Men

Women gathered food and cared for children. Men hunted.

Women cared for children and performed household tasks. Men herded, farmed, and protected the village.

Comparing the Neolithic and Paleolithic AgesComparing the Neolithic and Paleolithic Ages


Humans made great advances from thePaleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age.1. How did the work of men change from the

Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age?2. Describe What advances were made in

toolmaking between the Paleolithic andNeolithic Ages?

The Growth of Villages People whofarmed could settle in one place. Herdersremained nomadic and drove their animalswherever they could find grazing land.Farmers, however, had to stay close to theirfields to water the plants, keep hungry ani-mals away, and harvest their crops. Theybegan to live in villages, where they builtpermanent homes.

During the Neolithic Age, villages werestarted in Europe, India, Egypt, China, and

Mexico. Some of the earliest known commu-nities have been found in the Middle East.One of the oldest is Jericho (JEHR• ih• KOH) inthe West Bank between what are now Israeland Jordan. It dates back to about 8000 B.C.

Another well-known Neolithic commu-nity is Çatal Hüyük (chah • TAHL hoo •YOOK) in present-day Turkey. Little of thecommunity remains, but it was home tosome 6,000 people between about 6700 B.C.and 5700 B.C. These people lived in simplemud-brick houses that were packed tightlytogether and decorated inside with wallpaintings. They used other buildings asplaces of worship. Along with farming, thepeople hunted, raised sheep and goats, andate fish and bird eggs from nearby marshes.

(l)Michael Holford, (r)Ron Sheridan/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection

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The Benefits of a Settled Life Neolithicpeople found greater security by living insettled communities. Steady food suppliesled to healthy, growing populations. Soonvillagers produced a food surplus. That is,they grew more food than they needed.They were able to trade their extra food forother goods made by people in their com-munity or who lived nearby.

The food surplus made it possible forpeople to practice specialization (SPEH•shuh•luh•ZAY•shuhn), or the development of differ-ent kinds of jobs. Because not everyone wasneeded for farming, some people had thetime to develop other types of skills. Theymade pottery from clay to store their grainand other foods. Others used plant fibers tomake mats and to weave cloth. This led to anew type of clothing. Early humans hadworn only animal skins. Now people could

use wool and other fabrics for clothes as well.These craftspeople, like farmers, also tookpart in trade. They exchanged the things theymade for goods they did not have.

In late Neolithic times, people contin-ued to make advances. Toolmakers createdbetter farming tools, such as the sickle forcutting grain. In some places, people beganto work with metals. At first they used cop-per. They heated rocks to melt the copperinside and then poured the melted copperinto molds for tools and weapons.

After 4000 B.C., craftspeople in westernAsia mixed copper and tin to form a metalcalled bronze. Bronze was harder andlonger lasting than copper. It becamewidely used between 3000 B.C. and 1200B.C., the period known as the Bronze Age.

Compare How did thePaleolithic and Neolithic Ages differ?

Reading SummaryReview the

• Early humans were nomads whomoved around to hunt animalsand gather food. They built shelters and used fire to survive.In time, they developed languageand art.

• During the farming revolution,people began to grow crops and domesticate animals,which allowed them to settle in villages.

1. Who are archaeologists, andwhat do they study?

2. How did domesticating animalshelp the Neolithic people?

Critical Thinking3. Determine Cause and

Effect Draw a diagram like theone below. List some of theeffects that farming had onpeople’s lives.

4. How do changesin the Neolithic Age still affectpeople today?

5. Compare Compare the tech-nology of the Paleolithic Agewith that of the Neolithic Age.

6. Analyze Why was the abilityto make a fire so important?

7. PreviewingCreate a three-column chart.In the first column, write whatyou knew about early humansbefore you read this section.In the second column, writewhat you learned after reading.In the third, write what youstill would like to know.

CA 6RC2.4

CA HI2.

CA CS1.

CA HI2.

CA HI2.

What Did You Learn?

Study Central Need help understanding the lives of early humans? Visit ca.hss.glencoe.comand click on Study Central.

Cause:Farming begins

Effect:

Effect:

Effect:

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Looking Back, Looking AheadIn Section 1, you learned how

farming allowed people to settle inone place. Some people settled in anarea called Mesopotamia.

Focusing on the • Civilization in Mesopotamia began

in the valleys of the Tigris andEuphrates Rivers. (page 133)

• Sumerians invented writing andmade other important contributionsto later peoples. (page 136)

• Sumerian city-states lost powerwhen they were conquered byoutsiders. (page 139)

Locating PlacesTigris River (TY•gruhs)Euphrates River (yu•FRAY•teez)Mesopotamia

(MEH•suh•puh•TAY•mee•uh)Sumer (SOO•muhr)Babylon (BA•buh• luhn)

Meeting PeopleSargon (SAHR•GAHN)Hammurabi (HA•muh•RAH•bee)

Content Vocabularycivilization

(SIH•vuh• luh•ZAY•shuhn)irrigation (IHR•uh•GAY•shuhn)city-stateartisan (AHR•tuh•zuhn)cuneiform (kyoo•NEE•uh•FAWRM)scribe (SKRYB)empire (EHM•PYR)

Academic Vocabularycomplex (kahm•PLEHKS)consist (kuhn•SIHST)code (KOHD)

Reading StrategySequencing Information Use adiagram to show how the first empirein Mesopotamia came about.

city-statesformed

3000 B.C.City-states arise in Sumer

c. 2340 B.C.Sargon conquersMesopotamia

c. 1792 B.C.Hammurabi rulesMesopotamia

3000 B.C. 2250 B.C. 1500 B.C.3000 B.C. 2250 B.C. 1500 B.C.

UrukBabylon


HistorySocial ScienceStandardsWH6.2 Studentsanalyze the geographic,political, economic,religious, and socialstructures of the earlycivilizations of Meso-potamia, Egypt, andKush.

Mesopotamian Civilization

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WH6.2.1 Locate and describe the major river systems and discuss the physical settings that supported permanent settlement andearly civilizations. WH6.2.2 Trace the development of agricultural techniques that permitted the production of economic surplus andthe emergence of cities as centers of culture and power. WH6.2.3 Understand the relationship between religion and the social andpolitical order in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

500 km0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

500 mi.0

N

S

W E

30°N

40°N

30°E 40°E 50°E

Red

Sea

Mediterranean Sea

DeadSea Persian

Gulf

Tigris

R.

Nile

R.

Ca

spianSea

Jordan R.

AncientShoreline

EuphratesR

.

ASIA MINOR

SYRIANDESERT

NILEDELTA

A R A B I A ND E S E R T

EGYPT

MESOPOTAMIA

A S I A

Nineveh

Babylon

Ur

Susa

Eridu

Uruk

Jerusalem

Tyre

Giza

ByblosSidon

Ancient Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia’s CivilizationCivilization in Mesopotamia began in

the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.Reading Connection Do you live in a region thatreceives plenty of rain or in a region that is dry? Thinkabout how that affects you as you read how theSumerians’ environment affected them.

Over thousands of years, some of theearly farming villages developed into civi-lizations. Civilizations (SIH • vuh • luh • ZAY •shuhns) are complex societies. They havecities, organized governments, art, religion,class divisions, and a writing system.

Why Were River Valleys Important? Thefirst civilizations arose in river valleysbecause good farming conditions made it

easy to feed large numbers of people. Therivers also provided fish and freshwater todrink, and made it easy to get from one placeto another and to trade. Trade enabledgoods and ideas to move from place toplace. It was no accident, then, that citiesgrew up in these valleys and became thecenters of civilizations.

As cities took shape, so did the need fororganization. Someone had to make plansand decisions about matters of commonconcern. People formed governments to dojust that. Their leaders took charge of foodsupplies and building projects. They madelaws to keep order and assembled armies todefend themselves from enemies.

With fewer worries about meeting theirbasic needs, people in the river valleys hadmore time to think about other things. They


1. Location Into what body of waterdo the Tigris and the EuphratesRivers flow?

2. Place Why do you think the regionof Mesopotamia was so wellsuited for the growth ofcivilization? Sculpture of chariot

from Mesopotamia

Fertile CrescentKEY

Hirmer Verlag

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placed emphasis, or special importance, onreligions and the arts. They also inventedways of writing and created calendars totell time.

Early civilizations shared another fea-ture—they had a class structure. That is,people held different ranks in societydepending on what work they did and howmuch wealth or power they had.

The Rise of Sumer The earliest-known civ-ilization arose in what is now southern Iraq,on a flat plain bounded by the Tigris River(TY • gruhs) and the Euphrates River (yu•FRAY•teez). Later, the Greeks called this areaMesopotamia (MEH • suh • puh • TAY • mee • uh),which means “the land between the rivers.”Mesopotamia lay in the eastern part of theFertile Crescent, a curving strip of land that

extends from the Mediterranean Sea to thePersian Gulf.

Mesopotamia had a hot, dry climate. In the spring, the rivers often flooded, leaving behind rich soil for farming. Theproblem was that the flooding was veryunpredictable. It might flood one year, butnot the next. Every year, farmers worriedabout their crops.

Over time, the farmers learned to builddams and channels to control the seasonalfloods. They also built walls, waterways,and ditches to bring water to their fields. Thisway of watering crops is called irrigation(IHR • uh • GAY • shuhn). Irrigation allowed thefarmers to grow plenty of food and supporta large population. By 3000 B.C., many citieshad formed in southern Mesopotamia in aregion known as Sumer (SOO • muhr).

134

Sumerian ZigguratSumerian Ziggurat

The top of the ziggurat was considered to be a holy place, and the area aroundthe ziggurat contained palaces and royal storehouses. The surrounding wallshad only one entrance because the ziggurat also served as the city’s treasury.How did people reach the upper levels of the ziggurat?

Statues of Sumerians

Scala/Art Resource, NY

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These ruins are from theSumerian city-state of Uruk.What was a city-state?

What Were City-States? Geographyhelped to isolate Sumerian cities from eachother. Beyond the areas of settlement laymudflats and patches of scorching desert.This terrain made travel and communica-tion difficult. Each Sumerian city and theland around it became a separate city-state.Each city-state had its own government andwas not part of any larger unit.

Sumerian city-states often went to warwith one another. They fought to gain gloryand to control more territory. For protec-tion, each city-state surrounded itself with awall. Because stone and wood were in shortsupply, the Sumerians used river mud astheir main building material. They mixedthe mud with crushed reeds, formed bricks,and left them in the sun to dry. The hard

waterproof bricks were used for walls, aswell as homes, temples, and other buildings.

Gods and Rulers The Sumerians believedin many gods. Each was thought to havepower over a natural force or a human activ-ity—flooding, for example, or basket weav-ing. The Sumerians tried hard to please theirgods. Each city-state built a grand templecalled a ziggurat (ZIH • guh • RAT) to its chiefgod. The word ziggurat means “mountain ofgod” or “hill of heaven.”

With tiers like a giant square weddingcake, the ziggurat dominated the city. Atthe top was a shrine, or special place ofworship that only priests and priestessescould enter. The priests and priestesseswere powerful and controlled much of theland. They may even have ruled at one time.

A portion of the RoyalStandard of Ur, a deco-rated box that showsscenes of Sumerian life

(l)Nik Wheeler/CORBIS, (r)Michael Holford

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A Skilled PeopleSumerians invented writing and made

other important contributions to later peoples.Reading Connection Do you like to read? If so, youowe a debt to the Sumerians, because they were the firstto invent writing. Read about this achievement and others.

The Sumerians left a lasting mark onworld history. Their ideas and inventionswere copied and improved upon by otherpeoples. As a result, Mesopotamia has beencalled the “cradle of civilization.”

Why Was Writing Important? The peopleof Sumer created many things that still affectour lives today. Probably their greatestinvention was writing. Writing is importantbecause it helps people keep records andpass on their ideas to others.

People in Sumer developed writing tokeep track of business deals and otherevents. Their writing was called cuneiform(kyoo • NEE • uh • FAWRM). It consisted of hun-dreds of wedge-shaped marks cut into dampclay tablets with a sharp-ended reed.Archaeologists have found thousands ofthese cuneiform tablets, telling us muchabout Mesopotamian life.

Only a few people—mostly boys fromwealthy families—learned how to write.After years of training, they became scribes(SKRYBS), or record keepers. Scribes heldhonored positions in society, often going onto become judges and political leaders.

Sumerian Literature The Sumerians alsoproduced works of literature. The world’soldest known story comes from Sumer. It iscalled the Epic of Gilgamesh (GIHL • guh •MEHSH). An epic is a long poem that tells thestory of a hero. The hero Gilgamesh is aking who travels around the world with afriend and performs great deeds. When hisfriend dies, Gilgamesh searches for a way to

Later, kings ran the government. They ledarmies and organized building projects. Thefirst kings were probably war heroes. Theirposition became hereditary, which meantthat after a king died, his son took over.

What Was Life Like in Sumer? WhileSumerian kings lived in large palaces, ordinary people lived in small mud-brickhouses. Most people in Sumer farmed. Some,however, were artisans (AHR • tuh • zuhns), orskilled workers who made metal products,cloth, or pottery. Other people in Sumerworked as merchants or traders. They trav-eled to other cities and towns and tradedtools, wheat, and barley for copper, tin, andtimber—things that Sumer did not have.

People in Sumer were divided into threesocial classes. Generally, a person had to stayin the social class into which he or she wasborn. Only rarely could someone move up.The upper class included kings, priests, war-riors, and government officials. In the middleclass were artisans, merchants, farmers, andfishers. These people made up the largestgroup. The lower class were enslaved peoplewho worked on farms or in the temples.

Enslaved people were forced to serveothers. Slaveholders thought of them asproperty. Some slaves were prisoners ofwar. Others were criminals. Still otherswere enslaved because they had to pay offtheir debts. Debts are money or goodsowed to others.

In Sumer, women and men had separateroles. Men headed the households. They alsocould decide whom their children wouldmarry. Only males could go to school.Women, however, did have some rights.They could buy and sell property and runbusinesses.

Explain How did Mesopo-tamian control of the Tigris and Euphrates Riversbenefit their society?


WH6.2.2 Trace the development of agricultural techniques that permitted the production of economic surplus and the emergence of cities as centers of culture and power. WH6.2.3 Understand the relationship between religion and the social and political order inMesopotamia and Egypt. WH6.2.9 Trace the evolution of language and its written forms.


132-139 C1S2-868874 1/3/05 7:16 AM Page 136

live forever. He learns that this is possibleonly for the gods. This epic poem is stillstudied today.

Advances in Science and Math TheMesopotamians’ creativity also extended totechnology. You read earlier about Sumerianirrigation systems. Sumerians also inventedthe wagon wheel to help carry people andgoods from place to place. Another break-through was the plow, which made farmingeasier. Still another invention was the sail-boat, which replaced muscle power withwind power.

Sumerians developed many mathemati-cal ideas. They used geometry to measurefields and put up buildings. They also created a number system based on 60. Wehave them to thank for our 60-minute hour,60-second minute, and 360-degree circle.

In addition, Sumerian people watchedthe skies to learn the best times to plantcrops and to hold religious festivals. Theyrecorded the positions of the planets andstars and developed a 12-month calendarbased on the cycles of the moon.

Identify How did the useof mathematics benefit the Sumerians?

Today, both boys and girls go to school. They study reading,writing, mathematics, and many other

subjects. As students advance in theireducation, they have a great number of

career choices and are able to choose thecareer that fits their talents. In what way is

education different today than it was inMesopotamia?

Education

In ancient Mesopotamia, only boys fromwealthy and high-ranking families went to theedubba, which means “tablet house.” At theedubba—the world’s first school—boysstudied reading, writing, and mathematicsand trained to be scribes. For hours everyday, they copied the signs of thecuneiform script, trying to masterhundreds of wordsand phrases.

Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet

Students today

CHAPTER 1 • The First Civilizations 137(l)Mesopotamian Iraq Museum, Baghdad, Iraq/Giraudon/Bridgeman Art Library, (r)Will Hart/PhotoEdit

132-139 C1S2-868874 12/30/04 11:54 AM Page 137

HAMMURABIReigned c. 1792–1750 B.C.Hammurabi was a young man when he succeeded

his father, Sinmuballit, as king of Babylon. WhenHammurabi became king, Babylon was already a strongkingdom in Mesopotamia. During his reign, however,Hammurabi transformed Babylon from a small city-state into a large, powerful state. He also united theother city-states of Mesopotamia under one rule.

Hammurabi was directly involved in the ruling ofhis kingdom. He personally directed projects, such asbuilding city walls, restoring temples, and digging andcleaning irrigation canals. A great deal of planningwent into his projects. City streets, for example, werearranged in straight lines and intersected at rightangles, much like the way our cities are planned today.

One of Hammurabi’s goals was to control theEuphrates River because it provided water forBabylon’s farms and trade routes for cargo ships.He also needed to control the river’s annual floodingso that villages and crops would not be washed away.Hammurabi did this by issuing laws controlling the useof irrigation ditches. His laws protected the area andhelped bring water to the fields. That was one reason hedeveloped a strict law code, or collection of laws:damaged irrigation channels could cause many peopleto be injured or even killed.

Hammurabi fought for many years against hisenemies to control the river. He even used water todefeat them. Sometimes he would dam the river towithhold water needed for drinking and for crops, and then release a sudden damaging flood. Because of Hammurabi’s efforts, the center of power in Mesopotamia shifted from Sumer in the south to Babylon in the north where it remained for the next 1,000 years.

Find a copy of the Code of Hammurabi, either on-line or in a reference book. Notice the kinds ofsituations and the punishments that are described.How do these compare with current laws andpunishments that exist in the United States?

WH6.2.2 Trace the development ofagricultural techniques that permitted theproduction of economic surplus and theemergence of cities as centers of culture andpower.

WH6.2.4 Know the significance ofHammurabi's Code.

Hammurabi

138138

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Sargon and HammurabiSumerian city-states lost power when

they were conquered by outsiders.Reading Connection Have you heard of the RomanEmpire, the Aztec Empire, or the British Empire? Therise and fall of empires is an important part of history.Read on to learn about the first empires in the world.

Over time, conflicts weakened Sumer’scity-states. They became vulnerable to attacksby outside groups such as the Akkadians (uh•KAY • dee • uhnz) of northern Mesopotamia.

The king of the Akkadians was namedSargon (SAHR • GAHN). In about 2340 B.C.,Sargon conquered all of Mesopotamia creat-ing the world’s first empire. An empire (EHM•PYR) is a group of many different lands underone ruler. Sargon’s empire lasted for morethan 200 years before falling to invaders.

In the 1800s B.C., a new group of peoplebecame powerful in Mesopotamia. Theybuilt the city of Babylon (BA • buh • luhn) bythe Euphrates River. It quickly became acenter of trade. Beginning in 1792 B.C., theBabylonian king, Hammurabi (HA• muh• RAH•bee), began conquering cities to the north andsouth and created the Babylonian Empire.

Hammurabi is best known for his lawcode, or collection of laws. (See pages 140and 141.) The code covered crimes, farmingand business activities, and marriage and thefamily—almost every area of life. Before thelaw code, rulers could treat others nearly anyway they wanted. The code forced all peopleto follow the law in how they treated others.Hammurabi’s code influenced later lawcodes, including those of Greece and Rome.

Explain Why was Sargon’sempire important?

Study Central Need help understanding theSumerian civilization? Visit ca.hss.glencoe.comand click on Study Central.

Reading SummaryReview the • In time, farming villages devel-

oped into civilizations with governments, art, religion, writ-ing, and social class divisions.The first city-states developed in Mesopotamia.

• Many important ideas and inven-tions, including writing, the wheel,the plow, and a number systembased on 60, were developed inthe region of Mesopotamia.

• Several empires, including theBabylonian Empire, took controlof Mesopotamia.

1. What is a civilization?

2. What was the Code ofHammurabi?

Critical Thinking3. Summarize Information

Draw a chart like the one below.Use it to list the achievementsof Mesopotamians that helpedimprove their civilization’seconomy.

4. Geography Skills How didthe geography of Mesopotamiashape the growth of population and creation of a civilization?

5. How did theSumerian religion affectSumerian society?

6. Persuasive Writing Imagineyou are living in a city-state in ancient Sumer. Write a letterto a friend describing whichMesopotamian idea or inventionyou believe will be the mostimportant to humanity.

CA 6WS1.2

CA HI2.

CA CS3.

CA HI6.

What Did You Learn?

Achievements ofMesopotamian Civilization

WH6.2 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures of the early civilizations of Mesopotamia,Egypt, and Kush.

WH6.2.4 Know the significance of Hammurabi's Code.

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140

Hammurabi’s Laws:Fair or Cruel?

Around 1750 B.C., King Hamm

urabi

wrote 282 laws to govern the

people of

Babylon. Historians and schola

rs agree

that these ancient laws were th

e first to

cover almost all aspects of

society.

However, historians and scholar

s do not

agree whether Hammurabi’s law

s were

fair or cruel.

Those who see the laws as just

and

fair give the following reason

s. They

say the laws

• stated what all people needed

to

know about the rules of their

society

• brought order and justice to so

ciety

• regulated many different activ

ities,

from business contracts to crime.

King Hammurabi wrote an intr

o-

duction to his list of laws. In

that

introduction, he says that the

laws

were written to be fair. His inten

tion

was “to bring about the ru

le of

righteousness in the land, to

destroy

the wicked and evil-doers, s

o that

the strong should not har

m the

weak. . . .”

Some of the laws reflect t

hat

fairness.• Law 5: If a jud

ge makes an error

through his own fault when tryin

g

a case, he must pay a fine, be

removed from the judge’s bench

,

and never judge another case.

• Law 122: If someone gives som

e-

thing to someone else for safe-

keeping, the transaction should

be witnessed and a contract

made between the two parties.

• Law 233: If a contractor

builds a house for

someone and the

walls start to fall,

then the builder

must use his

own money

and labor to

make the

walls secure.

Fair

140

Stone monument showing Hammurabi (standing) and his code

WH6.2.4 Know thesignificance of Hammurabi'sCode.

Réu

nion

des

Mus

ées

Nat

iona

ux/A

rt R

esou

rce,

NY

140-141 C1YD-868874 12/30/04 12:06 PM Page 140

141

CruelSome historians and

scholars think

Hammurabi’s laws were cruel and

unjust. They say the laws

• called for violent punishments, often

death, for nonviolent crimes

• required different punishments for

accused persons of different social

classes

• allowed no explanation from an

accused person.

Some of the laws reflect this cruelty.

• Law 3: If someone falsely accuses

someone else of certain crimes, then

he shall be put to death.

• Law 22: If someone is caught in the

act of robbery, then he shall be put

to death.

• Law 195: If a son strikes his father,

the son’s hands shall be cut off.

• Law 202: If someone strikes a man

of higher rank, then he shall be

whipped 60 times in public.

141

Cuneiform tablet with the text of theintroduction to the Code of Hammurabi

Document-Based Questions

1. Why do some people thinkHammurabi’s laws were fair?

2. Why do others think the lawswere cruel?

3. Were the laws fair or cruel? Takethe role of a historian. Write abrief essay that explains how you view Hammurabi’s laws.Be sure to use facts to supportyour position. You can compareHammurabi’s laws to our modern laws to support yourargument. CA 6RC2.7CA HR5.

CA HR5.

CA HR5.

Louv

re,

Par

is/B

ridge

man

Art

Lib

rary

140-141 C1YD-868874 12/30/04 12:07 PM Page 141

New EmpiresLooking Back, Looking Ahead

In Section 2, you learned about theempires of Sargon and Hammurabi.Later empires—those of the Assyriansand the Chaldeans—used theirmilitary power in new ways.

Focusing on the • Assyria’s military power and well-

organized government helped it build a vast empire in Mesopotamiaby 650 B.C. (page 143)

• The Chaldean Empire built importantlandmarks in Babylon and developedthe first calendar with a seven-dayweek. (page 145)

Locating PlacesAssyria (uh•SIHR•ee•uh)Persian Gulf (PUHR•zhuhn)Nineveh (NIH•nuh•vuh)Hanging Gardens

Meeting PeopleNebuchadnezzar

(NEH•byuh•kuhd•NEH•zuhr)

Content Vocabularyprovince (PRAH•vuhns)caravan (KAR•uh•VAN)astronomer

(uh•STRAH•nuh•muhr)

Academic Vocabularycore (KOHR)interval (IHN•tuhr•vuhl)route (ROWT)

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast Complete a Venn diagram like the one belowlisting the similarities and differencesbetween the Assyrian Empire and theChaldean Empire.

Assyrians Chaldeans

c. 900 B.C.Assyrians controlMesopotamia

612 B.C.Nineveh captured;Assyrian Empirecrumbles

539 B.C.Persians conquerChaldeans

900 B.C. 700 B.C. 500 B.C.900 B.C. 700 B.C. 500 B.C.Nineveh

Babylon

HistorySocial ScienceStandardsWH6.2 Studentsanalyze the geographic,political, economic,religious, and socialstructures of the earlycivilizations of Mesopo-tamia, Egypt, and Kush.


142-147 C1S3-868874 12/30/04 12:17 PM Page 142


The Assyrians Assyria’s military power and well-

organized government helped it build a vast empirein Mesopotamia by 650 B.C.Reading Connection Today, many countries havearmed forces to protect their interests. Read to dis-cover how the Assyrians built an army strong enough toconquer all of Mesopotamia.

About 1,000 years after Hammurabi, anew empire arose in Mesopotamia. It wasfounded by a people called the Assyrians(uh •SIHR •ee •uhns), who lived in the northnear the Tigris River. Assyria (uh•SIHR•ee•uh) had fertile valleys that attracted outsideinvaders. To defend their land, the Assyriansbuilt a large army. Around 900 B.C., theybegan taking over the rest of Mesopotamia.

Why Were the Assyrians So Strong? TheAssyrian military was well organized. At itscore were groups of foot soldiers armedwith spears and daggers. Other soldierswere experts at using bows and arrows. Thearmy also had chariot riders and soldierswho fought on horseback.

This fearsome and mighty force was thefirst large army to use iron weapons. Forcenturies, iron had been used for tools, butit was too soft to serve as a material forweapons. Then a people called the Hittites(HIH•TYTZ), who lived northwest of Assyria,developed a way of making iron stronger.They heated iron ore, hammered it, andrapidly cooled it. The Assyrians learnedthis technique from the Hittites. They pro-duced iron weapons that were strongerthan those made of copper or tin.

The Assyrians at WarThe Assyrians at War

When attacking a walled city, the Assyrians used massive war machines.The wheeled battering ram was powered by soldiers. It was covered to protect the soldiers inside, but it had slits so they could shoot arrows out.What other methods did Assyrian soldiers use to attack cities?

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Assyrian kings divided the empire intoprovinces (PRAH • vuhn • suhs), or politicaldistricts. They chose officials to govern eachprovince. The job of these officials was tocollect taxes and enforce the king’s laws.

Assyrian kings built roads to join allparts of their empire. Government soldierswere posted at stations along the way toprotect traders from bandits. Messengers ongovernment business used the stations torest and change horses.

Life in Assyria The Assyrians lived muchlike other Mesopotamians. Their writing wasbased on Babylonian writing, and they wor-shiped many of the same gods. Their lawswere similar, but lawbreakers often facedmore brutal and cruel punishments inAssyria.

As builders, the Assyrians showed greatskill. They erected large temples and palacesthat they filled with wall carvings and stat-ues. The Assyrians also produced and col-lected literature. One of the world’s firstlibraries was in Nineveh. It held 25,000tablets of stories and songs to the gods.Modern historians have learned much aboutancient civilizations from this library.

Explain Why were theAssyrian soldiers considered brutal and cruel?

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TyreJerusalem

Thebes

Nineveh

Babylon

1. Location What major rivers werepart of the Assyrian Empire?

2. Human/Environment InteractionWhat geographical features mayhave kept the Assyrians fromexpanding their empire to thenorth and south?

Assyrian Empire

Assyrianwinged bullstatues stoodas guardians atcity gates.

Assyrian EmpireKEY

The Assyrians were ferocious warriors.To attack cities, they tunneled under wallsor climbed over them on ladders. Theyloaded tree trunks onto movable platformsand used them as battering rams to knockdown city gates. Once a city was captured,the Assyrians set fire to its buildings. Theyalso carried away its people and goods.

Anyone who resisted Assyrian rule waspunished. The Assyrians drove people fromtheir lands and moved them into foreignterritory. Then they brought in new settlersand forced them to pay heavy taxes.

A Well-Organized Government Assyriankings had to be strong to rule their largeempire. By about 650 B.C., the empire stretchedfrom the Persian Gulf (PUHR • zhuhn) in theeast to Egypt’s Nile River in the west. Thecapital was at Nineveh (NIH • nuh • vuh) onthe Tigris River.

Boltin Picture Library

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The ChaldeansThe Chaldean Empire built important

landmarks in Babylon and developed the first calen-dar with a seven-day week.Reading Connection What landmarks exist in yourtown or the nearest city? Read to learn some of the spe-cial landmarks that made the Chaldean capital ofBabylon famous.

Assyria’s cruel treatment of people ledto many rebellions. About 650 B.C., theAssyrians began fighting each other overwho would be their next king. Because theAssyrians were not united, a group of peo-ple called the Chaldeans (kahl•DEE•uhns)were able to rebel.

The Chaldean people had moved fromthe Arabian Peninsula into southernMesopotamia about 1000 B.C. Their smallkingdom was quickly conquered by theAssyrians but the Chaldeans hated theirnew rulers. With the Assyrians busy fight-ing each other, King Nabopolassar of the

Web Activity Visit ca.hss.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 1—Student Web Activity tolearn more about the first civilizations.

Chaldeans decided the time had come tofight back.

In 627 B.C. Nabopolassar led his peoplein rebellion against the Assyrians. TheChaldeans joined with the Medes, anotherpeople in the region who wanted to breakfree from the Assyrians. Together theChaldeans and Medes defeated Assyria’sarmy. In 612 B.C. they captured the Assyriancapital of Nineveh and finally put an end tothe hated Assyrian empire.

Nabopolassar and his son, the famousKing Nebuchadnezzar (NEH•byuh•khud•NEH • zuhr), then went on to build theirown empire. By 605 B.C., the Chaldeans had

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. A complex irrigation system brought water from the EuphratesRiver to the top of the gardens. From there,the water flowed down to each of the lower levels of the gardens. What othersights made Babylon a grand city?

Ruins of the Hanging Gardens

Hanging GardensHanging Gardens

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These terraced gardens showcased largetrees, masses of flowering vines, and otherbeautiful plants. A pump brought in waterfrom a nearby river. Nebuchadnezzar builtthe gardens to please his wife, who missedthe mountains and plants of her homelandin the northwest.

One Greek historian in the 400s B.C.described the beauty of Babylon. He wrote,“In magnificence, there is no other city thatapproaches it.” Outside the center ofBabylon stood houses and marketplaces.There, artisans made pottery, cloth, baskets,and jewelry. They sold their wares to pass-ing caravans (KAR • uh • VANZ), or groups oftraveling merchants. Because Babylon waslocated on the major trade route betweenthe Persian Gulf and the MediterraneanSea, it became rich from trade.

conquered nearly all of the lands theAssyrians had ruled. They made Babylonthe capital of their empire, and because ofthis, the Chaldean Empire is sometimescalled the New Babylonian Empire.

The City of Babylon The Chaldeans rebuiltthe city of Babylon as the glorious center oftheir empire. The city became the world’slargest and richest city. It was surrounded bya brick wall so wide that two chariots couldpass on the road on top of it. Built into thewall at 100-yard (91.4-m) intervals weretowers where soldiers kept watch.

Large palaces and temples stood in thecity’s center. A huge ziggurat reached morethan 300 feet (91.4 m) into the sky. Anothermarvel, visible from any point in Babylon,was an immense staircase of greenery: theHanging Gardens at the king’s palace.

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SusaBabylon

Chaldean Empire c. 605 B.C.

Original Chaldean settlementFarthest extent of Chaldean Empire

KEY

1. Location How far apart are thecities of Susa and Damascus?

2. Region How were thegeographical locations of theoriginal Chaldean settlement andJudah similar?

S. Fiore/SuperStock

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Babylon was also a center of science.Like earlier people in Mesopotamia, theChaldeans believed that changes in the sky revealed the plans of the gods. Theirastronomers (uh • STRAH • nuh • muhrs)—peo-ple who study the heavenly bodies—mapped the stars, the planets, and thephases of the moon. The Chaldeans madeone of the first sundials and were the first todevelop a seven-day week.

Why Did the Empire Fall? A number ofweak leaders, along with poor harvests anddecreased trade, caused the Chaldeans tolose their power. In 539 B.C. Persians fromthe northeast captured Babylon and madeMesopotamia part of the new PersianEmpire.

Identify What were theHanging Gardens of Babylon?


The Ishtar Gate was at the main entrance to ancient Babylon. Describe the wall that surrounded Babylon.

Reading SummaryReview the • Using cavalry and foot soldiers

armed with iron weapons, theAssyrians created a large empirethat included all of Mesopotamia and extended into Egypt.

• The Chaldeans built a largeempire in Mesopotamia thatincluded Babylon, the largest andrichest city in the world at thattime.

Study Central Need help understanding theAssyrians and Chaldeans? Visit ca.hss.glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

1. Why was the Assyrian army a powerful fighting force?

2. What were some of theaccomplishments of Chaldeanastronomers?

Critical Thinking3. Summarize Information

Draw a chart like the onebelow. Use it to describe the city of Babylon and why itbecame powerful.

4. Analyze How did theAssyrians set up a well-organized government?

5. Why do youthink the Assyrians took con-quered peoples from theirlands and moved them toother places?

6. Explain Why did theChaldeans join with the Medesto fight the Assyrians?

7. Science Link What differenttypes of knowledge and skillswould the Babylonians need to build the Hanging Gardens?

8. PosingQuestions Write four ques-tions about the Chaldeans youwould like answered. Use thelibrary and Internet to researchand write answers to yourquestions. CA HR1.

CA 6RC2.3

CA HI1.

CA CS3.

CA 6RC2.0

CA HI2.

Babylon Under Chaldeans

What Did You Learn?

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Cave PaintingOne of the earliest forms of communicationwas through art. Beginning around 30,000 B.C.,people began to crush rocks to make powderfor painting on cave walls. The images theypainted include animals, hunting scenes, andpeople engaged in various activities. Thesepaintings may have had a religious meaningor may have been intended to record events.

Ancient Forms of Communication

Long before the rise of civilization, early people expressed themselvesthrough paintings. People may have used these images to explain the universe.Later, people in Mesopotamia began using writing not only to express theirideas, but also to record important events and tell stories. These include epicstories of heroes, proverbs about how to live properly, and law codes.

Study the painting and the passages that follow, and then answer the ques-tions on page 149.

old ones: the elders or leaders of thecity

Enkidu (ehn•KEE•doo): Gilgamesh’sfriend and traveling companion

Reader’s Dictionary


Sculpture ofchariot fromMesopotamia

This cave painting is in Lascaux, France.The cave is filled with images drawn orcarved by people during the PaleolithicAge, about 15,000 years ago. Theimages show animals and people, andtell stories about Paleolithic life.

WH6.2.9 Trace theevolution of languageand its written forms.

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Advice for GilgameshThe Epic of Gilgamesh is a legend about thetravels of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk in Babylonia.It was written about 2000 B.C. In the followingpassage, Gilgamesh is warned about going on adangerous adventure alone.The old ones shaped their mouths and spoke,

saying to Gilgamesh,“Do not trust all that strength of yours,

Gilgamesh.Make sure your eyes are wide, your blow cer-

tain.

The one who walks in front guards his friend;the one who knows the way safeguards his

companion.

Let Enkidu go before you as you march;he knows the way of the forest, to the cedars.He has seen battle, understands warfare.Enkidu will watch over the friend, make the

way safe for his companion.”

—Gilgamesh, John Gardner and John Maier, trans.

The Code of HammurabiThe following is law seven from the Code ofHammurabi. He ruled Babylon from around 1792 B.C. to 1750 B.C.

7. If any one buy from the son or the slave ofanother man, without witnesses or a con-tract, silver or gold, a male or female slave,an ox or a sheep, an ass or anything, or if hetake it in charge, he is considered a thief andshall be put to death.

—“Code of Hammurabi,” L.W. King, trans.

Cave Painting1. What kind of animals are shown?

2. Why do you think this image was painted?

Advice for Gilgamesh3. What do the old ones tell Gilgamesh to do

instead of relying on his strength? Why?

4. Why do the old ones think it is a good ideafor Enkidu to accompany Gilgamesh?

The Code of Hammurabi5. What is the punishment for making a deal

without a witness or a contract?

6. Do you think the punishment would be thesame if there were a witness or a contract?Why?

Read to Write7. How do you think the author of the Epic of

Gilgamesh would have used words to expressthe image of the cave painting?

8. Based on the primary sources, explain whatvalues you think were important to people inancient Mesopotamia. How do these valuescompare to ours today? CA HI2.; HR4.


Stone monument showing Hammurabi(standing)


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Standards WH6.1 & WH6.2


Review Content Vocabulary1. Write a brief paragraph that describes and

compares the following terms. archaeologist artifact

fossil anthropologist

Indicate which of the following statements aretrue. Replace the word in italics to make anyfalse statements true.

___ 2. An artisan kept records in cuneiform.___ 3. Assyrian kings divided their empire

into political districts called provinces.___ 4. A civilization is a group of many differ-

ent lands under one ruler.

Review the Section 1 • Early Humans

5. How did Paleolithic people adapt to theirenvironment?

6. What were the major differences betweenpeople who lived in the Paleolithic periodand those who lived in the Neolithicperiod?

Section 2 • Mesopotamian Civilization7. Where were the first civilizations in

Mesopotamia?8. What kinds of contributions did

Sumerians make?9. How did Sumerian city-states lose power?

Section 3 • New Empires10. What helped Assyria build an empire in

Mesopotamia?11. What scientific advancement did the

Chaldeans make?

Critical Thinking12. Explain Why do you think Mesopotamia

is sometimes called the “cradle of civilization”?

13. Analyze Why was the development offarming called a revolution? CA HI3.

CA 6RC2.3

Mercator projection2,000 km0

2,000 mi.0

EQUATOR

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Spread of Early Humans

Movement ofearly humans

KEY

14. Describe What rights did women have inthe city-states of Sumer?

15. Predict How successful do you think theAssyrian army would have been if it hadnot learned how to strengthen iron?

Geography SkillsStudy the map below and answer the follow-ing questions.16. Location On what continent was the

earliest fossil evidence of humans found?

17. Movement Based on fossil evidence,where did early humans go first, Europe or Australia?

18. Analyze Which three continents are notshown on this map? How do you thinkearly humans reached those continents?

CA CS3.

CA CS3.

CA CS3.

CA HI4.

CA 6RC2.0

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Select the best answer for eachof the following questions.

Which of these was a purposeof the ziggurat in ancientMesopotamia?

A weapon storageB schoolhouseC office for recording votesD temple for worship

The importance of ancientpoems such as the Epic ofGilgamesh is that they continueto provide people with

A historically accurate descriptions of events.

B fantastic adventures with greatheroes.

C a deeper understanding offuture events.

D stories about real, historic people.

27

26


Read to Write19. Expository Writing Most of

what we know about early humanscomes from scientific discoveries. Writetwo to three paragraphs explaining howthese scientists help historians gatherinformation about the past.

20. Using Your Use your Chapter 1foldable to create an illustrated time line.Your time line should extend from the date Jericho was founded to the fall of the Chaldean Empire. Create drawings orphotocopy maps, artifacts, or architectureto illustrate your time line.

Using Academic Vocabulary21. Use the words listed below as you write a

two- to three-paragraph summary ofChapter 1. Make sure that you cover all ofthe important events and cultures thatappear in the chapter.

task coderevolution corecomplex intervalconsist route

Economics Connection22. Persuasive Writing Suppose you are a

merchant in Çatal Hüyük. A new group ofpeople wants to trade with your village.Write a short speech to persuade your vil-lage that there are economic benefits totrading with other people.

Linking Past and Present23. Analyzing Information Imagine you are

a nomad who travels from place to placeto hunt and gather food. What thingswould you carry with you to help you sur-vive? Make a list of items and discuss itwith your classmates.

Reviewing Skills24. Previewing Imagine that a

friend has to read Section 3. Write a fewparagraphs telling him or her how topreview the section. CA 6RC2.4

CA 6RC2.4

CA HI6.

CA HI1.

CA 6WS1.3

CA 6WA2.2

Self-Check Quiz To help you prepare forthe Chapter Test, visit ca.hss.glencoe.com

25. Researching Many impor-tant scientific discoveries, such as Lucy in1974, changed the way that scientistsunderstand early human history. Use yourlocal library to research the discovery byanthropologist Tim White in 1992. Whatkind of new information did this discoveryprovide about early hominids? Write aresearch paper describing the importanceof this discovery. CA HI5.

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Discovering Our Past: Ancient CivilizationsTable of ContentsA Guide to California Content StandardsCorrelation to the California StandardsPreviewing Your TextbookScavenger HuntReading Skills HandbookNational Geographic Reference AtlasWorld: PoliticalWorld: PhysicalEurope: PoliticalEurope: PhysicalMiddle East: Physical/PoliticalAfrica: PoliticalAfrica: PhysicalAsia: PoliticalAsia: PhysicalNorth America: PoliticalNorth America: PhysicalMiddle America: Physical/PoliticalSouth America: PoliticalSouth America: PhysicalPacific Rim: Physical/PoliticalWorld's PeopleWorld: Land UsePolar Regions

National Geographic Geography HandbookHow Do I Study Geography?How Do I Use Maps and Globes?Understanding Latitude and LongitudeFrom Globes to MapsCommon Map ProjectionsParts of MapsTypes of MapsUsing Graphs, Charts, and DiagramsGeographic Dictionary

Tools of the HistorianMeasuring TimeOrganizing TimeHistory and GeographyWhat Is a Historical Atlas?How Does a Historian Work?Making Sense of the PastLinks Across Time

Unit 1: Mesopotamia, Egypt, and IsraelChapter 1: The First CivilizationsReading Skill: Previewing Section 1: Early HumansSection 2: Mesopotamian CivilizationSection 3: New EmpiresChapter 1 Assessment

Chapter 2: Ancient Egypt and KushReading Skill: SummarizingSection 1: The Nile ValleySection 2: Egypt's Old KingdomSection 3: The Egyptian EmpireSection 4: The Civilization of KushChapter 2 Assessment

Chapter 3: The Ancient IsraelitesReading Skill: Making ConnectionsSection 1: The First IsraelitesSection 2: The Kingdom of IsraelSection 3: The Growth of JudaismChapter 3 Assessment

Unit 1 Review

Unit 2: India, China, and the AmericasChapter 4: Early IndiaReading Skill: QuestioningSection 1: India's First CivilizationsSection 2: Hinduism and BuddhismSection 3: India's First EmpiresChapter 4 Assessment

Chapter 5: Early ChinaReading Skill: MonitoringSection 1: China's First CivilizationsSection 2: Life in Ancient ChinaSection 3: The Qin and Han DynastiesChapter 5 Assessment

Chapter 6: The Ancient AmericasReading Skill: Taking NotesSection 1: The First AmericansSection 2: The Mayan PeopleChapter 6 Assessment

Unit 2 Review

Unit 3: The Greeks and RomansChapter 7: The Ancient GreeksReading Skill: Comparing and ContrastingSection 1: The Early GreeksSection 2: Sparta and AthensSection 3: Persia Attacks the GreeksSection 4: The Age of PericlesChapter 7 Assessment

Chapter 8: Greek CivilizationReading Skill: VisualizingSection 1: The Culture of Ancient GreeceSection 2: Greek Philosophy and HistorySection 3: Alexander the GreatSection 4: The Spread of Greek CultureChapter 8 Assessment

Chapter 9: The Rise of RomeReading Skill: Making InferencesSection 1: Rome's BeginningsSection 2: The Roman RepublicSection 3: The Fall of the RepublicSection 4: The Early EmpireChapter 9 Assessment

Chapter 10: Roman CivilizationReading Skill: Making PredictionsSection 1: Life in Ancient RomeSection 2: The Fall of RomeSection 3: The Byzantine EmpireChapter 10 Assessment

Chapter 11: The Rise of Christianity Reading Skill: Identifying Cause and EffectSection 1: The First ChristiansSection 2: The Christian ChurchSection 3: The Spread of Christian IdeasChapter 11 Assessment

Unit 3 Review

AppendixWhat Is an Appendix?SkillBuilder HandbookCalifornia Standards HandbookGlossarySpanish GlossaryGazetteerIndexAcknowledgements and Photo Credits

Feature ContentsPrimary SourceAnalyzing Primary SourcesWorld LiteratureBiographySkillBuilder HandbookNational Geographic: History MakersLinking Past & PresentNational Geographic: The Way It WasYou Decide . . .Primary Source QuotesMaps, Charts, Graphs, and Diagrams

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