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Sustainability 2014, 6 , 193-216; doi:10.3390/su6010193

sustainabilityISSN 2071-1050

www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Article

Integrating Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in thePost-2015 Development Agenda: Goal Structure, Target Areasand Means of Implementation

Paul L. Lucas 1,*, Marcel T.J. Kok 1, Måns Nilsson 2,3 and Rob Alkemade 1

1 PBL Netherlands Environment Assessment Agency, Postbus 303, 3720 AH, Bilthoven,

The Netherlands; E-Mails: [email protected] (M.T.J.K.); [email protected] (R.A.)2 Stockholm Environment Institute, Linnégatan 87 D, Stockholm 115 23, Sweden;

E-Mail: [email protected] KTH Royal Institute of Technology, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, Division of

Environmental Strategies Research, Drottning Kristinas väg 30, Stockholm 100 44, Sweden

* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected];

Tel.: +31-030-274-4549.

Received: 1 November 2013; in revised form: 16 December 2013 / Accepted: 17 December 2013 / Published: 27 December 2013

Abstract: The United Nations’ discussions on defining a new set of post-2015

development goals focus on poverty eradication and sustainable development. Biodiversity

and ecosystem services are essential for poverty eradication, which is also one of the

foundations of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity of the Convention on Biological

Diversity (CBD). Based on an assessment of current proposals of goals and targets, and a

quantitative pathway analysis to meet long term biodiversity and food security goals, this paper discusses how biodiversity and ecosystem services can be integrated into a broad set

of goals and targets, and concludes with relevant target areas and means of implementation

for which specific targets need to be defined. Furthermore, it responds to the call of the

CBD to consider the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity and the related Aichi biodiversity

targets in the post-2015 development agenda. The paper’s analysis identifies three

overlapping but also supplemental ways to integrate biodiversity and ecosystem services in

the post-2015 agenda: integrated goals, goals addressing earth system functioning and goals

addressing environmental limits. It further concludes seven target areas to be included

under the goals to address biodiversity and ecosystem services in the context of food andagriculture: access to food, demand for agricultural products, sustainable intensification,

ecosystem fragmentation, protected areas, essential ecosystem services and genetic

OPEN ACCESS



Sustainability 2014, 6 206

Target area 2b on ecosystem fragmentation can benefit from Aichi target 5 on habitat loss, while target

area 2c on protected areas can benefit from the Aichi targets under Goal C on safeguarding

ecosystems, species and genetic diversity (Aichi targets 11 and 12). The pathway analysis does not

directly address the third tier, global public goods. However, this tier could be addressed by targets

regarding earth system functioning and/or by including targets on environmental limits. The first

option — earth system functioning — includes targets on essential ecosystem services (Aichi targets 14

and 15), and targets on genetic diversity (Aichi target 13). The second option — environmental

limits — could be addressed by Aichi targets 4 and 6.

Figure 2. Target areas for biodiversity and ecosystem services in the post-2015

development agenda, with a focus on food and agriculture.

Source: Adapted from Nilsson, et al . [62].

The question of whether the proposed target areas should be part of a headline goal or incorporated

into other goals is a critical discussion. Experience with the MDGs suggests that a separate goal on

environmental sustainability is not conducive to an integrated approach on poverty eradication and

sustainability development. How to deal with these inter-linkages in a pragmatic way is not clear.

As discussed in Section 3, possibilities for goal architecture include separate or integrated goals, goals

addressing the earth system functioning and goals addressing environmental limits and resource limits.

As these three options are partly overlapping but also supplemental, a mixed approach might also be

considered, where an integrated goal on food security and sustainable use is complemented with a

headline goal that addresses the earth system functioning and/or resource limits and environmental

limits. The integrated goal then includes the proposed target areas grouped under human well-being

and the resource base, while the headline goal specifically includes the target areas that are grouped

under global public goods. Such an approach is applied in many of the recent proposals [35,38,40 – 42].

It should be noted that besides food and agriculture there are many other thematic areas to which

biodiversity and ecosystem services are related, including water, oceans, energy, climate, forests,

health, etc. [4]. Although some of these themes might be included under the third tier — global public

goods, addressing essential ecosystem services and genetic diversity — most require additional target

areas. Furthermore, cultural ecosystem services are not addressed in the analysis, while they are very

relevant for human well-being, both in rich and poor countries [17]. A third omission is the role of




biodiversity in the provision of micro-nutrients as an important part of food security [63,64]. On all

these issues there is a long strand of literature, which should be taken into account when designing the

full set of goals and targets. Nevertheless, the seven target areas included in Figure 2 provide a basis

for this. Several target areas, especially those addressing access and sustainable intensification, are also

applicable to other themes beyond food security and agriculture, especially energy and water.

5.2. Means of Implementation — Enabling Conditions for Delivery

It can often be difficult to establish targets that can be measured and monitored for complex goals

such as alternative consumption patterns or sustainable intensification of agriculture. When ultimate

goals are hard to measure, one can monitor accomplishments within the means of implementation

instead, as the necessary enabling conditions for achieving the goals [14]. Here, the Strategic Goals

and Aichi targets may offer potential, as several means of implementation are actually encapsulated in

Strategic Goals A (mainstreaming biodiversity) and E (enhancing implementation). Generally, goalsand targets on means of implementation are qualitative in nature and concern the implementation of

certain measures according to a certain time table. They may be disaggregated as interim targets over

time, into a number of steps of preparation and implementation. Below are some illustrative examples.

Building capacity and knowledge is the most fundamental means. Here, targets could be set for

building capacities for data collection and monitoring, performance measurement, and organized

knowledge exchange. These issues are in fact addressed by Aichi target 1 on creating awareness and

Aichi targets 17 – 19 on traditional and biodiversity knowledge. The issue of knowledge exchange is

particularly salient: often it is not a lack of data that is the main problem, but the tendency to isolate

and hold on to data, and interpret it with a narrow organizational mandate and frame. Because of its

place-based character in biodiversity and ecosystems, the issue of local knowledge systems, including

indigenous knowledge, is especially relevant. The recently established IPBES that will serve the

science-policy interface will need to play an important role in, particularly, broader constituencies in

key sectors like agriculture, forestry and fisheries and across different scales (from local to

international). Implementation would not necessarily be national in scale, but would rather reflect the

build-up of local to national to international and interagency knowledge systems. In addition to expert

knowledge systems, a particular field of intervention is to enhance the knowledge base among citizens

about food consumption choices and their impacts on biodiversity.

Enabling institutions and governance is the next level of implementation. Here, focus could be on

the establishment of rule systems for agriculture, forestry and food production. Such aspects are not

included under the Aichi targets. The emerging trend of business and biodiversity may provide a good

entry point to establish new normative, institutional and governance frameworks that go beyond

traditional governmental policies. Examples include systems that limit the use of certain crops and

inputs in certain vulnerable zones as well as direct land use control through zoning and permitting.

Integrated land-use planning is required, where biodiversity and ecosystem services are taken into

account. Here, landscape approaches could provide an important perspective to bring together food

production, water use and nature conservation at higher levels of aggregation, to develop institutionalmechanisms that are able to deal with the many competing claims on the land [65]. Biodiversity




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Appendix

Table A1. The Aichi Biodiversity Targets.

Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity

across government and society

Target 1By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can

take to conserve and use it sustainably.

Target 2

By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been integrated into national and local

development and poverty reduction strategies and planning processes and are being

incorporated into national accounting, as appropriate, and reporting systems.

Target 3

By 2020, at the latest, incentives, including subsidies, harmful to biodiversity are eliminated,

phased out or reformed in order to minimize or avoid negative impacts, and positive

incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are developed and

applied, consistent and in harmony with the Convention and other relevant international

obligations, taking into account national socio economic conditions.

Target 4

By 2020, at the latest, Governments, business and stakeholders at all levels have taken steps

to achieve or have implemented plans for sustainable production and consumption and have

kept the impacts of use of natural resources well within safe ecological limits.

Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use

Target 5By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests, is at least halved and where

feasible brought close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation is significantly reduced.

Target 6

By 2020 all fish and invertebrate stocks and aquatic plants are managed and harvested

sustainably, legally and applying ecosystem based approaches, so that overfishing is

avoided, recovery plans and measures are in place for all depleted species, fisheries have nosignificant adverse impacts on threatened species and vulnerable ecosystems and the impacts

of fisheries on stocks, species and ecosystems are within safe ecological limits.

Target 7By 2020 areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably, ensuring

conservation of biodiversity.

Target 8By 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients, has been brought to levels that are not

detrimental to ecosystem function and biodiversity.

Target 9

By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species

are controlled or eradicated, and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their

introduction and establishment.

Target 10By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerableecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to

maintain their integrity and functioning.

Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and

genetic diversity

Target 11

By 2020, at least 17 percent of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 percent of coastal and

marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem

services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically

representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based

conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes.

Target 12 By 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and theirconservation status, particularly of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained.




Table A1. Cont.

Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and

genetic diversity

Target 13

By 2020, the genetic diversity of cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and

of wild relatives, including other socio-economically as well as culturally valuable species, is

maintained, and strategies have been developed and implemented for minimizing genetic

erosion and safeguarding their genetic diversity.

Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services

Target 14

By 2020, ecosystems that provide essential services, including services related to water, and

contribute to health, livelihoods and well-being, are restored and safeguarded, taking into

account the needs of women, indigenous and local communities, and the poor and vulnerable.

Target 15

By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks has been

enhanced, through conservation and restoration, including restoration of at least 15 per cent

of degraded ecosystems, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation

and to combating desertification.

Target 16

By 2015, the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable

Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization is in force and operational, consistent with

national legislation.

Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge

management and capacity building

Target 17

By 2015 each Party has developed, adopted as a policy instrument, and has commenced

implementing an effective, participatory and updated national biodiversity strategy and

action plan.

Target 18

By 2020, the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and localcommunities relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and their

customary use of biological resources, are respected, subject to national legislation and

relevant international obligations, and fully integrated and reflected in the implementation of

the Convention with the full and effective participation of indigenous and local communities,

at all relevant levels.

Target 19

By 2020, knowledge, the science base and technologies relating to biodiversity, its values,

functioning, status and trends, and the consequences of its loss, are improved, widely shared

and transferred, and applied.

Target 20

By 2020, at the latest, the mobilization of financial resources for effectively implementing

the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011 – 2020 from all sources, and in accordance with theconsolidated and agreed process in the Strategy for Resource Mobilization, should increase

substantially from the current levels. This target will be subject to changes contingent to

resource needs assessments to be developed and reported by Parties.

© 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article

distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

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