10/24/20151 introduction to english syntax syntax: the analysis of sentence structure
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Introduction to English Syntax
Syntax: The analysis of sentence structure
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Syntax: The definition
Syntax >> The system of rules and categories that allows words to be combined to form sentences in human language. Syntax is concerned with the ways in which words can be combined together to form phrases and sentences.
A sentence is grammatical if speakers judge it to be a possible sentence of their language
Example:
1. *House painted student a the.
2. A student painted the house.
Thus, example 2) is a grammatical sentence of English, but 1) is not.
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Categories & Structure A fundamental fact about words in all human
languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Grammatical/Syntactic categories.
A grammatical category is a class of expressions which share a common set of grammatical properties.
This classification reflects a variety of factors, including the type of meaning that words express, the type of affixes that they take, and the type of structures in which they can occur.
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Word-level CategoriesLexical Categories Examples
Noun (N) Harry, boy, wheat, policy, moisture, bravery
Verb (V) arrive, discuss, melt, hear, remain, dislike
Adjective (A) good, tall, old, intelligent, beautiful, fond
Preposition (P) to, in, on, near, at, by
Adverb (Adv) silently, slowly, quietly, quickly, now
Non-lexical categories Examples
Determiner (Det) the, a, this, these
Degree word (Deg) too, so, very, more, quite
Qualifier (Qual) always, perhaps, often, never, almost
Auxiliary (Aux) will, can, may, must, should, could
Conjunction (Con) and, or, but
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Note: A potential source of confusion in the area of word classification stem from the fact that some items can belong to more than one category, e.g. comb, watch, etc.
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Semantic criteria > MeaningOne criteria involves meaning. Noun, for instance, typically name entities such as
individual (Paijo, Tessy) and objects (book, desk). Verbs characteristically designate actions (run, jump),
sensation (feel, hurt), and state (be, remain). Adjectives is to designate a property or attribute of the
entities donated by noun (tall, handsome) Adverbs typically denote properties and attributes of the
actions, sensations, and states designated by verbs (quickly, early).
Unfortunately, a word’s category membership does not always bear such a straightforward relationship to its meaning. For example, there are abstract nouns such as difficulty, truth, and likelihood.
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Morpho-syntactic Criteria
Category Inflectional affix Examples
Noun Plural –s books, chairs, doctorsVerb Past tense –ed hunted, watched,
judgesProgressive –ing hunting, watching,
judgingAdjective Comparative –er taller, faster, smarter
Superlative –est tallest, fastest, smartest
Inflection : These criteria have to do with inflectional suffixes
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Syntactic Criteria > Distribution
Category Distribution property
Noun occurrence with a determiner
For example: a car, the wheat
Verb occurrence with an auxiliary
For example: has gone, will stay
Adjective occurrence with a degree word
For example: very rich, too big
The syntactic criteria for word classes are based on what words a given word occurs with and the types of phrase in which a given word occurs.
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Phrase structure
Sentences are not formed by simply stringing words together like beads on a necklace. Rather, sentences have a hierarchical design in which words are grouped together into successfully larger structural units.
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HeadPhrases are built around a ‘skeleton’ consisting of two levels.
N V A P
NP VP AP PP Phrase Level
Word Level
Note: It is possible to have a phrase in which only the head position is filled
N
NP
books(he likes)
V
VP
eat(all animals)
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Specifiers
Semantically, specifiers help to make more precise the meaning of the head. They are determiner (Det), qualifier (Qual), and degree words (Deg).
Syntactically, specifiers typically mark a phrase boundary. In English, specifiers occur at the left boundary (the beginning) of their respective phrases.
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the books
Det N
NP
never eat
Qual V
VP
quite certain
Deg A
AP
almost in
Deg P
PP
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ComplementsComplements are elements, which are themselves phrases, provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. For example, the meaning of “eat” implies an object that is eaten, the meaning of “in” implies a location, and so on.
A vegetarian should never eat [a hamburger].
head complement the thing eaten
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never eat a hamburger
Qual V Det N
VP
NP
A VP consisting of a head, a specifier, and a complement
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A NP consisting of a head, a specifier, and a complement
the book
Det N
NP
PP
about the war
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An AP consisting of a head, a specifier, and a complement
quite certain
Deg A
AP
PP
about Mary
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A PP consisting of a head, a specifier, and a complement
almost in
Deg P
PP
NP
the house
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Phrase structure rule
NP > (Det) N (PP)
VP > (Qual) V (NP)
AP > (Deg) A (PP)
PP > (Deg) P (NP)
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Sentences The largest unit of syntactic analysis is the
sentence (S). A sentence combines an NP (often called the subject) with a VP.
The (S) rule: S > NP VP
A scientist discovered the answer
Det N V Det N
NP
NP
VP
S
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The above analysis assumes that S is special in the sense that, unlike other phrases, it does not have internal structure (with head, a complement, and a specifier). However, many linguists now believe that S is essentially similar to other phrases and has the structure as follow:
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discovered
V
NP VP
InflP (=S)
the answer
Det N
NP
Infl
A scientist
Det N
Pst
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VP
InflP(=S)
discover
V
the answer
Det N
NP
InflNP
A scientist
Det N
will
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Complement ClausesAll human languages allow sentence-like construction to function as complement.
Example:[The psychic knows [that/whether/if the contestant will win]]
* The smaller bracketed phrase is called a complement clause while the larger phrase in which it occurs is called the matrix clause
* Words such as that, if, and whether are known as Complementizers (Cs).
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that
whether
if
the contestant will win
C Det N Infl V
NP VP
S
CP
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S
that
whether
if
CP
C
S
the contestant will
Det N Infl
NP VP
win
V
knows
V
The psychic
NDet NonPst
Infl
NP
VP
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Tests for phrase structure
According to the syntactic analysis, the words that make up a sentence form intermediate structural units called phrases. How do linguists using this approach to syntax determine which words should be grouped together into phrases?
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The substitution test
Evidence that NPs are syntactic units comes from the fact that they can often be replaced by an element such as they, it, or do so.
Example:a. [NP The citizens] rebelled after they
discovered the truth. (they = the citizens)b. The students will [VP wear ties] if the
teachers will do so.c. They stopped [PP at the corner] and we
stopped there too
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The movement testAnother indication is that phrases can be moved as a single unit to a different position within the sentence (this is called a movement test)
Example,
They stopped [PP at the corner] >>
[PP at the corner], they stopped.
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The coordination test
A group of words forms a constituent if it can be joined to another group of words by a conjunction such as and, or, or but. (This is labeled the coordination test since patterns built around a conjunction are called coordinate structure).
Example,
The children [VP often sweep the floor] but [VP never clean the wall].
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read a book or walk the dog
V NP Con V NP
VP VP
VP
this man and that child
Det N Con Det N
NP NP
NP
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Transformation Transformation is a special type of rule that
can move an element from one position to another.
Transformation can be in the form of Inversion and insertion
Inversion >> moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject.
Insertion >> adds a special auxiliary verb.
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Inversion in yes-no questionsWill the boy leave? >> The boy will leave
the Boy will leave
Det N Infl V
NP VP
S
Will the boy ----- leave?
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Deep Structure Vs. Surface Structure
Will the boy leave? >> The boy will leave
Will the boy ----- leave?
the Boy will leave
Det N Infl V
NP VP
S
Deep structure
Surface Structure
Inversion process
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Wh-Movement
The man should repair which car?
Which car should the man ----- repair ------?
inversion
Wh-Movement
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Do insertion
Those birds sing
those birds do sing
Do those birds ---- sing?
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ReferencesEagleson, R. D., Threadgold, T., & Collins, P. (1985). Inside
language. Melbourne: Pitman Publishing.
Fromkin, V., Blair, D., & Collins, P. (2000). An introduction to language. New South Wales: Harcourt Australia Pty Limited.
O'Grady, W. (1997). Syntax: The analysis of sentence structure. In W. O'Grady, M. Dobrovolsky & F. Katamba (Eds.), Contemporary linguistics (pp. 181-244). Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
O'Grady, W., Dobrovolsky, M., & Aronoff, M. (1989). Contemporary linguistics: An introduction. New York: St. Martin's Press.
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Radford, A. (1997). Syntax: A minimalist introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres