1.0 Give at least three definitions for Quality management?

1.0 Contributions of Walter Andrew Shewhart (pronounced like "Shoe-heart", March 18, 1891 - March 11, 1967) was an American physicist, engineer and statistician, sometimes known as the father of statistical quality control.

He also developed the Shewhart Cycle Learning and Improvement cycle, combining both creative management thinking with statistical analysis.  This cycle contains four continuous steps: Plan, Do, Study and Act.  These steps (commonly referred to as the PDSA cycle), Shewhart believed; ultimately lead to total quality improvement.  The cycle draws its structure from the notion that constant evaluations of management practices -- as well as the willingness of management to adopt and disregard unsupported ideas --are keys to the evolution of a successful enterprise.

2. Contributions of DEMING:

Understanding the Deming Management Philosophy

FIGURE 2.1

W. Edwards Deming called it the Shewhart cycle, giving credit to its inventor, Walter A. Shewhart. The Japanese have always called it the Deming cycle in honor of the contributions Deming made to Japan's quality improvement efforts over many years. Some people simply call it the PDCA--plan, do, check, and act--cycle.  Regardless of its name, the idea is well-known to process improvement engineers, quality professionals, quality improvement teams and others involved in continuous improvement efforts.

3. Contributions of Joseph Juran:

Juran expressed his approach to quality in the form of the Quality trilogy. Managing for quality involved three basic processes:

Quality Planning: This involves identifying the customer (both internal and external), determining their needs, design goods and services to meet these needs at the established quality and cost goals. Then design the process and transfer this to the operators.

Quality Control: Establish standards or critical elements of performance, identify measures and methods of measurements, compare actual to standard and take action if necessary.

Quality Improvement: Identify appropriate improvement projects, organize the team, discover the causes and provide remedies and finally develop mechanisms to control the new process and hold the gains.

The relationship among the three processes is shown in the Quality Trilogy figure below:

FIGURE 2.3

2.0What are the various dimensions of quality for a) Product b) Services

Dimensions of product and service quality:

When it comes to measuring the quality of your services, it helps to understand the concepts of product and service dimensions. Users may want a keyboard that is durable and flexible for using on the wireless carts. Customers may want a service desk assistant who is empathetic and resourceful

when reporting issues. Quality is multidimensional. Product and service quality are comprised of a number of dimensions, which determine how customer requirements are achieved. Therefore it is essential that you consider the entire dimension that may be important to your customers.

Product quality has two dimensions

Physical dimension - A product's physical dimension measures the tangible product itself and includes such things as length, weight, and temperature.

Performance dimension - A product's performance dimension measures how well a product works and includes such things as speed and capacity.

While performance dimensions are more difficult to measure and obtain when compared to physical dimensions, but the efforts will provide more insight into how the product satisfies the customer.

Like product quality, service quality has several dimensions

Responsiveness - Responsiveness refers to the reaction time of the service. Assurance - Assurance refers to the level of certainty a customer has regarding the quality of

the service provided. Tangibles - Tangibles refers to a service's look or feel. Empathy - Empathy is when a service employee shows that she understands and sympathizes

with the customer's situation. The greater the level of this understanding, the better. Some situations require more empathy than others.

Reliability - Reliability refers to the dependability of the service providers and their ability to keep their promises.

The quality of products and services can be measured by their dimensions. Evaluating all dimensions of a product or service helps to determine how well the service stacks up against meeting the customer requirements.

Quality Framework

Garvin proposes eight critical dimensions or categories of quality that can serve as a framework for strategic analysis: Performance, features, reliability, conformance, durability, serviceability, aesthetics, and perceived quality.

1. PerformancePerformance refers to a product's primary operating characteristics. For an automobile,

performance would include traits like acceleration, handling, cruising speed, and comfort. Because this dimension of quality involves measurable attributes, brands can usually be ranked objectively on individual aspects of performance. Overall performance rankings, however, are more difficult to develop, especially when they involve benefits that not every customer needs.

2. FeaturesFeatures are usually the secondary aspects of performance, the "bells and whistles" of products

and services, and those characteristics that supplement their basic functioning. The line separating primary performance characteristics from secondary features is often difficult to draw. What is crucial is that features involve objective and measurable attributes; objective individual needs, not prejudices, affect their translation into quality differences.

3. ReliabilityThis dimension reflects the probability of a product malfunctioning or failing within a specified

time period. Among the most common measures of reliability are the mean time to first failure, the mean time between failures, and the failure rate per unit time. Because these measures require a product to be in use for a specified period, they are more relevant to durable goods than to products or services that are consumed instantly.

4. ConformanceConformance is the degree to which a product's design and operating characteristics meet

established standards. The two most common measures of failure in conformance are defect rates in the factory and, once a product is in the hands of the customer, the incidence of service calls. These measures neglect other deviations from standard, like misspelled labels or shoddy construction, that do not lead to service or repair.

5. DurabilityA measure of product life, durability has both economic and technical dimensions. Technically,

durability can be defined as the amount of use one gets from a product before it deteriorates. Alternatively, it may be defined as the amount of use one gets from a product before it breaks down and replacement is preferable to continued repair.

6. ServiceabilityServiceability is the speed, courtesy, competence, and ease of repair. Consumers are concerned

not only about a product breaking down but also about the time before service is restored, the timeliness with which service appointments are kept, the nature of dealings with service personnel, and the frequency with which service calls or repairs fail to correct outstanding problems. In those cases where problems are not immediately resolved and complaints are filed, a company's complaints handling procedures are also likely to affect customers' ultimate evaluation of product and service quality.

7. AestheticsAesthetics is a subjective dimension of quality. How a product looks, feels, sounds, tastes, or

smells is a matter of personal judgment and a reflection of individual preference. On this dimension of quality it may be difficult to please everyone.

8. Perceived QualityConsumers do not always have complete information about a product's or service's attributes;

indirect measures may be their only basis for comparing brands. A product's durability for example can seldom be observed directly; it must usually be inferred from various tangible and intangible

aspects of the product. In such circumstances, images, advertising, and brand names - inferences about quality rather than the reality itself - can be critical.

3.0 write short notes on:

a) 5’SThe 5Ses referred to in LEAN are:

Sort Straighten Shine Standardize Sustain

In fact, these 5S principles are actually loose translations of five Japanese words:  

Seiri - Put things in order (remove what is not needed and keep what is needed)

Seiton - Proper Arrangement (Place things in such a way that they can be easily reached whenever they are needed)

Seiso - Clean(Keep things clean and polished; no trash or dirt in the workplace)

Seiketsu - Purity (Maintain cleanliness after cleaning - perpetual cleaning)

Shitsuke - Commitment (a typical teaching and attitude towards any undertaking to inspire pride and adherence to standards established for the four components)

b) Fish bone diagram:

An Ishikawa diagram, also known as a Fishbone diagram or cause and effect diagram, is a diagram that shows the causes of a certain event. It was first used by Kaoru Ishikawa in the 1960s, and is considered one of the seven basic tools of quality management, including the histogram, Pareto chart, check sheet, control chart, cause and effect diagram, flowchart, and scatter diagram. See Quality Management Glossary. Because of its shape, an Ishikawa diagram can be known as a Fishbone Diagram. It is also known as a cause and effect diagram.

A common use of the Ishikawa diagram is in product design, to identify desirable factors leading to an overall effect. Mazda Motors famously used a Ishikawa diagram in the development of the Miata sports car, where the required result was "Jinba Ittai" or "Horse and Rider as One". The main causes included

such aspects as "touch" and "braking" with the lesser causes including highly granular factors such as "50/50 weight distribution" and "able to rest elbow on top of driver's door". Every factor identified in the diagram was included in the final design.

A generic Ishikawa diagram showing general and more refined causes for an event.

People sometimes call Ishikawa diagrams "fishbone diagrams" because of their fish-like appearance. Most Ishikawa diagrams have a box at the right hand side in which is written the effect that is to be examined. The main body of the diagram is a horizontal line from which stem the general causes, represented as "bones". These are drawn towards the left hand corners of the paper, and they are each labeled with the causes to be investigated. Off each of the large bones there may be smaller bones highlighting more specific aspects of a certain cause. When the most probable causes have been identified, they are written in the box along with the original effect.

c) Quality circle

Quality is conformance to the claims made. A quality circle is a volunteer group composed of workers who meet together to discuss workplace improvement, and make presentations to management with their ideas. Typical topics are improving safety, improving product design, and improvement in manufacturing process. Quality circles have the advantage of continuity, the circle remains intact from project to project.

Quality Circles were started in Japan in 1962 ( Kaoru Ishikawa has been credited for creating Quality Circles) as another method of improving quality. The movement in Japan was coordinated by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE). Prof. Ishikawa, who believed in tapping the creative potential of workers,

innovated the Quality Circle movement to give Japanese industry that extra creative edge. A Quality Circle is a small group of employees from the same work area who voluntarily meet at regular intervals to identify, analyse, and resolve work related problems. This can not only improve the performance of any organisation, but also motivate and enrich the work life of employees.

The use of Quality Circles in many highly innovative companies in the Scandinavian countries has been proven. The practice of it is recommended by many economist/business scholars.

Dictionary meaning of Quality circle is: A group of employees who perform similar duties and meet at periodic intervals, often with management, to discuss work-related issues and to offer suggestions and ideas for improvements, as in production methods or quality control.

Business Dictionary defines Quality Circles as: Small groups of employees meeting on a regular basis within an organization for the purpose of discussing and developing management issues and procedures. Quality circles are established with management approval and can be important in implementing new procedures. While results can be mixed, on the whole, management has accepted quality circles as an important organizational methodology.

As per the Small Business Encyclopedia, Quality Circle is identified as: A quality circle is a participatory management technique that enlists the help of employees in solving problems related to their own jobs.

8D METHODOLOGY

8 Disciplines

The "8D (8 Disciplines)" process is another problem solving method that is often required specifically in the automotive industry. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the 8D methodology is its emphasis on "teams."

The steps to 8D analysis are:

1. Use Team Approach2. Describe the Problem3. Implement and Verify Interim Actions (Containment)4. Identify Potential Causes5. Choose/Verify Corrective Actions6. Implement Permanent Corrective Actions7. Prevent Recurrence

8. Congratulate Your Team.

Kaizen/Improvement Programs

Quick Definition

Kaizen is the lean manufacturing term for continuous improvement and was originally used to describe a key element of the Toyota Production System. In use, Kaizen describes an environment where companies and individuals proactively work to improve the manufacturing process.

Expanded Definition

Kaizen events have become commonplace at companies that practice lean manufacturing. But these events are only a portion of the complete Kaizen process. Traditionally companies have focused on a project based path to change. Organizations that work toward a state of constant improvement understand that Kaizen events are a tool that allows them to focus resources and employees on process improvements. By understanding the current process and the future state goals you can implement Kaizen. Creating a corporate culture of continuous improvement will allow you to adapt to a changing marketplace and exceed customer expectations.

A critical component of Kaizen is an unbiased view of the current state. Particularly when companies are profitable and customers are generally satisfied, changes to any process can seem both a waste and a risk. There may be bias against change when the people who created a process are the same people who need to continuously change the process. In order to overcome this it is necessary to understand the current process, particularly any shortcomings. By studying, understanding and documenting the current process you can identify areas that would benefit from change.

Note: It is extremely important to focus on change and discard any thoughts of blame. Too many companies waste time determining who was “at fault”. Successful companies make the process better.

1.0 WHAT IS TPM? Write a step by step procedure to develop a TPM program in your organization

Total Productive Maintenance is a new way of looking at maintenance, or conversely, a reversion to old ways but on a mass scale. In TPM the machine operator performs much, and sometimes all, of the routine maintenance tasks themselves. This automaintenance ensures appropriate and effective efforts are expended since the machine is wholly the domain of one person or team. TPM is a critical adjunct to lean manufacturing. If machine uptime is not predictable and if process capability is not sustained, we must keep extra stocks to buffer against this uncertainty and flow through the process will be interrupted.. One way to think of TPM is "deterioration prevention" and "maintenance reduction", not fixing machines. For this reason many people refer to TPM as "Total Productive Manufacturing" or "Total Process Management". TPM is a proactive approach that essentially aims to prevent any kind of slack before occurrence. Its motto is "zero error, zero work-related accident, and zero loss."

Introduction

Think of productive equipment as we think of our cars or telephones: they are ready to go when we need them, but they need not run all the time to be productive. For this concept to function properly, the machines must be ready when we need them and they must be shut down in such a fashion as to be ready the next time. Key measures include efficiency while running and quality. Overall Equipment Effectiveness or OEE tells us how TPM is working, not just the typical measures of uptime and throughput. TPM is a close companion of 5S and uses elements of the visual workplace. Operators know what maintenance tasks are theirs; they also know what tasks are appropriate for the skilled trades maintenance crew. TPM is an empowering philosophy that helps create ownership of the manufacturing process among all employees. Teamwork is vital to the long-term success of TPM.

TPM is much more closely aligned to production than a maintenance department in mass production. One-piece flow with zero defects requires high levels of process capability that, in conjunction with error proofing, allows for the reduction or elimination of inspection.

When variation is reduced to increase process capability, maintenance and operations must be involved to prevent the deterioration of the process capability index. Employee expertise and motivation are essential for TPM to work. If machine downtime is viewed as “good” by operators (because then they don’t have to work), then TPM will fail. If visual cues are ignored, the visual workplace will fail.

History

TPM is a a Japanese idea that can be traced back to 1951 when preventive maintenance was introduced into Japan from the USA. Nippondenso, part of Toyota, was the first company in Japan to introduce plant wide preventive maintenance in 1960. In preventive maintenance operators produced goods using machines and the maintenance group was dedicated to the work of maintaining those

machines. However with the high level of automation of Nippondenso maintenance became a problem as so many more maintenance personnel were now required. So the management decided that the routine maintenance of equipment would now be carried out by the operators themselves. ( This is Autonomous maintenance, one of the features of TPM ). The maintenance group then focussed only on 'maintenance' works for upgrades.

The maintenance group performed equipment modification that would improve its reliability. These modifications were then made or incorporated into new equipment. The work of the maintenance group is then to make changes that lead to maintenance prevention. Thus preventive maintenance along with Maintenance prevention and Maintainability Improvement were grouped as Productive maintenance. The aim of productive maintenance was to maximize plant and equipment effectiveness to achieve the optimum life cycle cost of production equipment.

Nippondenso already had quality circles which involved the employees in changes. Therefore, now, all employees took part in implementing Productive maintenance. Based on these developments Nippondenso was awarded the distinguished plant prize for developing and implementing TPM, by the Japanese Institute of Plant Engineers ( JIPE ). Thus Nippondenso of the Toyota group became the first company to obtain the TPM certifications.

Implementation

TPM has five goals [1]:

1. Maximize equipment effectiveness. 2. Develop a system of productive maintenance for the life of the equipment, 3. Involve all departments that plan, design, use, or maintain equipment in implementing TPM. 4. Actively involve all employees. 5. Promote TPM through motivational management.

TPM identifies the 16types of waste (Muda) and then works systematically to eliminate them by making improvements (Kaizen). TPM has 8 pillars of activity each being set to achieve a “zero” target. These pillars are:

1. Focused improvement (Kobetsu-Kaizen): for eliminating waste 2. Autonomous maintenance (Jishu-Hozen): in autonomous maintenance, the operator is the key

player. It involves daily maintenance activities carried out by the operators themselves that prevent the deterioration of the equipment.

3. Planned maintenance: for achieving zero breakdowns 4. Education and training: for increasing productivity 5. Early equipment/product management: to reduce waste occurring during the im-plementation

of a new machine or the production of a new product 6. Quality maintenance (Hinshitsu-Hozen): This is actually “maintenance for quality”. It includes

the most effective quality tool of TPM: “poka-yoke”, which aims to achieve zero loss by taking necessary measures to prevent loss.

7. Safety, hygiene, environment: for achieving zero work-related accidents and for protecting the environment.

8. Office TPM: for involvement of all parties to TPM since office processes can be improved in a similar manner as well.

2. QFD PROCESS

Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

QFD is a rigorous method for translating customer needs, wants, and wishes into step-by-step procedures for delivering the product or service. While delivering better designs tailored to customer needs, Quality Function Deployment also cuts the normal development cycle by 50%, making you faster to market.

QFD uses the "QFD House of Quality" (a template in the QI Macros) to help structure your thinking, making sure nothing is left out.

There are four key steps to QFD thinking:

1. Product Planning- Translating what the customer wants (in their language, e.g., portable, convenient phone service) into a list of prioritized product/service design requirements (in your language, e.g., cell phones) that describes how the product works. It also compares your performance with your competition's, and sets targets for improvement to differentiate your product/service from your competitor's.

2. Part Planning - Translating product specifications (design criteria from step 1) into part characteristics (e.g., light weight, belt-clip, battery-driven, not-hardwired but radio-frequency based).

3. Process Planning - Translating part characteristics (from step 2) into optimal process characteristics that maximize your ability to deliver Six Sigma quality (e.g., ability to "hand off" a cellular call from one antenna to another without interruption).

4. Production Planning - Translating process characteristics (from step 3) into manufacturing or service delivery methods that will optimize your ability to deliver Six Sigma quality in the most efficient manner (e.g., cellular antennas installed with overlapping coverage to eliminate dropped calls).Even in my small business, I often use the Quality Function Deployment template to evaluate and design a new product or service. It helps me think through every aspect of what my customers want and how to deliver it. It saves me a lot of "clean up" on the backend. It doesn't always mean that I get everything right, but I get more of it right, which translates into greater sales and higher profitability with less rework on my part.

3.0 What is FMEA? Explain various types of FMEA. Write the benefits of FMEA.

List down the stages of FMEA.

FAILURE MODE EFFECT ANALYSIS (FMEA)

FMEA Design and Process

FMEA (Failure Mode and Effects Analysis) is a proactive tool, technique and quality method that enables the identification and prevention of process or product errors before they occur. Within healthcare, the goal is to avoid adverse events that could potentially cause harm to patients, families, employees or others in the patient care setting.

As a tool embedded within Six Sigma methodology, FMEA can help identify and eliminate concerns early in the development of a process or new service delivery. It is a systematic way to examine a process prospectively for possible ways in which failure can occur, and then to redesign the processes so that the new model eliminates the possibility of failure. Properly executed, FMEA can assist in improving overall satisfaction and safety levels. There are many ways to evaluate the safety and quality of healthcare services, but when trying to design a safe care environment, a proactive approach is far preferable to a reactive approach.

Definitions of FMEA

One of several reliability evaluation and design analysis tools, FMEA also can be defined as:

A problem prevention tool used to identify weak areas of the process and develop plans to prevent their occurrence.

A semi-quantitative, inductive bottom-up approach executed by a team. A tool being recommended for Joint Commission on Accreditation of

Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) Standard LD.5.2. A structured approach to identify the ways in which a process can fail to

meet critical customer requirement. A way to estimate the risk of specific causes with regard to these failures. A method for evaluating the current control plan for preventing failures

from occurring. A prioritization process for actions that should be taken to improve the

situation.

Types of FMEA

Process FMEA: Used to analyze transactional processes. Focus is on failure to produce intended requirement, a defect. Failure modes may stem from causes identified.

System FMEA: A specific category of Design FMEA used to analyze systems and subsystems in the early concept and design stages. Focuses on potential failure modes associated with the functionality of a system caused by design.

Design FMEA: Used to analyze component designs. Focuses on potential failure modes associated with the functionality of a component caused by design. Failure modes may be derived from causes identified in the System FMEA.

Other

FMECA (Failure Mode, Effects, Criticality Analysis): Considers every possible failure mode and its effect on the product/service. Goes a step above FMEA and considers the criticality of the effect and actions, which must be taken to compensate for this effect. (critical = loss of life/product).

A d-FMEA evaluates how a product can fail, and likelihood that the proposed design process will anticipate and prevent the problem.

A p-FMEA evaluates how a process can fail, and the likelihood that the proposed control will anticipate and prevent the problem.

Benefits of FMEA

Here are the benefits of FEMA:

Captures the collective knowledge of a team Improves the quality, reliability, and safety of the process Logical, structured process for identifying process areas of concern Reduces process development time, cost Documents and tracks risk reduction activities Helps to identify Critical-To-Quality characteristics (CTQs) Provides historical records; establishes baseline Helps increase customer satisfaction and safety

FMEA reduces time spent considering potential problems with a design concept, and keeps crucial elements of the project from slipping through the cracks. As each FMEA is updated with unanticipated failure modes, it becomes the baseline for the next generation design. Reduction in process development time can come from increased ability to carry structured information forward

from project to project, and this can drive repeatability and reproducibility across the system.Approaches to FMEAs

Product and process FMEAs can be further categorized by the level on which the failure modes are to be presented.

Functional FMEAs. Focus on the functions that a product, process, or service is to perform rather than on the characteristics of the specific implementation. When developing a functional FMEA, a functional block diagram is used to identify the top-level failure modes for each functional block on the diagram. For a heater, for example, two potential failure modes would be: "Heater fails to heat" and "Heater always heats." Because FMEAs are best begun during the conceptual design phase, long before specific hardware information is available, the functional approach is generally the most practical and feasible approach by which to begin a FMEA, especially for large, complex products or processes that are more easily understood by function than by the details of their operation. When systems are very complex, the analysis for functional FMEAs generally begins at the highest system level and uses a top-down approach.

Interface FMEAs. Focus on the interconnections between system elements so that the failures between them can be determined and recorded and compliance to requirements can be verified. When developing interface FMEAs, failure modes are usually developed for each interface type (electrical cabling, wires, fiber optic lines, mechanical linkages, hydraulic lines, pneumatics lines, signals, software, etc.). Beginning an interface FMEA as soon as the system interconnections are defined ensures that proper protocols are used and that all interconnections are compliant with design requirements.

Detailed FMEAs. Focus on the characteristics of specific implementations to ensure that designs comply with requirements for failures that can cause loss of end-item function, single-point failures, and fault detection and isolation. Once individual items of a system (piece-parts, software routines, or process steps) are uniquely identified in the later design and development stages, FMEAs can assess the failure causes and effects of failure modes on the lowest level system items. Detailed FMEAs for hardware, commonly referred to as piece-part FMEAs, are the most common FMEA applications. They generally begin at the lowest piece-part level and use a bottom-up approach to check design verification, compliance, and validation.

Variations in design complexity and data availability will dictate the analysis approach to be used. Some cases may require that part of the analysis be performed at the functional level and other portions at the interface and detailed levels. In other cases, initial requirements may be for a functional FMEA that is to later progress to an interface FMEA, and then finally progress to a

detailed FMEA. Thus, FMEAs completed for more complex systems often include worksheets that employ all three approaches to FMEA development.

4.0 Write short notes on:

4. a) BenchmarkingOne of the prime reasons for using QFD is to develop a product or service

which will excite the customer and get him/her to purchase your product. When a team captures the customer's perceptions of how well different products perform in the marketplace, the team can better understand what is driving the purchase decision. They are able to determine what the market likes and dislikes. However, they are really still dealing with Customer Perceptions and not actual performance. They have not necessarily learned what they, as a team, have to do to create the desired level of Perceived Performance. Benchmarking your own, and others', products against the Design Measures which the team has established helps to define the level of Real Performance required to produce the desired level of Perceived Performance.

Benchmarking is a relatively expensive and time consuming process in most industries. Therefore, it is recommended practice to Benchmark only against the critical Design Measures. Criticality is defined by how important a particular Measure is to the success of the product and whether there are special circumstances impacting a particular Measure. A special circumstance might include whether a particular Measure is new or complex. Typically, a team might only Benchmark 50 percent of the Design Measures. Sorting the List of Design Measures based upon their importance values is a good way to identify which Measures to Benchmark.

Generally, teams Benchmark the same products or services for which they captured performance perceptions. In this way, they can try to correlate Actual Performance with the Perceived Performance. A good policy is to Benchmark products across the whole spectrum of performance. In this way, it becomes much clearer what level of performance is perceived to be inadequate, what level is acceptable, and what level of performance currently gets customers excited about a product. Benchmarking all of the competitive products is not required; just check representative products

4. b) The New seven MP tools are:

1. Affinity diagram: organizes a large number of ideas into their natural relationships.

2. Relations diagram: shows cause-and-effect relationships and helps you analyze the natural links between different aspects of a complex situation.

3. Tree diagram: breaks down broad categories into finer and finer levels of detail, helping you move your thinking step by step from generalities to specifics.

4. Matrix diagram: shows the relationship between two, three or four groups of information and can give information about the relationship, such as its strength, the roles played by various individuals, or measurements.

5. Matrix data analysis: a complex mathematical technique for analyzing matrices, often replaced in this list by the similar prioritization matrix. One of the most rigorous, careful and time-consuming of decision-making tools, a prioritization matrix is an L-shaped matrix that uses pairwise comparisons of a list of options to a set of criteria in order to choose the best option(s).

6. Arrow diagram: shows the required order of tasks in a project or process, the best schedule for the entire project, and potential scheduling and resource problems and their solutions.

7. Process decision program chart (PDPC): systematically identifies what might go wrong in a plan under development.

As problems have increased in complexity, more tools have been developed to encourage employees to participate in the problem-solving process.

4. c) SIX SIGMA CONCEPTS OF PROCESS CAPABILITY

Six Sigma

The often-used six sigma symbol.

Six Sigma is a system of practices originally developed by Motorola to systematically improve processes by eliminating defects. Defects are defined as units that are not members of the intended population. Since it was originally developed, Six Sigma has become an element of many Total Quality Management (TQM) initiatives.

Recently Six Sigma has been integrated with the TRIZ methodology for problem solving and product design.

Key concepts of Six Sigma

At its core, Six Sigma revolves around a few key concepts.

Critical to Quality: Attributes most important to the customer Defect: Failing to deliver what the customer wants Process Capability: What your process can deliver Variation: What the customer sees and feels

Stable Operations: Ensuring consistent, predictable processes to improve what the customer sees and feels

Design for Six Sigma: Designing to meet customer needs and process capability

Methodology

Six Sigma has two key methodologies:[7] DMAIC and DMADV. DMAIC is used to improve an existing business process. DMADV is used to create new product designs or process designs in such a way that it results in a more predictable, mature and defect free performance.

DMAIC

Basic methodology consists of the following five steps: Define the process improvement goals that are consistent with customer

demands and enterprise strategy. Measure the current process and collect relevant data for future

comparison. Analyze to verify relationship and causality of factors. Determine what the

relationship is, and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered.

Improve or optimize the process based upon the analysis using techniques like Design of Experiments.

Control to ensure that any variances are corrected before they result in defects. Set up pilot runs to establish process capability, transition to production and thereafter continuously measure the process and institute control mechanisms.

DMADV

Basic methodology consists of the following five steps:

Define the goals of the design activity that are consistent with customer demands and enterprise strategy.

Measure and identify CTQs (critical to qualities), product capabilities, production process capability, and risk assessments.

Analyze to develop and design alternatives, create high-level design and evaluate design capability to select the best design.

Design details, optimize the design, and plan for design verification. This phase may require simulations.

Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement production process and handover to process owners.

Some people have used DMAICR (Realize). Others contend that focusing on the financial gains realized through Six Sigma is counter-productive and that said financial gains are simply byproducts of a good process improvement.

Another additional flavor of Design for Six Sigma is the DMEDI method. This process is almost exactly like the DMADV process, utilizing the same toolkit, but with a different acronym. DMEDI stands for Define, Measure, Explore, Develop, and Implement.

5.0 What is a control chart? What are its types? List down the formula for each of the chart.

A control chart is a statistical tool used to distinguish between variations in a process resulting from common causes and variation resulting from special causes. Itpresents a graphic display of process stability or instability over time (Viewgraph

1).Every process has variation. Some variation may be the result of causes which arenot normally present in the process. This could be special cause variation.

Somevariation is simply the result of numerous, ever-present differences in the process.This is common cause variation. Control Charts differentiate between these twotypes of variation.One goal of using a Control Chart is to achieve and maintain process stability.Process stability is defined as a state in which a process has displayed certaindegree of consistency in the past and is expected to continue to do so in the

future.This consistency is characterized by a stream of data falling within control limits

There are two main categories of Control Charts, those that display attribute data,and those that display variables data.

Attribute Data: This category of Control Chart displays data that result fromcounting the number of occurrences or items in a single category of similaritems or occurrences. These “count” data may be expressed as pass/fail,yes/no, or presence/absence of a defect.

Variables Data: This category of Control Chart displays values resultingfrom the measurement of a continuous variable. Examples of variables dataare elapsed time, temperature, and radiation dose.While these two categories encompass a number of different types of Control Chartsthere are three types that will work for the majority of the data analysiscases you will encounter. In this module, we will study the construction andapplication in these three types of Control Charts:

X-Bar and R ChartIndividual X and Moving Range Chart for Variables Data

Individual X and Moving Range Chart for Attribute Data

X-Bar and S Chart

Median X and R Chart

c Chart

u Chart

p Chart

np Chart

6.0 Write on a) ISO 9000 quality systems b) Quality auditing

a) ISO 9000 includes the following standards:

ISO 9000:2005, Quality management systems - Fundamentals and vocabulary. Covers the basics of what quality management systems are and also contains the core language of the ISO 9000 series of standards.

ISO 9001:2000 Quality management systems - Requirements is intended for use in any organization which designs, develops, manufactures, installs and/or services any product or provides any form of service. It provides a number of requirements which an organization needs to fulfill if it is to achieve customer satisfaction through consistent products and services which meet customer expectations. This is the only implementation for which third-party auditors may grant certifications.

ISO 9004:2000 Quality management systems - Guidelines for performance improvements. covers continual improvement. This gives you advice on what you could do to enhance a mature system. This standard very specifically states that it is not intended as a guide to implementation.

ISO 9002:1994 and ISO 9003:1994 were discontinued in the ISO 9000:2000 family of standards. Organizations that do not have design or manufacturing responsibilities (and were previously certified using ISO 9002:1994) will now have to use ISO 9001:2000 for certification. These organizations are allowed to exclude design and manufacturing requirements in ISO 9001:2000 based on the rules for exception given in Clause 1.2, Permissible Exclusions.

Quality Management System (QMS) can be defined as a set of policies, processes and procedures required for planning and Execution (Production / Development / Service) in their core business area of an Organization. QMS integrates the various internal processes within the organization and intends to provide a process approach for project execution. QMS enables the organizations to identify,

measure, control and improve the various core business processes that will ultimately lead to improved business performance.

Concept of QMSThe concept of quality as we think of it now first emerged out of the Industrial

Revolution. Previously goods had been made from start to finish by the same person or team of people, with handcrafting and tweaking the product to meet 'quality criteria'. Mass production brought huge teams of people together to work on specific stages of production where one person would not necessarily complete a product from start to finish. In the late 1800's pioneers such as Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henry Ford recognised the limitations of the methods being used in mass production at the time and the subsequent varying quality of output. Taylor established Quality Departments to oversee the quality of production and rectifying of errors, and Ford emphasised standardisation of design and component standards to ensure a standard product was produced. Management of quality was the responsibility of the Quality department and was implemented by Inspection of product output to 'catch defects.

Guidelines for performance improvements

1. Purpose: The purpose of a Performance Improvement Plan is to communicate to the employee the specific job performance areas that do not meet expected standards.2. Develop a Performance Improvement Plan:

a) Clearly state why the employee’s job performance is a concern and how it impacts the work environment.b) Summarize the facts and events that necessitate the development of a Performance Improvement Plan.c) Develop specific and measurable steps to improve performance and include the employee’s ideas for improvement.d) Establish reasonable timelines for improved performance on

eachexpectation.e) Conduct periodic reviews on a regular basis to monitor progressbeing made toward the expected outcome and provide feedback.f) Communicate consequences for failure to meet expectations and sustain improved performance.

3. Implement the Performance Improvement Plan:

a) Document each step of the Performance Improvement Planb) Provide constructive feedback to help the employee understandhow he/she is doing and what is expected.c) Focus on the job and not on the person. Concentrate on a

specific

behavior to enable the employee to understand what you want and why.

The individual will feel less defensive.

* Example with focus on behavior: “Your report is two days late.”* Example with focus on person: “You are not very reliable about

getting things done on time.”

d) Always meet with the employee and provide an opportunity for discussion and feedback.e) At the end of the Performance Improvement Plan period, the supervisor will determine if the process was satisfactorily completed or if progressive discipline will be implemented in conjunction with Human Resources.

b) Quality Audits

Quality audit means a systematic, independent examination of a quality system. Quality audits are typically performed at defined intervals and ensure that the institution has clearly-defined internal quality monitoring procedures linked to effective action. The checking determines if the quality system complies with applicable regulations or standards. The process involves assessing the standard operating procedures (SOP's) for compliance to the regulations, and also assessing the actual process and results against what is stated in the SOP.

Internal Quality auditing is an important element in ISO's quality system standard, ISO 9001. . With the upgrade of the ISO9000 series of standards from the 1994 to 2000 series, the focus of audits has shifted from procedural adherence only to measurement of the effectiveness of the Quality Management System processes to deliver in accordance with planned results.

Quality audit objectives 

Quality audits are intended to achieve the following kinds of objectives: To determine to what extent your quality system:

Achieves its objectives.  Conforms to your requirements.  Complies with regulatory requirements.  Meets customers' contractual requirements.  Conforms to a recognized quality standard. 

To improve the efficiency and effectiveness of your quality management system. 

To list your quality system in registry of an independent agency.  To verify that your quality system continues to meet requirements.