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Scientific Method 1. ESTABLISH THE PROBLEM

2. FORMULATE HYPOTHESIS 3. REFINE THE HYPOTHESIS 4. CREATE RESEARCH DESIGN 5. COLLECT DATA 6. TEST HYPOTHESIS, 7. EVALUATE & CONCLUDE 8. RE-TEST (REPLICATE)

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Beginning the Research Process

Theory, Questions, Hypotheses

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Theory and ResearchTheory functions three ways in research:1. Theories prevent our being taken in by

flukes.2. Theories make sense of observed

patterns in ways that can suggest other possibilities.

3. Theories can direct research efforts, pointing toward likely discoveries through empirical observation.

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Theoretical Perspective Conflict Theory Rational Choice Institutionalism Feminist theory Modernization theory Etc., Etc., Etc.

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Linking Social Scientific Theory and Research

1. Deduction - Deriving expectations or hypotheses from theories.

2. Induction - Developing generalizations from specific observations.

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Developing Your Research Question

I know what general area, but I’m not sure of my research

question?

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The Importance of Good Questions

A good research question:

Defines the investigation Sets boundaries Provides direction Helps produce good research

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Concept Map of Potential Research Topics

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Minding Practicalities

Research directions are not always at the full discretion of the researcher. Practicalities include:

Appropriateness of the topic Your ability to get supervisory support Funding opportunities and

commitments

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From Interesting Topics to Researchable Questions theory observations/personal experiences contemporary issues engagement with the literature

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Narrowing and Clarifying Narrowing, clarifying, and even

redefining your questions is essential to the research process.

Forming the right ‘questions’ should be seen as an iterative process that is informed by reading and doing at all stages.

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The Hypothesis Dilemma Hypotheses are designed to

express relationships between variables. If this is the nature of your question, a hypothesis can add to your research

If your question is more descriptive or explorative, generating a hypothesis may not be appropriate

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The Hypothesis Dilemma

A hypothesis may not be appropriate if: You do not have a hunch or educated guess

about a particular situation You do not have a set of defined variables. Your question centres on phenomenological

description Your question centres on an ethnographic

study of a cultural group

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Good Question Checklist

 Is the question right for the field?

Will the findings be considered significant?

Will it make a contribution? Are the terms and concepts well

defined?

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Good Question Checklist Is the question doable?

Can information be collected in an attempt to answer the question?

Do I have the skills and expertise necessary to access this information? If not, can the skills be developed?

Will I be able to get it all done within my time constraints?

Are costs likely to exceed my budget? Are there any potential ethics problems?

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Good Question Checklist

Does the question get the tick of approval from those in the know?

Does my supervisor think I am on the right track?

Do ‘experts’ in the field think my question is relevant/ important/ doable?

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Working with Literature

What should I be reading and what do I do with it all?

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The Importance of Working with Literature

Working with literature is an essential part of the research process that:

generates ideas helps form significant questions helps identify definitions, measures,

variables Provides information on how other

scholars answer similar questions

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Working with literature

Working with Working with LiteratureLiterature

Working with Working with LiteratureLiterature

Find it!Find it!Find it!Find it! Manage it!Manage it!Manage it!Manage it! Use it!Use it!Use it!Use it! Review it!Review it!Review it!Review it!

Knowing the literature types

Knowing the literature types

Reading efficientlyReading efficiently Choosing your research topic

Choosing your research topic

Understanding the lit review’s purpose

Understanding the lit review’s purpose

Using available resources

Using available resources

Keeping track of references

Keeping track of references

Developing your question

Developing your question

Ensuring adequate coverage

Ensuring adequate coverage

Honing your search skills

Honing your search skills

Writing relevant annotations

Writing relevant annotations

Arguing your rationale

Arguing your rationale

Informing your work with theory

Informing your work with theory

Designing methodDesigning method

Writing purposefullyWriting purposefully

Working on style and tone

Working on style and tone

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Mapping the literature

Equality in the Judicial Equality in the Judicial SystemSystem

Equality in the Judicial Equality in the Judicial SystemSystem

RaceRaceRaceRace GenderGenderGenderGender EconomicEconomicEconomicEconomic OtherOtherOtherOther

White v. non-whiteWhite v. non-white Threat perceptionThreat perception representationrepresentation AgeAge

Minority SpecificMinority Specific Judicial perceptionJudicial perception OccupationOccupation cultureculture

Minority v. MinorityMinority v. MinorityAccess to resourcesAccess to resources

Status Status

Judicial electionsJudicial elections

Stages of the Process

Stages of the Process

sexualitysexuality

nationalitynationality

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Intersecting Areas of Literature

BODY PIERCING

▪

TEENAGERS

▪

RITES OF PASSAGE

▪

FOUCAULT

▪

▪ background literature

moderate relevance

high relevance

highest relevance

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Intersecting Areas of Literature

Crime

▪

Political Economy

▪

Democracy

▪

Modernization

▪

▪ background literature

moderate relevance

high relevance

highest relevance

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Using the LiteratureLiterature is used for many purposes throughout the research process: focusing interests defining questions arguing a rationale theoretically informing your study developing appropriate research

design/methodology every stage of the research process demands

literary engagement

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Fundamental Concepts of Statistics

Measurement - any result from any procedure that assigns a value to an observable phenomenon. Problems - our observations are based on our ability to observe, count, etc. Accuracy is always an issue. It is virtually impossible to achieve the same measurement twice.

Variation - this brings us to the idea of variation. Statistics is based on the idea that almost everything varies in someway or has variation.

Two reasons for variation:1. measurement inaccuracies or random error2. true differences b/w observations, measurement and

groups

Probabilistic causation - because of this property we can only deal with probabilities of being correct or incorrect in our determination of differences in crime rates.

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Three Types of Statistics Descriptive - Techniques employed in the presentation of

collected data. Tables, charts, graphs and the formulation of quantities that indicate concise information about our data.

Inferential -Linked with the concept of probability. Statistical methods that permit us to infer (probabilistically) something about the real world and about the "true" population from knowledge derived from only part of that population. Methods that allow us to specify how likely we will be in error.

Predictive- Deals with relationships and the idea that knowing information about on characteristic or variable can help us predict the behavior of another variable. Methods and tools that help predict future observations in other populations or time periods.

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Causation 1. TIME-ORDER: the presumed cause

must always precede the presumed effect

2. COVARIATION: the presumed cause and effect must vary with each other

3. ELIMINATION OF ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS: there must be no equally plausible explanations for the presumed effect (in this specific instance)

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Theory and Research

1. Deduction - Deriving expectations or hypotheses from theories.

2. Induction - Developing generalizations from specific observations.

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Data Driven Research Are the questions developed from

theory or just data mining. Pose the question then get the

data But in reality, we are given the

data and then (after a little data mining) we pose a question.

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SPSS and statistical analysis is not for everyone.

Many researchers dispute the relevance of conclusions made from statistical analysis

But we are going to make you learn it anyway.

Why?

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What is SPSS? Statistical software: Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences There are lots of others

SAS STATA R SHAZAM Specialized software

HLM LISREL BUGS

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Why SPSS? Although SPSS is not the most

powerful statistical software - It is the easiest to learn and use!!!!!!

It is very flexible and can do most everything we need

It can examine a large amount of data very quickly

It is competitively priced

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Where to start? Get some data

Your books have some datasets ICPSR: http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/

Wait!!!!! I forgot. Get a research question and theory first.