Fuel 89 (2010) 3718–3724

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Fuel

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Sunflower biodiesel production and application in family farms in Brazil

Anderson Favero Porte a,b, Rosana de Cassia de Souza Schneider a,b,c,*, Jonas Alvaro Kaercher a,b,Rodrigo Augusto Klamt c, Willian Luiz Schmatz c, William Leonardo Teixeira da Silva c,Wolmar Alípio Severo Filho c

a Environmental Technology Postgraduate, Santa Cruz do Sul University, 2293 Independência Av., Mail Box 188, Zip code: 96815-900, Santa Cruz do Sul, RS, Brazilb Engineering, Architecture and Agrarian Sciences Department, Santa Cruz do Sul University, 2293 Independência Av., Mail Box 188, Zip code: 96815-900, Santa Cruz do Sul, RS, Brazilc Chemistry and Physics Department, Santa Cruz do Sul University, 2293 Independência Av., Mail Box 188, Zip code: 96815-900, Santa Cruz do Sul, RS, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 27 January 2010Received in revised form 1 July 2010Accepted 14 July 2010Available online 27 July 2010

Keywords:BiodieselEngineSunflowerTransesterification

0016-2361/$ - see front matter � 2010 Elsevier Ltd. Adoi:10.1016/j.fuel.2010.07.025

* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +55 51 3717 7545E-mail address: rosana@unisc.br (Rosana de Cassia

a b s t r a c t

There are limited options available for compact small-scale biodiesel production equipment that pro-duces biodiesel of similar quality as that obtained from an industrial-scale production system. The aimof the present study was to evaluate equipment optimization for producing 40–200 L/day of biodiesel.The equipment was used to produce biodiesel for personal consumption. The produced biodiesel wastested in three microtractors, the principal agricultural machines used in family farms in the Vale doRio Pardo region of Southern Brazil. Our results demonstrated that the equipment produced biodieselof sufficient quality according to the limits established by the Brazilian Petroleum National Agency(ANP). In conclusion, this biodiesel can be used in microtractors with little wear on engine parts.

� 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The environmental problems caused by the indiscriminate useand scarcity of petroleum are leading researchers to explorerenewable energy resources, such as derivatives of vegetable oils[1–3].

In Brazil, as in many other countries, the use of fossil fuels in en-ergy production has caused serious environmental problems.Therefore, improving energy efficiency and developing renewableenergy sources are of fundamental importance in both economicand environmental terms.

After gradually increasing the percentage of biodiesel in dieselmixture, since 2008, Brazil has reached the goal of distributingB5 (5% of biodiesel in diesel) and has become the fourth majorworld biodiesel producer with production only for the domesticmarket. The success of biodiesel implementation in Brazil is notonly due to the significant production performance but also be-cause the Biodiesel National Program incentivizes small and med-ium producers to cultivate the raw materials and to spread thosematerials across the country, keeping the population in the countryand increasing the familiar income. Aside from diversification, thegovernment has also foreseen biodiesel as an alternative to reducethe Brazilian dependence on diesel import for 10% of domestic die-sel consumption [4].

ll rights reserved.

.de Souza Schneider).

Previous studies conducted by the ministries of the FederalGovernment, such as the Agrarian Development Ministry, the Min-istry of Agricultural, Livestock and Supply, the City Ministry andthe National Integration Ministry, have shown that, in Brazil, every1% of diesel substituted by biodiesel produced in family farms cancreate 45,000 jobs in the countryside. This number increases to180,000 when taking into consideration that for one new job inthe countryside, three jobs are generated in city [5].

In Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, for example, biodiesel is typicallyproduced from soybean oil [6,7]. Studies exploring the use of otheroils, such as sunflower oil and canola oil, are in progress. In theVale do Rio Pardo region, where agriculture focuses on tobaccofarming, diversification of renewable energy sources is also impor-tant. Currently, the region is influenced by the 2006 Decree 5658[8] aiming at preventing and reducing tobacco use and adoptedby member countries of the World Health Organization.

Such laws affecting regional agricultural production have takeninto effect since 2005 and are also present in other Latin Americanand Caribbean countries [9]. This re-allocation of agricultural re-sources has led to partial substitution of tobacco farming by sun-flower cultivation for biodiesel production in this particular area.

Biodiesel is obtained by transesterification, in which the alkylgroup of an ester is replaced through interaction between the tri-acylglycerol of oils (or fats) and an alcohol. This fuel can then beused in compression engines, such as the engines using dieselfuels. The transformation of vegetable oils into methyl estersoccurs in the presence of a catalyst. The catalyst can be basic,

A.F. Porte et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 3718–3724 3719

acidic, or enzymatic, and the type of catalyst depends on the prop-erties of raw materials and reaction conditions [10–14].

The feedstock for biodiesel production can be seed oils, such assunflower [15], soybean, castor, and rapeseed [16], palm [17–19]or animal fats [20]. The use of waste oils and fats for biodiesel pro-duction is currently being extensively studied [21–24].

Biodiesel has physicochemical characteristics very similar tofossil fuels, suggesting that it can be used without causing motordamage. Some of these characteristics, such as density, dynamicviscosity, cetane number and surface tension, influence combus-tion steps [25]. Recently, studies have been conducted to under-stand the performance characteristics of biodiesel fuel enginesand biodiesel production technology [26–29].

In terms of environmental impact, biodiesel reduces the atmo-spheric emission of particulate material (PM), hydrocarbons (HC),carbon monoxide (CO) and sulfur oxides (SOx) when used in a pureform or in combination with diesel [30–33]. The B20 mixture ofsoybean biodiesel (20%) in diesel was used in the captive fleet foremission evaluation. The results demonstrated that an 18% reduc-tion in opacity was achievable by using B20 instead of pure diesel[34].

Studies on B2, B5 and B20 produced with 2%, 5% and 20% biodieselfrom castor oil showed that the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonemissions were reduced by 2.7%, 6.3% and 17.2%, respectively, whenused in a cycle diesel engine [35]. There have also been studiesexamining the energy use and total CO2 emission over the courseof biodiesel production [36–38].

However, some problems have been observed with the use ofbiodiesel, such as wear on engine parts and contamination in someengine elements [39]. Another study [40] found that biodiesel witha high viscosity and a low cetane index produced more atmo-spheric emissions than others.

One important way to evaluate the wear in engine mobile partswith the use of biodiesel is to analyze the lubricant oil before andafter a large period of biodiesel use. Additionally, it is necessary toevaluate various engine parts, including rings, pistons and cylin-ders, and carbon formation, as well as resin or gum in the injectionsystem and in the combustion chamber.

Demirbas [41] and Sharma et al. [42] have highlighted that,compared to the other parts, the engine injection system may suf-fer greater damage, such as solid deposits, polymer formation, cor-rosion and soap deposits, with biodiesel use. Kegl [43] has assessedthe injection of a mixture (diesel/biodiesel) to evaluate the emis-sion impact and concluded that it is possible to reduce the emis-sion when the engine is used appropriately. Li et al. [44] havepresented that the fuel consumption rates of pure biodiesel canbe 8–18% higher than those of conventional fuels because the heat-ing value of biodiesel is less than that of diesel fuel (No. 0). Most ofthose tests were performed in big diesel engines found in tractors,buses and trucks.

The smallest production scale previously examined in terms ofproduction equipment was 50 L. That research was conducted inThailand [45] using microtractor biodiesel from waste cookingoil, animal fat, coconut and palm oil that are abundant feedstocksin the region. Shahid and Jamal [46] related several papers inwhich biodiesel produced from different oleaginous plants wasused in agricultural activities. One example was the Pakistan bio-diesel produced from cotton oil of which the methyl ester proper-ties are very similar to the diesel properties; in a long-term testusing a proportion of 70% of biodiesel in a diesel fuel blend, the en-gine was successfully functioning for 850 h with neither apparentsigns of wear nor contamination of lubricating oil. Rashid et al.[47] explored the possibility of using indigenous Moringa oleiferafrom sub-Himalayan regions in northwest India, Africa, Arabia,Southeast Asia, the Pacific and Caribbean Islands and South Amer-ica as a potential source of biodiesel fuel, and they compared it

with other biodiesel fuels, suggesting that it is an acceptable sub-stitute for petrodiesel.

Another important study is accomplished by Sarantopouloset al. [48] in which they constructed a pilot plant for commu-nity-based installation including a batch reactor with a biodieselproduction capacity of 180 L and a maximum of four batches daily,using palm oil and others feedstocks. This study demonstrated thepotential use of this equipment in producing energy in African poorregions although further studies are required.

Three matters have been individually highlighted in those ini-tiatives: the prevalence of the production, the use of biodiesel inrural area, and the biodiesel properties and quality when usingalternative feedstocks.

Initiatives investigating all those three matters in one study areimportant to evaluate the biodiesel production potentiality for per-sonal consumption and application in small farms.

In the present work, we aimed to evaluate the production anduse of biodiesel in a family farm for personal consumption byinvestigating the adequacy of the equipment for this activity, bio-diesel quality, and consequences of biodiesel use in microtractors.

Sunflower oil was chosen for biodiesel production becausethere was a program to introduce this culture as a productive alter-native for tobacco in the studied region. To this end, a small-scalepilot plant with a projected capacity of 40–200 L biodiesel per daywas constructed.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Oil production

The oil used for biodiesel production was obtained from sun-flower seeds collected in 23 experimental crops in the Vale do RioPardo region, RS, Brazil. The oil was extracted by pressing and fil-tered afterwards (Scottech, ERT60). The extraction efficiency was33 ± 5% (m/m). The obtained oil exhibited an acid value of1.5 ± 0.3 mg g�1 KOH, a water content of 870 ± 207 mg kg�1 andan iodine index of 108–130 g I2/100 g oil.

2.2. Biodiesel production: pilot plant processing

In the agricultural crops, crude or refined sunflower oil (50 L),catalyst and methanol were placed in a reactor. After the reaction,the methyl esters were separated from the glycerol by settling for45 min and purified by acidic washing and adsorption with silica.

Preliminary studies using experimental factorial design wereperformed to optimize the variables that determine the oil conver-sion to biodiesel.

The sunflower transesterification was achieved by alkalinecatalysis with sodium methoxy from Rodhia (Brazil) at an oil/methanol ratio of 1/6. The reaction lasted for 1 h at 65 �C withstrong agitation.

The equipment was built based on the previous report fromLeevijit et al. [49]; it produced 40–200 L biodiesel per day as shownin Fig. 1. It consisted of the following parts: a reactor containing50 L of oil with heating and mechanic agitation capabilities; a cat-alyst dissolution tank containing alcohol and the catalyst for addi-tion into the reaction environment, a decanter, an adsorption tankand a lung tank. During biodiesel production, the steps were as fol-lows: reaction, decantation, glycerin separation, residual alcoholrecuperation, biodiesel washing, biodiesel drying through adsorp-tion and biodiesel and glycerin storage.

Energy consumption was monitored by the operator during allbiodiesel production steps before and after thermal isolation usingfiberglass cloth (25 mm thickness). Energy consumption was

Fig. 1. Biodiesel processing flow sheet.

3720 A.F. Porte et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 3718–3724

measured using a static three-phase, four-wire energy meter withthe accuracy of 0.1 kWh.

2.3. Biodiesel characterization

The biodiesel was analyzed in relation to the following param-eters: visual aspect, relative density, cold filter plugging point (NBR14747, specific equipment of a laboratory certified by ANP), oxida-tive stability (EN 14112, specific equipment of a laboratory certi-fied by ANP), copper corrosion (NBR 14359, equipment forcopper strip Tarnish Test, Lactea), kinematic viscosity (NBR10441, equipment for transparent and opaque liquids, Quimis),water content (NBR 11348, the Karl Fischer equipment, Quimis),sulfated ash (NBR 6294, specific equipment of a laboratory certifiedby ANP), and carbon residue (EN 10370, the Micro Chem ll equip-ment, BBI Source Scientific); Ca, Na, K and Mg content measured byinductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy (EN 14538, spe-cific equipment of a laboratory certified by ANP), fatty acid methylester content measured by gas chromatography with mass spec-troscopy (GC–MS) (EN 14103, Shimadzu QP 2010 plus), methanolcontent measured by GC–MS (NBR 15343, QP 2010 plus), mono-,di- and tri-acylglycerol content measured by high performance li-quid chromatography (HPLC) (Shimadzu 20A Prominence, detectorSPD-M20A) and free and total glycerin content measured by HPLC(EN 14105, Shimadzu 20A Prominence, detector SPD-M20A).

All the procedures were performed according to the norms andlimits established by ANP.

2.4. Field assays

Three diesel/biodiesel formulations (B2, B20 and B100) wereused for biodiesel evaluation in three Tramontini microtractorsmodel GN 18 equipped with a monocylinder, horizontal, four-stroke engine, an electric start, a direct fuel injection system fueledby a mechanic pump, and a cooling system with a sealed radiator

with nominal potency of 15 HP and 2200 rpm. Each microtractorwas fueled with a different biodiesel formulation and subjectedto normal use in three family farms.

Cold start, excessive vibration, components, injection and com-pression system wear were evaluated in the microtractors.

The equipment had been previously used for 600 h in plantationtobacco activities, such as transportation, soil preparation, plant-ing, culture care, and harvesting. The duration of the field assayswas one year.

2.4.1. Lubricant oil spectroscopic analysisA volume of 3.5 L lubricant oil (SAE 15w40) was sampled for a

baseline evaluation before starting the test. Samples were collectedafter each 100-h interval of the microtractor use. A Nicolet Magna550 FTIR spectrophotometer with a 4 cm�1 resolution and 32 scanswas used for measuring lubricant oil samples when they were ob-tained. The triplicate spectra were recorded by applying the lubri-cant oil sample on the surface of a Pike horizontal attenuated totalreflectance (HATR) sample-handling accessory with ZnSe crystal[50].

2.4.2. Engine evaluationThe microtractors used in the tests had previously been in use

for over 600 h; therefore, an initial wear in their mechanical com-ponents had been present resulting from natural use of diesel inthe engines.

Taking into consideration the initial wear, before starting thetest, the microtractors were adjusted by the manufacturer to elim-inate any discrepancy between the microtractors due to their pre-vious use, thus avoiding artifacts resulting from potential problemsin individual microtractors such as fuel contamination in the en-gines. The following engine parts were replaced:

– Injector pump element.– Injector pump pressure control valve.

Table 1Characterization of the sunflower biodiesel initially produced in family farms.

Assays Crudesunflowerbiodiesel

Refinedsunflowerbiodiesel

Specification

Visual aspect Limpid andimpurities free

Limpid andimpurities free

Limpid andimpurities free

Oxidative stability110 �C; h

0.5 2.7 6 (min)

Relative density20 �C (kg/m3)

885.4 881.5 850–900

Carbon residue (%) 0.04 0 0.05 (max)Cold filter plugging

point; �C�11 �12 19

Flash point (�C) 164 89 100 (min)Water content (mg/

kg)1143 1496 500 (max)

Cinematic viscosity(mm2/s) (cSt)

5.241 4.979 3.0–6.0

Alcohol (%) 0.9 1.36 0,2 (max)Fatty acid methyl

esters (%)96 96.5 96,5 (min)

Free glycerin (%) 0.02 0,0 0,02 (max)Monoacylglyceride

(%)0.3 0.5 To write

Diacylglyceride (%) 0.7 0.1 To writeTriacylglyceride (%) 1 0.6 To writeAcid value (mg

KOH/g)1.3 0.1 0.5

A.F. Porte et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 3718–3724 3721

– Injector element.– Fuel filter.– Injector pump seal.– Headstock seal.– Valve cover seals.– Escape collector seal.– Admission collector seal.– Lubricant oil.

Aside from these substitutions, the microtractors also under-went injection system service, headstock and collector cleaningand repair, admission and escape valve tuning and injection pointadjustment. We photo-documented the microtractor engines be-fore and after the services were performed by the manufacturerto characterize the initial condition of the engines.

After applying the diesel/biodiesel mixture to the microtrac-tors, their fuel compression and injection systems were analyzedboth visually and metrologically. Additionally, the performance ofoil filter, injector, piston top, combustion chamber, rings and cyl-inder was also assessed. The microtractors were evaluated aftereach use period of 200 h. This time amount represented the aver-age use time of the equipment for each tobacco crop rotation. Thedegree of carbonization was determined by weighing the ex-tracted residues from the pistons and headstocks of the valves.The injection system was evaluated by a leak test and a pressuretest.

During the processes of the field assays, the fuel mixtures wereprepared in volumetric proportions in the university laboratory.After the preparation, the fuel was periodically provided to thefarmers in 2-week intervals. The evaluation of engine and lubricantoil contamination was performed in the visual and metrologicalanalysis of the compression and fuel injection systems.

The engine carbonization level was evaluated by scrappingthe cylinder head and headstock valve. The scraped materialwas weighted to ensure the comparability among the threemicrotractors.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Biodiesel production

3.1.1. Pilot plant processing and biodiesel characterizationSunflower biodiesel was produced from batches of 50 L of crude

sunflower oil in the pilot plant; for comparison, biodiesel was alsoproduced from refined sunflower oil. For the transesterificationreaction, the pilot plant was optimized to work in line and to pro-duce 50 L/day.

The biodiesel characterization results demonstrated that mostof the parameters were within the limits established by ANP (Table1).

The properties of the biodiesel from crude sunflower oil, includ-ing oxidative stability, water content, alcohol content, acid valueand acylglycerol content, were different than expected. The dis-crepancies were related to feedstock and equipment configuration.Solutions such as product purification and alcohol removal wereproposed to reduce these product processing problems. However,in the present study, it was not possible to treat the feedstock be-cause of additional equipment requirements that would be cost-inhibitive for the family farms.

Modifications to the processing equipment included installationof a heat exchanger and an alternative cooling tower to reducewater consumption. These modifications resulted in improvedalcohol removal efficiency. To reduce the sunflower biodiesel acidvalue, the oil was subjected to the transesterification reactionimmediately after extracted from the seeds. It was not possible

to improve oxidative stability; therefore, the biodiesel was usedin the microtractors immediately after production.

Due to the fact that vegetable oils, including sunflower oil, havea high unsaturated fatty acid content, oxidative stability is impor-tant, especially when it is necessary to store the oil prior to use[51]. Regarding the production for personal consumption, thisproblem can be avoided by immediate use or by adding syntheticantioxidants. The oil extraction and biodiesel production must beaccomplished on an as-needed basis.

When the feedstock contains water and free fatty acids (FFA),problems such as soap formation and a decrease in the yield ofmethyl esters can occur [41]. Consequently, these factors mightcause problems in the engines that use biodiesel derived from thisfeedstock.

To avoid these potential problems in engines, water and FFAcontamination must not be neglected when biodiesel is obtainedfor personal consumption. Therefore, before using the biodieselin the microtractors, water was removed by adsorption. A silicapurification step was performed after acidic washing. The parame-ters of crude sunflower biodiesel after optimization of the process-ing procedures were as follows: the acid value of 0.4 ± 0.2%, thewater content of 480 ± 80 mg/kg and the methanol content of0.2 ± 0.1%.

A more complex production process is required to improve thebiodiesel quality produced in family farms. It is important to en-sure adequate quality of the biodiesel to avoid damage to theequipment used in family farms.

3.1.2. Pilot plant processing and energy consumptionIn pilot plant processing, the energy consumption in the biodie-

sel production steps was mainly associated with reaction temper-ature and alcohol removal temperature.

The steps for biodiesel production using optimized equipmentthat were evaluated for energy consumption were as follows: themovement of oil to the reactor using the centrifuge pump; theelectric resistance of pre-heated oil in the reactor; the addition ofthe catalyst and alcohol by gravitational force; the maintenanceof agitation and constant temperature during the transesterification

Table 2Measures of the intern components of engines in microtractors with biodiesel (B2,B20 and B100).

Components Measures (mm)

B100 B20 B2 Standard

Cylinder jacket 100.02 100.04 100.01 100.00Piston 99.85 99.85 99.90 99.90Space (ring tips) 0.80 0.80 0.65 0.30–0.50

Table 3Carbon mass deposit in the engine components.

Fuel Carbon mass (g)

B2 1.532B20 1.606B100 1.923

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reaction; glycerol decantation and separation; alcohol removalfrom the heat exchanger; acidic washing; biodiesel decantation;and purification of the biodiesel by adsorption with 1% silica (OilDry Corporation), decantation, pressing filtration and storage. En-ergy consumption was caused by the use of electric resistance,the engine used to agitate and the electric pump for material trans-fer within the equipment. The results are presented in Fig. 2.

Once the alcohol was removed by distillation from the heat ex-changer, we had increased energy consumption associated withgreater water consumption. To reduce this waste, a cooling towerwas built. Additionally, the thermal isolation of the equipmentminimized energy consumption: it reduced the energy require-ment for the reaction and alcohol removal by 45%. The small-scaleequipment developed in the present study is different from othersmall-scale plants because of its economic energy consumption.According to Stephenson et al. [52], the direct electricity requiredfor biodiesel production in a small-scale production processingplant was 82.5 MJ for 100 kg, corresponding to 130% higher energyconsumption than that was expended by our equipment for thesame feedstock weight.

3.2. Field assays

Throughout the field assays using biodiesel produced in ourprototype, only the microtractor with B100 exhibited cold startingproblems. This was especially inconvenient during the harsh win-ter in South Brazil (May–August) when the temperature was verylow. Possible solutions could include the use of a pre-heating sys-tem for the biodiesel, such as the one developed by Holt and Hoo-ker [53] using cottonseed oil in the engine, or the use of a diesel/biodiesel mixture, such as B20, which was effective in the presentstudy.

After 200 h of field assays, the internal systems of the micro-tractors were analyzed. All injector peaks exhibited normal pulver-ization, and no leak was detected in the leak test. According toVillarreyes et al. [25], the kinematic viscosity is important forvaporization and pulverization in the combustion chamber. Inthe present study, the biodiesel used in the field assays exhibitedthe kinematic viscosities of 3–6 mm2/s adjusted to B100specifications.

We observed a change in the shape of the line in the piston ofthe fuel injector pump. Corrêa et al. [54] proposed that water con-tamination in biodiesel can be responsible for this effect bydecreasing the lubrication in the high-pressure region. A widerspace between ring tips was also observed (Table 2).

On one hand, water can cause corrosion in components such aspumps, nozzles and pipes because it reduces the combustion heat,produces more smoke, makes it more difficult to start the engineand, therefore, decreases engine power [41].

Fig. 2. Energy consumption in the

On the other hand, the space between ring tips could resultfrom compression loss, combustion efficiency reduction or greaterlubricant oil consumption.

Additionally, honing loss was observed in the cylinder jacket inthe B100-microtractor. This problem was related to sliding wear,similar to surface polishing. It can occur under the conditions thathydrodynamic pressure is not capable of keeping the surfaces sep-arated, and consequently part of the load is supported by contactbetween these surfaces.

The observed honing loss indicates deficient lubrication thatcan degrade lubricant oil and be responsible for the observed spacebetween rings [39]. Thus, biodiesel containing significant watercontamination might increase deterioration of the jacket cylinderdue to reduced lubrication.

Minor contamination of the fuel filter was observed in the B100microtractor. Fuel filter contamination was not seen in the B2 orB20 mixtures. These results demonstrated that the biodiesel qual-ity was good, and the minor fuel filter contamination could be dueto decreased oxidative stability because it might have occurredduring the formation of resinous products [55].

There was little carbonization in the engine components (pis-ton, headstock valves and injection nuzzle). As listed in Table 3,the carbon mass values were not high enough to interfere with en-gine performance.

The carbon residue analysis of the biodiesel correlates with car-bon residue in the engine, and it is an important indicator of sev-eral operational problems in engines [55,56]. Reid et al. [57]demonstrated, through engine tests, that carbon deposits in the en-gine can be reduced by heating the fuel prior to combustion.

In comparison to B2 and B20, B100 generated more carbon res-idues. Importantly, the obtained carbon residues could be due to

steps of biodiesel production.

Fig. 3. Lubricant oil spectra after being used in the microtractors for 100, 200 and600 h.

A.F. Porte et al. / Fuel 89 (2010) 3718–3724 3723

the fuel viscosity modified with biodiesel addition. Higher fuelviscosity increases interference with jet formation in the combus-tion chamber and, consequently, results in poor atomization andreduced combustion. Thus, soot formation is increased [58]. Also,the carbon residues in the engine using B100 may have increasedbecause of the presence of residual glycerols (mono-, di-, and tri-acylglycerols) with a higher boiling point than biodiesel and dieselfuels [59].

3.3. Lubricant oil spectroscopic analysis

Only one type of lubricant oil was used in the microtractors. Thelubricant oil was analyzed by infrared spectroscopy that can deter-mine the types and quantities of additives in engine oil [60–62].We detected the presence of chemicals indicating methyl estercontamination, as described by Zagonel et al. [63].

The main methyl ester signals were from C@O in 1750–1725 cm�1 and tO–C–C in 1160–1050 cm�1. The acylglycerols andmethyl esters show similar signals; therefore, if the biodiesel con-tained non-converted oil, it would not be identified by infraredspectroscopy. In the other spectral regions, there was overlap ofthe signals from lubricant oil and biodiesel. Therefore, to evaluatebiodiesel contamination in the lubricant oil, we analyzed the car-bonyl (C@O) absorption peak [63] in the spectrum of lubricant oilas shown in Fig. 3.

According to Silva [64], mixtures with up to 10% biodiesel con-tent do not cause significant changes in lubricant oil physicochem-ical properties. Additionally, the contamination of the lubricant oilby biodiesel can be avoided simply by frequently changing the oil.

4. Conclusions

The equipment developed for biodiesel production was testedand specifically optimized for small-scale production and personalconsumption in family farms. The design aspects were modified toobtain high-quality biodiesel and low energy consumption. Theproduced biodiesel exhibited the characteristics similar to thoseestablished by ANP.

According to the results, we concluded that, under personalconsumption conditions, it is possible to use B100 (pure biodiesel)in microtractors in family farms even though the engine consump-tion was greater with pure biodiesel than that with biodiesel mix-tures. This issue can be resolved by periodic maintenance.

Taken together, we proposed an approach to improve biodieseluse in family farms by implementing this small-scale technology toproduce high-quality biodiesel.

As a consequence of the present study, there is an expectancy ofbiodiesel plant distribution for farmers who might use some gov-ernmental programs of ‘‘lost fund financing’’ to buy equipment.Those national programs stimulate activities of small farming asso-ciations with social purpose, meet the need for diversification inregional agricultural production in which 23 cities take part andalso contribute to reducing the fossil fuel dependence of farmersand making family farms more sustainable.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge financial support provided by SCT-RS, FINEP and FAPERGS. We additionally thank CNPq and PUIC/UNISC for scholarships given to W.L.T.S, R.A.K, and W.L.S, and theFAP/UNISC program for research support.

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