1 resource description framework: rdf rdf schema sparql based on slides by: grigoris antoniou frank...

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Resource Description Framework:

RDFRDF Schema

SPARQLBased on Slides By:Grigoris Antoniou

Frank van Harmelen

Semantic Web Layers

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Semantic Web Layers

XML layer Syntactic basis

RDF layer RDF basic data model for facts RDF Schema simple ontology language

Ontology layer More expressive languages than RDF

Schema Current Web standard: OWL

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Basic Ideas of RDF

The fundamental concepts of RDF are: resources properties statements

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Resources

We can think of a resource as an object, a “thing” we want to talk about E.g. authors, books, publishers, places,

people, hotels Every resource has a URI, a Universal

Resource Identifier A URI can be

a URL (Web address) or some other kind of unique identifier

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Properties

Properties are a special kind of resources

They describe relations between resources E.g. “written by”, “age”, “title”, etc.

Properties are also identified by URIs Advantages of using URIs:

Α global, worldwide, unique naming scheme

Reduces the homonym problem of distributed data representation

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Statements

Statements assert the properties of resources

A statement is an subject-predicate-object triple It consists of a resource, a property,

and a value Values can be resources or literals

Literals are atomic values (strings)

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Example RDF Structure

<rdf:Description rdf:ID="CIT1111"><rdf:type rdf:resource=

"http://www.mydomain.org/uni-ns#course"/>

<uni:courseName>Discrete Maths</uni:courseName>

<uni:isTaughtBy rdf:resource="#949318"/></rdf:Description>

<rdf:Description rdf:ID="949318"><rdf:type rdf:resource=

"http://www.mydomain.org/uni-ns#lecturer"/>

<uni:name>David Billington</uni:name><uni:title>Associate Professor</uni:title>

</rdf:Description>

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Abbreviated Syntax: Example

Original RDF:<rdf:Description rdf:ID="CIT1111">

<rdf:type rdf:resource="http://www.mydomain.org/uni-ns#course"/>



Simplified RDF:<uni:course rdf:ID="CIT1111" uni:courseName="Discrete

Maths"><uni:isTaughtBy rdf:resource="#949318"/>

</uni:course>

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Basic Ideas of RDF Schema

RDF is a universal language that lets users describe resources in their own vocabularies RDF does not assume, nor does it define

semantics of any particular application domain

The user can do so in RDF Schema using: Classes and Properties Class Hierarchies and Inheritance Property Hierarchies

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Class Hierarchies

Classes can be organised in hierarchies A is a subclass of B if every instance of A is

also an instance of B Then B is a superclass of A

A subclass graph need not be a tree A class may have multiple superclasses

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Property Hierarchies

Hierarchical relationships for properties E.g., “is taught by” is a subproperty of “involves” If a course C is taught by an academic staff member

A, then C also involves Α

The converse is not necessarily true E.g., A may be the teacher of the course C, or a tutor who marks student homework but does not

teach C

P is a subproperty of Q, if Q(x,y) is true whenever P(x,y) is true

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RDF Layer vs RDF Schema Layer

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Example: A University

<rdfs:Class rdf:ID="lecturer"><rdfs:comment>

The class of lecturers. All lecturers are academic staff members.</rdfs:comment><rdfs:subClassOf rdf:resource="#academicStaffMember"/>

</rdfs:Class>

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Example: A University (2)

<rdfs:Class rdf:ID="course"><rdfs:comment>The class of courses</rdfs:comment>

</rdfs:Class>

<rdf:Property rdf:ID="isTaughtBy"><rdfs:comment>

Inherits its domain ("course") and range ("lecturer")

from its superproperty "involves"</rdfs:comment><rdfs:subPropertyOf rdf:resource="#involves"/>

</rdf:Property>

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Example: A University (3)<rdf:Property rdf:ID="involves">

<rdfs:comment> It relates only courses to lecturers. </rdfs:comment> <rdfs:domain rdf:resource="#course"/> <rdfs:range rdf:resource="#lecturer"/>

</rdf:Property>

<rdf:Property rdf:ID="phone"><rdfs:comment>

It is a property of staff membersand takes literals as values.

</rdfs:comment><rdfs:domain rdf:resource="#staffMember"/><rdfs:range rdf:resource=

"http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#Literal"/>

</rdf:Property>

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Semantics based on Inference Rules

Semantics in terms of RDF triples instead of restating RDF in terms of first-order logic

… and sound and complete inference systems This inference system consists of inference

rules of the form:IF E contains certain triplesTHEN add to E certain additional

triples where E is an arbitrary set of RDF triples

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Examples of Inference Rules

IF E contains the triple (?x,?p,?y)THEN E also contains (?p,rdf:type,rdf:property)

IF E contains the triples (?u,rdfs:subClassOf,?v) and (?v,rdfs:subclassOf,?w)

THEN E also contains the triple (?u,rdfs:subClassOf,?w)

IF E contains the triples (?x,rdf:type,?u) and (?u,rdfs:subClassOf,?v)

THEN E also contains the triple (?x,rdf:type,?v)

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Examples of Inference Rules (2)

Any resource ?y which appears as the value of a property ?p can be inferred to be a member of the range of ?p This shows that range definitions in RDF Schema are

not used to restrict the range of a property, but rather to infer the membership of the range

IF E contains the triples (?x,?p,?y) and (?p,rdfs:range,?u)

THEN E also contains the triple (?y,rdf:type,?u)

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Why an RDF Query Language?Different XML Representations

XML at a lower level of abstraction than RDF There are various ways of syntactically

representing an RDF statement in XML Thus we would require several XPath

queries, e.g. //uni:lecturer/uni:title if uni:title element //uni:lecturer/@uni:title if uni:title attribute Both XML representations equivalent!

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Example: Different XML for Same RDF

Original RDF:<rdf:Description rdf:ID="CIT1111">

<rdf:type rdf:resource="http://www.mydomain.org/uni-ns#course"/>



Application of First Simplification Rule:<rdf:Description rdf:ID="CIT1111"

uni:courseName="Discrete Maths"> <rdf:type rdf:resource=

"http://www.mydomain.org/uni-ns#course"/><uni:isTaughtBy rdf:resource="#949318"/>

</rdf:Description>

Application of 2nd Simplification Rule:<uni:course rdf:ID="CIT1111" uni:courseName="Discrete

Maths"><uni:isTaughtBy rdf:resource="#949318"/>

</uni:course>

SPARQL Basic Queries

SPARQL is based on matching graph patterns

The simplest graph pattern is the triple pattern: like an RDF triple, but with the possibility of a

variable instead of an RDF term in the subject, predicate, or object positions

Combining triple patterns gives a basic graph pattern, where an exact match to a graph is needed to fulfill a pattern

Examples

PREFIX rdf: <http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#>

PREFIX rdfs: <http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#>SELECT ?cWHERE{

?c rdf:type rdfs:Class .} Retrieves all triple patterns, where:

the property is rdf:type the object is rdfs:Class

Which means that it retrieves all classes

Examples (2) Get all instances of a particular class (e.g. course) :(declaration of rdf, rdfs prefixes omitted for brevity)

PREFIX uni: <http://www.mydomain.org/uni-ns#>SELECT ?iWHERE{

?i rdf:type uni:course .}

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Using select-from-where As in SQL, SPARQL queries have a SELECT-FROM-WHERE

structure: SELECT specifies the projection: the number and order of

retrieved data FROM is used to specify the source being queried

(optional) WHERE imposes constraints on possible solutions in the

form of graph pattern templates and boolean constraints Retrieve all phone numbers of staff members:

SELECT ?x ?yWHERE { ?x uni:phone ?y .}

Here ?x and ?y are variables, and ?x uni:phone ?y represents a resource-property-value triple pattern

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Implicit Join

Retrieve all lecturers and their phone numbers:

SELECT ?x ?yWHERE

{ ?x rdf:type uni:Lecturer ;

uni:phone ?y . }

Implicit join: We restrict the second pattern only to those triples, the resource of which is in the variable ?x Here we use a syntax shorcut as well: a semicolon indicates

that the following triple shares its subject with the previous one

Implicit join (2)

The previous query is equivalent to writing:

SELECT ?x ?yWHERE{

?x rdf:type uni:Lecturer .?x uni:phone ?y .

}

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Explicit Join

Retrieve the name of all courses taught by the lecturer with ID 949352

SELECT ?nWHERE{

?x rdf:type uni:Course ;uni:isTaughtBy :949352 .

?c uni:courseName ?n .FILTER (?c = ?x) .

}

Optional Patterns

<uni:lecturer rdf:about=“949352”><uni:name>Grigoris Antoniou</uni:name>

</uni:lecturer><uni:professor rdf:about=“94318”>

<uni:name>David Billington</uni:name><uni:email>[email protected]</uni:email>

</uni:professor>

For one lecturer it only lists the name For the other it also lists the email address

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Optional Patterns (2)

All lecturers and their email addresses:

SELECT ?name ?emailWHERE{?x rdf:type uni:Lecturer ;

uni:name ?name ;uni:email ?email .

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The result of the previous query would be:

Grigoris Antoniou is listed as a lecturer, but he has no e-mail address

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?name ?email

David Billington [email protected]


As a solution we can adapt the query to use an optional pattern:

SELECT ?name ?emailWHERE{?x rdf:type uni:Lecturer ;

uni:name ?name .OPTIONAL { x? uni:email ?

email }}

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The meaning is roughly “give us the names of lecturers, and if known also their e-mail address”

The result looks like this:

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?name ?email

Grigoris Antoniou

David Billington [email protected]

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Summary

RDF provides a foundation for representing and processing metadata

RDF has a graph-based data model RDF has an XML-based syntax to support

syntactic interoperability XML and RDF complement each other because RDF

supports semantic interoperability RDF has a decentralized philosophy and allows

incremental building of knowledge, and its sharing and reuse

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Summary (2)

RDF is domain-independent - RDF Schema provides a mechanism for describing specific domains

RDF Schema is a primitive ontology language It offers certain modelling primitives with fixed

meaning Key concepts of RDF Schema are class,

subclass relations, property, subproperty relations, and domain and range restrictions

There exist query languages for RDF and RDFS, including SPARQL

Web Ontology Language: OWL

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Expressive Power of RDF Schema

Classes and Sub-classes Properties and sub-properties Range and domain restriction on

properties Instances of classes

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Limitations of the Expressive Power of RDF Schema

Local scope of properties rdfs:range defines the range of a

property (e.g. eats) for all classes In RDF Schema we cannot declare

range restrictions that apply to some classes only

E.g. we cannot say that cows eat only plants, while other animals may eat meat, too

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Limitations of the Expressive Power of RDF Schema (2)

Disjointness of classes Sometimes we wish to say that classes

are disjoint (e.g. male and female) Boolean combinations of classes

Sometimes we wish to build new classes by combining other classes using union, intersection, and complement

E.g. person is the disjoint union of the classes male and female

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Limitations of the Expressive Power of RDF Schema (3)

Cardinality restrictions E.g. a person has exactly two parents, a

course is taught by at least one lecturer Special characteristics of properties

Transitive property (like “greater than”) Unique property (like “is mother of”) A property is the inverse of another

property (like “eats” and “is eaten by”)

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Lecture Outline

1. Basic Ideas of OWL 2. The OWL Language3. Examples

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Requirements for Ontology Languages

Ontology languages allow users to write explicit, formal conceptualizations of domain models

The main requirements are: a well-defined syntax efficient reasoning support a formal semantics sufficient expressive power convenience of expression

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Tradeoff between Expressive Power and Efficient Reasoning Support

The richer the language is, the more inefficient the reasoning support becomes

Sometimes it crosses the border of noncomputability

We need a compromise: A language supported by reasonably

efficient reasoners A language that can express large classes

of ontologies and knowledge.

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Reasoning About Knowledge in Ontology Languages

Class membership If x is an instance of a class C, and C

is a subclass of D, then we can infer that x is an instance of D

Equivalence of classes If class A is equivalent to class B, and

class B is equivalent to class C, then A is equivalent to C, too

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Reasoning About Knowledge in Ontology Languages (2)

Consistency X instance of classes A and B, but A and B

are disjoint This is an indication of an error in the

ontology Classification

Certain property-value pairs are a sufficient condition for membership in a class A; if an individual x satisfies such conditions, we can conclude that x must be an instance of A

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Uses for Reasoning

Reasoning support is important for checking the consistency of the ontology and the

knowledge checking for unintended relationships between classes automatically classifying instances in classes

Checks like the preceding ones are valuable for designing large ontologies, where multiple authors are

involved integrating and sharing ontologies from various

sources

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Reasoning Support for OWL

Semantics is a prerequisite for reasoning support Formal semantics and reasoning support are

usually provided by mapping an ontology language to a known logical

formalism using automated reasoners that already exist for those

formalisms OWL is (partially) mapped on a description logic,

and makes use of reasoners such as FaCT and RACER

Description logics are a subset of predicate logic for which efficient reasoning support is possible

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Three Species of OWL

W3C’s Web Ontology Working Group defined OWL as three different sublanguages: OWL Full OWL DL OWL Lite

Each sublanguage geared toward fulfilling different aspects of requirements

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OWL Full

It uses all the OWL languages primitives It allows the combination of these

primitives in arbitrary ways with RDF and RDF Schema

OWL Full is fully upward-compatible with RDF, both syntactically and semantically

OWL Full is so powerful that it is undecidable No complete (or efficient) reasoning support

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OWL DL

OWL DL (Description Logic) is a sublanguage of OWL Full that restricts application of the constructors from OWL and RDF Application of OWL’s constructors’ to each other is

disallowed Therefore it corresponds to a well studied description

logic OWL DL permits efficient reasoning support But we lose full compatibility with RDF:

Not every RDF document is a legal OWL DL document. Every legal OWL DL document is a legal RDF

document.

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OWL Lite An even further restriction limits OWL DL

to a subset of the language constructors E.g., OWL Lite excludes enumerated classes,

disjointness statements, and arbitrary cardinality.

The advantage of this is a language that is easier to grasp, for users implement, for tool builders

The disadvantage is restricted expressivity

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OWL Compatibility with RDF Schema

All varieties of OWL use RDF for their syntax

Instances are declared as in RDF, using RDF descriptions

and typing informationOWL constructors are specialisations of theirRDF counterparts

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Lecture Outline


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OWL XML/RDF Syntax: Header

<rdf:RDFxmlns:owl ="http://www.w3.org/2002/07/owl#"xmlns:rdf ="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#"xmlns:rdfs="http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#"xmlns:xsd ="http://www.w3.org/2001/ XLMSchema#">

An OWL ontology may start with a collection of assertions for housekeeping purposes using owl:Ontology element

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owl:Ontology

<owl:Ontology rdf:about=""><rdfs:comment>An example OWL ontology </rdfs:comment><owl:priorVersion

rdf:resource="http://www.mydomain.org/uni-ns-old"/><owl:imports

rdf:resource="http://www.mydomain.org/persons"/><rdfs:label>University Ontology</rdfs:label>

</owl:Ontology>

owl:imports is a transitive property

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Classes

Classes are defined using owl:Class owl:Class is a subclass of rdfs:Class

Disjointness is defined using owl:disjointWith

<owl:Class rdf:about="#associateProfessor"><owl:disjointWith rdf:resource="#professor"/><owl:disjointWith rdf:resource="#assistantProfessor"/>

</owl:Class>

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Classes (2)

owl:equivalentClass defines equivalence of classes

<owl:Class rdf:ID="faculty"><owl:equivalentClass rdf:resource= "#academicStaffMember"/>

</owl:Class>

owl:Thing is the most general class, which contains everything

owl:Nothing is the empty class

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Properties

In OWL there are two kinds of properties Object properties, which relate

objects to other objects•E.g. is-TaughtBy, supervises

Data type properties, which relate objects to datatype values•E.g. phone, title, age, etc.

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Datatype Properties

OWL makes use of XML Schema data types, using the layered architecture of the Semantic Web

<owl:DatatypeProperty rdf:ID="age"><rdfs:range rdf:resource= "http://www.w3.org/2001/XLMSchema

#nonNegativeInteger"/></owl:DatatypeProperty>

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Object Properties

User-defined data types

<owl:ObjectProperty rdf:ID="isTaughtBy"><owl:domain rdf:resource="#course"/><owl:range rdf:resource= "#academicStaffMember"/><rdfs:subPropertyOf rdf:resource="#involves"/>

</owl:ObjectProperty>

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Inverse Properties

<owl:ObjectProperty rdf:ID="teaches"><rdfs:range rdf:resource="#course"/><rdfs:domain rdf:resource= "#academicStaffMember"/><owl:inverseOf rdf:resource="#isTaughtBy"/>


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Equivalent Properties

owl:equivalentProperty<owl:ObjectProperty rdf:ID="lecturesIn"><owl:equivalentProperty rdf:resource="#teaches"/>


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Property Restrictions

In OWL we can declare that the class C satisfies certain conditions All instances of C satisfy the conditions

This is equivalent to saying that C is subclass of a class C', where C' collects all objects that satisfy the conditions C' can remain anonymous

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Property Restrictions (2)

A (restriction) class is achieved through an owl:Restriction element

This element contains an owl:onProperty element and one or more restriction declarations

One type defines cardinality restrictions (at least one, at most 3,…)

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Property Restrictions (3)

The other type defines restrictions on the kinds of values the property may take owl:allValuesFrom specifies

universal quantification owl:hasValue specifies a specific

value owl:someValuesFrom specifies

existential quantification

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owl:allValuesFrom

<owl:Class rdf:about="#firstYearCourse"><rdfs:subClassOf> <owl:Restriction>

<owl:onProperty rdf:resource="#isTaughtBy"/>

<owl:allValuesFrom rdf:resource="#Professor"/> </owl:Restriction></rdfs:subClassOf>

</owl:Class>

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owl:hasValue

<owl:Class rdf:about="#mathCourse"><rdfs:subClassOf>

<owl:Restriction><owl:onProperty rdf:resource=

"#isTaughtBy"/><owl:hasValue rdf:resource=

"#949352"/></owl:Restriction>

</rdfs:subClassOf></owl:Class>

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owl:someValuesFrom

<owl:Class rdf:about="#academicStaffMember"><rdfs:subClassOf> <owl:Restriction>

<owl:onProperty rdf:resource="#teaches"/>

<owl:someValuesFrom rdf:resource=

"#undergraduateCourse"/> </owl:Restriction></rdfs:subClassOf>

</owl:Class>

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Cardinality Restrictions

We can specify minimum and maximum number using owl:minCardinality and owl:maxCardinality

It is possible to specify a precise number by using the same minimum and maximum number

For convenience, OWL offers also owl:cardinality

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Cardinality Restrictions (2)

<owl:Class rdf:about="#course"><rdfs:subClassOf>

<owl:Restriction><owl:onProperty

rdf:resource="#isTaughtBy"/><owl:minCardinality rdf:datatype=

"&xsd;nonNegativeInteger">1</owl:minCardinality>

</owl:Restriction></rdfs:subClassOf>

</owl:Class>

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Special Properties

owl:TransitiveProperty (transitive property) E.g. “has better grade than”, “is ancestor of”

owl:SymmetricProperty (symmetry) E.g. “has same grade as”, “is sibling of”

owl:FunctionalProperty defines a property that has at most one value for each object E.g. “age”, “height”, “directSupervisor”

owl:InverseFunctionalProperty defines a property for which two different objects cannot have the same value

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Special Properties (2)

<owl:ObjectProperty rdf:ID="hasSameGradeAs">

<rdf:type rdf:resource="&owl;TransitiveProperty"/>

<rdf:type rdf:resource="&owl;SymmetricProperty"/>

<rdfs:domain rdf:resource="#student"/>

<rdfs:range rdf:resource="#student"/>


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Boolean Combinations We can combine classes using Boolean

operations (union, intersection, complement)

<owl:Class rdf:about="#course"><rdfs:subClassOf>

<owl:Restriction><owl:complementOf

rdf:resource= "#staffMember"/>

</owl:Restriction></rdfs:subClassOf>

</owl:Class>

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Boolean Combinations (2)

<owl:Class rdf:ID="peopleAtUni"><owl:unionOf rdf:parseType="Collection">

<owl:Class rdf:about="#staffMember"/>

<owl:Class rdf:about="#student"/></owl:unionOf>

</owl:Class>

The new class is not a subclass of the union, but rather equal to the union We have stated an equivalence of classes

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Boolean Combinations (3)

<owl:Class rdf:ID="facultyInCS"><owl:intersectionOf rdf:parseType="Collection">

<owl:Class rdf:about="#faculty"/><owl:Restriction>

<owl:onProperty rdf:resource="#belongsTo"/>

<owl:hasValue rdf:resource= "#CSDepartment"/>

</owl:Restriction></owl:intersectionOf>

</owl:Class>

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Nesting of Boolean Operators

<owl:Class rdf:ID="adminStaff"><owl:intersectionOf rdf:parseType="Collection">

<owl:Class rdf:about="#staffMember"/><owl: Class> <owl:complementOf> <owl: Class>

<owl:unionOf rdf:parseType="Collection">

<owl:Class rdf:about="#faculty"/> <owl:Class

rdf:about=#techSupportStaff"/> </owl:unionOf>

</owl: Class> </owl:complementOf>

</owl: Class> </owl:intersectionOf></owl:Class>

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Enumerations with owl:oneOf

<owl:Class rdf:ID="weekdays"><owl:oneOf rdf:parseType="Collection">

<owl:Thing rdf:about="#Monday"/><owl:Thing rdf:about="#Tuesday"/><owl:Thing rdf:about="#Wednesday"/><owl:Thing rdf:about="#Thursday"/><owl:Thing rdf:about="#Friday"/><owl:Thing rdf:about="#Saturday"/><owl:Thing rdf:about="#Sunday"/>

</owl:oneOf></owl:Class>

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Declaring Instances

Instances of classes are declared as in RDF:

<rdf:Description rdf:ID="949352"><rdf:type rdf:resource= "#academicStaffMember"/>

</rdf:Description><academicStaffMember rdf:ID="949352">

<uni:age rdf:datatype="&xsd;integer"> 39<uni:age>

</academicStaffMember>

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No Unique-Names Assumption

OWL does not adopt the unique-names assumption of database systems If two instances have a different name or ID

does not imply that they are different individuals

Suppose we state that each course is taught by at most one staff member, and that a given course is taught by two staff members An OWL reasoner does not flag an error Instead it infers that the two resources are

equal

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Distinct Objects

To ensure that different individuals are indeed recognized as such, we must explicitly assert their inequality:

<lecturer rdf:about="949318"><owl:differentFrom rdf:resource="949352"/>

</lecturer>

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Distinct Objects (2)

OWL provides a shorthand notation to assert the pairwise inequality of all individuals in a given list

<owl:allDifferent><owl:distinctMembers rdf:parseType="Collection">

<lecturer rdf:about="949318"/><lecturer rdf:about="949352"/><lecturer rdf:about="949111"/>

</owl:distinctMembers></owl:allDifferent>

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Data Types in OWL

XML Schema provides a mechanism to construct user-defined data types E.g., the data type of adultAge includes all integers

greater than 18

Such derived data types cannot be used in OWL The OWL reference document lists all the XML

Schema data types that can be used These include the most frequently used types such

as string, integer, Boolean, time, and date.

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Combination of Features

In different OWL languages there are different sets of restrictions regarding the application of features

In OWL Full, all the language constructors may be used in any combination as long as the result is legal RDF

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Restriction of Features in OWL DL

Vocabulary partitioning Any resource is allowed to be only a class,

a data type, a data type property, an object property, an individual, a data value, or part of the built-in vocabulary, and not more than one of these

Explicit typing The partitioning of all resources must be

stated explicitly (e.g. a class must be declared if used in conjunction with rdfs:subClassOf)

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Restriction of Features in OWL DL (2)

Property Separation The set of object properties and data

type properties are disjoint Therefore the following can never be

specified for data type properties:owl:inverseOfowl:FunctionalPropertyowl:InverseFunctionalProperty

owl:SymmetricProperty

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Restriction of Features in OWL DL (3)

No transitive cardinality restrictions No cardinality restrictions may be placed

on transitive properties Restricted anonymous classes:

Anonymous classes are only allowed to occur as: the domain and range of either

owl:equivalentClass or owl:disjointWith

the range (but not the domain) of rdfs:subClassOf

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Restriction of Features in OWL Lite

Restrictions of OWL DL and more owl:oneOf, owl:disjointWith, owl:unionOf,

owl:complementOf and owl:hasValue are not allowed

Cardinality statements (minimal, maximal, and exact cardinality) can only be made on the values 0 or 1

owl:equivalentClass statements can no longer be made between anonymous classes but only between class identifiers

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Lecture Outline


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An African Wildlife Ontology – Class Hierarchy

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An African Wildlife Ontology – Schematic Representation

Βranches are parts of trees

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An African Wildlife Ontology – Properties

<owl:TransitiveProperty rdf:ID="is-part-of"/>

<owl:ObjectProperty rdf:ID="eats"><rdfs:domain rdf:resource="#animal"/>


<owl:ObjectProperty rdf:ID="eaten-by"><owl:inverseOf rdf:resource="#eats"/>


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An African Wildlife Ontology – Plants and Trees

<owl:Class rdf:ID="plant"><rdfs:comment>Plants form a class disjoint from animals. </rdfs:comment><owl:disjointWith rdf:resource="#animal"/>

</owl:Class>

<owl:Class rdf:ID="tree"><rdfs:comment>Trees are a type of plant. </rdfs:comment><rdfs:subClassOf rdf:resource="#plant"/>

</owl:Class>

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An African Wildlife Ontology – Branches

<owl:Class rdf:ID="branch"><rdfs:comment>Branches are parts of trees. </rdfs:comment><rdfs:subClassOf>

<owl:Restriction><owl:onProperty rdf:resource="#is-

part-of"/><owl:allValuesFrom

rdf:resource="#tree"/></owl:Restriction>


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An African Wildlife Ontology – Leaves

<owl:Class rdf:ID="leaf"><rdfs:comment>Leaves are parts of branches. </rdfs:comment><rdfs:subClassOf>

<owl:Restriction><owl:onProperty rdf:resource="#is-

part-of"/><owl:allValuesFrom

rdf:resource="#branch"/></owl:Restriction>


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An African Wildlife Ontology – Carnivores

<owl:Class rdf:ID="carnivore"><rdfs:comment>Carnivores are exactly those animalsthat eat animals.</rdfs:comment><owl:intersectionOf rdf:parsetype="Collection"><owl:Class rdf:about="#animal"/>

<owl:Restriction><owl:onProperty rdf:resource="#eats"/><owl:someValuesFrom

rdf:resource="#animal"/></owl:Restriction>

</owl:intersectionOf></owl:Class>

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An African Wildlife Ontology – Giraffes

<owl:Class rdf:ID="giraffe"><rdfs:comment>Giraffes are herbivores, and theyeat only leaves.</rdfs:comment><rdfs:subClassOf rdf:type="#herbivore"/><rdfs:subClassOf>

<owl:Restriction><owl:onProperty rdf:resource="#eats"/><owl:allValuesFrom

rdf:resource="#leaf"/></owl:Restriction>


97

An African Wildlife Ontology – Lions

<owl:Class rdf:ID="lion"><rdfs:comment>Lions are animals that eatonly herbivores.</rdfs:comment><rdfs:subClassOf rdf:type="#carnivore"/><rdfs:subClassOf>

<owl:Restriction><owl:onProperty

rdf:resource="#eats"/><owl:allValuesFrom

rdf:resource="#herbivore"/></owl:Restriction>


98

Summary

OWL is the proposed standard for Web ontologies

OWL builds upon RDF and RDF Schema: (XML-based) RDF syntax is used Instances are defined using RDF

descriptions Most RDFS modeling primitives are

used

99

Summary (2)

Formal semantics and reasoning support is provided through the mapping of OWL on logics Predicate logic and description logics have

been used for this purpose While OWL is sufficiently rich to be used

in practice, extensions are in the making They will provide further logical features,

including rules

1 resource description framework: rdf rdf schema sparql based on slides by: grigoris antoniou frank...

Documents

exampleoriginal rdf

restating rdf

vocabularies rdf

terms of rdf triples

rdf layer vs rdf schema

discrete mathssimplified

rdf schemacurrent web

basic ideas of rdf schemardf