1 psychology david myers (8 th ) ch 6: perception mr. mable & bryan alfaro tucker high school...
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PSYCHOLOGYDavid Myers (8th)Ch 6: Perception
Mr. Mable & Bryan AlfaroTucker High School
2009
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Perception
Selective Attention
Perceptual Illusions
Perceptual Organization Form Perception
Motion Perception
Perceptual Constancy
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Perception
The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory information, which enables us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
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The process of
organizing
information, enabling
us to recognize
meaningful object and
events
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Selective Attention
Perceptions about objects change from moment to moment. We can perceive different forms of
the Necker cube; however, we can only pay attention to one aspect of the object at a time.
Necker Cube
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At a party, where many voices are speaking simultaneously, we may 'focus' our ears on one voice and ignore others which are equally strong. Spatial differences in the location of the sources greatly assists this ability.
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Inattentional Blindness
Inattentional blindness refers to the inability to see an object or a person in our midst.
Simmons & Chabris (1999) showed that half of the observers failed to see the gorilla-suited assistant in a ball passing game.
Dan
iel S
imon
s, U
nive
rsit
y of
Ill
inoi
s
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Change Blindness
Change blindness is a form of inattentional blindness in which two-thirds of individuals giving directions failed to notice a change in
the individual asking for directions.
© 1998 Psychonomic Society Inc. Image provided courtesy of Daniel J. Simmons.
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Perceptual Illusions
Illusions provide good examples in understanding how perception is
organized. Studying faulty perception is as important as studying other perceptual
phenomena.
Line AB is longer than line BC.
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Tall Arch
In this picture, the vertical dimension of the arch looks longer than the horizontal
dimension. However, both are
equal.
Rick F
riedman/ B
lack Star
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Illusion of a Worm
The figure on the right gives the illusion of a blue hazy “worm” when it is nothing else but blue lines identical to the figure on the left.
© 1981, by perm
ission of Christoph R
edies and L
othar Spillmann and Pion L
imited, L
ondon
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3-D Illusion
It takes a great deal of effort to perceive this figure in two dimensions.
Reprinted w
ith kind permission of E
lsevier Science-NL
. Adapted from
H
offman, D
. & R
ichards, W. Parts of recognition. C
ognition, 63, 29-78
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Vision’s preeminence over the other four senses
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Perceptual Organization
When vision competes with our other senses, vision usually wins – a
phenomena called visual capture.How do we form meaningful
perceptions from sensory information?
We organize it. Gestalt psychologists showed that a figure formed a
“whole” different than its surroundings.
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Organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their
surroundings (ground).
Form Perception
Tim
e Savings S
uggestion, © 2003 R
oger Sheperd.
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The whole is greater than the sum of its parts
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Viewed as separate dots and blotches, this image does not seem to create anything, but through gestalt theory, we can perceive one whole image created by the dots to make a dog sniffing the ground
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Grouping
After distinguishing the figure from the ground, our perception needs to organize the figure into
a meaningful form using grouping rules.
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Grouping & Reality
Although grouping principles usually help us construct reality, they may occasionally lead us
astray.
Both photos by W
alter Wick. R
eprinted from G
AM
ES
Magazine. .©
1983 PCS G
ames L
imited Partnership
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Binocular Cues
Retinal disparity: Images from the two eyes differ. Try looking at your two index fingers when pointing them
towards each other half an inch apart and about 5 inches directly in front of your eyes. You will see a
“finger sausage” as shown in the inset.
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Depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes
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Binocular Cues
Convergence: Neuromuscular cues. When two eyes move inward (towards the nose) to
see near objects and outward (away from the nose) to see faraway objects.
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A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
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Depth Perception
Visual Cliff
Depth perception enables us to judge distances. Gibson and Walk (1960) suggested that human infants (crawling age) have depth perception. Even newborn animals show depth perception.
Inne
rvis
ions
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Depth Cues such as interposition and linear perspective available to either eye alone
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Monocular Cues
Relative Size: If two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts a
smaller retinal image to be farther away.
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Monocular Cues
Interposition: Objects that occlude (block) other objects tend to be perceived as
closer.R
ene Magritte, The B
lank Signature, oil on canvas, N
ational Gallery of A
rt, Washington. C
ollection of M
r. and Mrs. Paul M
ellon. Photo by Richard C
arafelli.
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Monocular Cues
Relative Clarity: Because light from distant objects passes through more light than closer objects, we
perceive hazy objects to be farther away than those objects that appear sharp and clear.
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Monocular Cues
Texture Gradient: Indistinct (fine) texture signals an increasing distance.
© E
ric Lessing/ A
rt Resource, N
Y
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Monocular Cues
Relative Height: We perceive objects that are higher in our field of vision to be farther away than those that are
lower.
Image courtesy of S
haun P. V
ecera, Ph. D
., adapted from
stimuli that appered in V
ecrera et al., 2002
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Monocular Cues
Relative motion (Motion Parallax): Objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in opposing
direction to those objects that are farther away from a fixation point, moving slower and in the same
direction.
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Monocular Cues
Linear Perspective: Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge in the distance. The more the lines converge, the
greater their perceived distance.
© T
he New
Yorker C
ollection, 2002, Jack Ziegler
from cartoonbank.com
. All rights reserved.
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Monocular Cues
Light and Shadow: Nearby objects reflect more light into our eyes than more distant objects. Given two identical objects, the dimmer one appears to
be farther away.
From
“Perceiving S
hape From
Shading” by V
ilayaur S
. Ram
achandran. © 1988 by S
cientific Am
erican, Inc. A
ll rights reserved.
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Motion Perception
Motion Perception: Objects traveling towards us grow in size and those moving away shrink in size. The same is true when the observer moves to or from an object.
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Apparent Motion
Phi Phenomenon: When lights flash at a certain speed they tend to present illusions of motion. Neon signs use this principle to
create motion perception.
Two lights flashing one after the other.One light jumping from one point to another: Illusion of motion.
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the process of inferring the speed and direction of objects and surfaces that move in a visual scene given some visual input.
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Perceptual Constancy
Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change.
Perceptual constancies include constancies of shape and size.
Shape Constancy
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Size Constancy
Stable size perception amid changing size of the stimuli.
Size Constancy
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Size-Distance Relationship
The distant monster (below, left) and the top red bar (below, right) appear bigger
because of distance cues.
From Shepard, 1990
Alan C
hoisnet/ The Im
age Bank
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Size-Distance Relationship
Both girls in the room are of similar height. However, we perceive them to be of different heights as they stand in the two corners of the
room.
Both photos from S. Schwartzenberg/ The Exploratorium
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Ames Room
The Ames room is designed to demonstrate the size-distance illusion.
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Lightness Constancy
The color and brightness of square A and B are the same.
Courte
sy E
dwar
d A
delso
n
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Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even when changing illumination filters
the light reflected by the object.
Color Constancy
Color Constancy
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Perception
Perceptual Interpretation Sensory Deprivation and
Restored Vision
Perceptual Adaptation
Perceptual Set
Perception and Human Factor
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Perceptual Interpretation
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) maintained that knowledge comes from our inborn ways of
organizing sensory experiences.
John Locke (1632-1704) argued that we learn to perceive the world through our
experiences.
How important is experience in shaping ourperceptual interpretation?
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Restored Vision
After cataract surgery, blind adults were able to regain sight. These
individuals could differentiate figure and ground relationships, yet they had difficulty distinguishing a circle
and a triangle (Von Senden, 1932).
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Facial Recognition
After blind adults regained sight, they
were able to recognize distinct features, but
were unable to recognize faces.
Normal observers also show difficulty in facial recognition when the
lower half of the pictures are changed.
Courtesy of R
ichard LeG
rand
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Kittens raised without exposure to horizontal lines later had difficulty
perceiving horizontal bars.
Blakemore & Cooper (1970)
Sensory Deprivation
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Perceptual Adaptation
Visual ability to adjust to an
artificially displaced visual field, e.g., prism glasses.
Courtesy of H
ubert Dolezal
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Perceptual Set
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. What you see in the center picture is influenced by flanking pictures.
From
Shepard, 1990.
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(a) Loch ness monster or a tree trunk; (b) Flying
saucers or clouds?
Perceptual Set
Other examples of perceptual set.
Frank Searle, photo Adam
s/ Corbis-Sygm
a
Dick R
uhl
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Children's schemas represent reality as well as their abilities to represent what they see.
Schemas
Schemas are concepts that organize and interpret unfamiliar information.
Courtesy of A
nna Elizabeth V
oskuil
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Students recognized a caricature of Arnold Schwarzenegger faster than his actual photo.
Features on a Face
Face schemas are accentuated by specific features on the face.
Kieran L
ee/ FaceL
ab, Departm
ent of Psychology,
University of W
estern Australia
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Eye & Mouth
Eyes and mouth play a dominant role in face recognition.
Courtesy of C
hristopher Tyler
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Is the “magician cabinet” on the floor or hanging from the ceiling?
Context Effects
Context can radically alter perception.
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To an East African, the woman sitting is balancing a metal box on her head, while the family is sitting
under a tree.
Cultural Context
Context instilled by culture also alters perception.
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Perception Revisited
Is perception innate or acquired?
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A branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
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Perception & Human Factors
Human Factor Psychologists design machines that assist our natural perceptions.
The knobs for the stove burners on the right are easier to understand than those on the left.
Photodisc/ P
unchstock
Courtesy of G
eneral Electric
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Human Factors & Misperceptions
Understanding human factors enables us to design equipment to prevent disasters.
Two-thirds of airline crashes caused by human error are largely due to errors of perception.
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Human Factors in Space
To combat conditions of monotony, stress, and weightlessness when traveling to Mars, NASA engages Human Factor Psychologists.
Transit Habituation (Transhab), NASA
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Perception
Is there Extrasensory Perception? Claims of ESP
Premonitions or Pretensions
Putting ESP to Experimental Test
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Is There Extrasensory Perception?
Perception without sensory input is called extrasensory perception (ESP). A large
percentage of scientists do not believe in ESP.
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The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
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The study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psycho kinesis
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Claims of ESPParanormal phenomena include
astrological predictions, psychic healing, communication with the dead, and out-of-body experiences, but most relevant are
telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.
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Claims of ESP
1. Telepathy: Mind-to-mind communication. One person sending thoughts and the other receiving them.
2. Clairvoyance: Perception of remote events, such as sensing a friend’s house on fire.
3. Precognition: Perceiving future events, such as a political leader’s death.
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Premonitions or Pretensions?
Can psychics see the future? Can psychics aid police in identifying locations of dead bodies? What about psychic predictions of
the famous Nostradamus?
The answers to these questions are NO! Nostradamus’ predictions are “retrofitted” to events that took place after his predictions.
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The Ganzfield Procedure
• a 'receiver' relaxes with halved ping-pong balls over the eyes
• red light shone on them. wearing headphones through which white noise (static) is played.
• The receiver is in this state of mild sensory deprivation
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Putting ESP to Experimental Test
In an experiment with 28,000 individuals, Wiseman attempted to prove whether or not
one can psychically influence or predict a coin toss. People were able to correctly influence or
predict a coin toss 49.8% of the time.