1

PSYCHOLOGY(8th Edition)David Myers

PowerPoint SlidesAneeq Ahmad

Henderson State University

Worth Publishers, © 2006

2

Intelligence

Chapter 11

3

Statistical ReasoningStatistical procedures analyze and

interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye misses.

Composition of ethnicity in urban locales

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

• FOUR TYPES:– N : the number of observations that make up the

data set– Measures of Central Tendency: the typical value

of a set of data– Measures of Variability: summarizes the spread,

or variability, in a set of data– Correlation Coefficient: expresses the

correlation or relationship between two sets of data 4

5

Measures of Central Tendency: most typical scoreMode: The most frequently occurring

score in a distribution.

Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together.

Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.

6

Measures of Central TendencyA Skewed Distribution - what is the

effect of an extreme score on the mean?

7

REGRESSION TO THE MEAN

• There is a tendency overtime for scores to move toward the mean.

• How might this apply to your test scores?

8

CorrelationWhen one trait or behavior

accompanies another, we say the two correlate.

Correlation coefficient

Indicates directionof relationship

(positive or negative)

Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)

r = 0.37+

Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two

variables.

9

CORRELATION

• POSITIVE CORRELATION: A direct relationship. Two variables increase or decrease together.

• NEGATIVE CORRELATION: An inverse relationship. As one variable increases, the other decreases.

10

CORRELATION

• Strength of the relationship is indicated by the number. – The closer it is to zero, the weaker the

relationship– The closer it is to one (plus or minus), the

stronger the relationship– Interpret:

• +.8, -,2, -.9, +.3

Correlation: Which of the following examples are

positive,negative or zero?

• 1) speed in running and the number of bricks carried while running

• 2) IQ and shoe size

• 3) IQ and school grades

11

12

or

Correlation does not mean causation!!!

13

STATISTICS LAB PACKET

• Go over pages 4, 5, 6.

• Complete page 9.

14

Measures of VariationRange: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

15

Normal CurveStandardized tests establish a normal

distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve or normal distribution.

16

SKEWED DISTRIBUTION

• Positive skew = very high scores pull the mean toward the higher end (mean is more positive or greater than the rest of the scores); tails to the right due to high scores

• Negative skew = very low scores cause mean being pulled down toward the lower end of the scores; tails to left due to low scores

17

STANDARD DEVIATION

• Standard deviation is based on how different the scores are from each other.

• The normal distribution is based on standard deviations and allows us to see what percent of the population would “normally” fall within a certain range of scores.

• Consider height and intelligence on the normal distribution .

18

STANDARD DEVIATION

• Let’s assume that the average height for women is 64 inches and the standard deviation is 2 inches

• This means that:– 68% of the population of women is between __ and __

inches.– 95% of the female population are between ___ and

____ inches – Since the normal curve is symmetrical, then 2.5% of

women’s heights are below ____ inches and 2.5% have heights above ____.

19

STANDARD DEVIATION

• Let’s assume that the average height for women is 64 inches and the standard deviation is 2 inches

• This means that:– 68% of the population of women is between __ and __

inches.– 95% of the female population are between ___ and

____ inches – Since the normal curve is symmetrical, then 2.5% of

women’s heights are below ____ inches and 2.5% have heights above ____.

20

Normal CurveStandardized tests establish a normal

distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve or normal distribution.

21

Normal CurveStandardized tests establish a normal

distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called

the normal curve.

• Calculating the Standard Deviation

22

23

CALCULATING STANDARD DEVIATION

• Standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

• Variance is the measure of how different the scores are from each other. In other words, how much spread there is overall among the scores.

• The difference between the scores is measured by the distance of each score from the mean of all the scores.

24

Standard Deviation

REVIEW

• Null hypothesis

• Statistical significance

• Experimental group

• Control group

• Independent variable

• Dependent variable

• Confounding variables25

26

STANDARD DEVIATION

• Complete pages 7, 8, and 10 in your Statistics Lab Packet

27

REVIEW

• What information about data do the measures of central tendency show?

• What information about data do the range and standard deviation show?

• Draw two graphs both with normal distributions and one with a SD = 4; the other with a SD = 14

STATISTICS FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

• Complete Stat lab• Complete Study Guide Questions; correct:

– Page 24: #’s 13 -18, 20 – Page 27: # 19– Page 29: #’s 15, 17

• Complete the following multiple choice questions in Statistics in Psychological Research Test:

#21 - #30• See Mrs. K-H with all materials

28

29

Making Inferences

A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by

experimental manipulation or by chance.

30

Making InferencesWhen is an Observed Difference Reliable?

1. Representative samples are better than biased samples.

2. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.

3. More cases are better than fewer cases.

31

Making Inferences

When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance.

For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level, set at 5 percent (.05). A greater than one in twenty probability is considered to be not due to chance alone.

When is a Difference Significant?

32

Making Inferences

Statistical significance refers to how two groups’ means are different. If you graphed the data from two groups

and the graphs did not overlap or only overlapped a little, then the difference would be significant. If the

graphs overlapped a lot, then the difference would not be significant.

Significance allows you to say how likely the difference in means is due to chance. The usual goal is to get a significant level of 0.05 (or five percent), which says

that the results are only 5 percent due to chance (or 95 percent due to your independent variable.)

When is a Difference Significant?

STATISTICS FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

• Complete Appendix 2: Statistical Reasoning

• Omit Question #’s 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 15, 18, 19, 21, 25, 31, 32

• Underline in the stem of the question the concept being tested

33

34

DIRECTIONS FOR STATISTICS ACTIVITIES

Complete Standard Deviation handout; you will need a ruler and/or graph paper

. Complete Study Guide Questions; correct– Page 24: #’s 13 -18, 20 – Page 27: # 19– Page 29: #’s 15, 17

If you need additional help complete PsychSim 5: Descriptive Statistics at home

35

TRUE OR FALSE?

1. People with higher IQs have longer life spans.2. Exceptionally creative architects,

mathematicians, scientists, and engineers usually score no higher on intelligence tests than do their less creative peers.

3. Highly educated people die with more synapses than their less-educated peers.

4. There is a slight positive correlation between brain size and intelligence score.

36

TRUE OR FALSE?

5. Today’s Americans score higher on IQ tests than Americans did in the 1930’s.

6. How quickly 2 to 7 month-old babies become bored with a picture is one indicator of later intelligence.

7. As adopted children grow older, their intelligence scores become more similar to those of their biological parents than to those of their adoptive parents.

37

ANSWERS

1. TRUE

2. TRUE

3. TRUE

4. TRUE

5. TRUE

6. TRUE

7. TRUE

38

Intelligence

Do we have an inborn general mental capacity (intelligence)? If so, can we

quantify this capacity as a meaningful number?

39

Defining Intelligence - Intro

• Who is more intelligent?– Lady Gaga or Tiger Woods?– Chase Utley or Peyton Manning?– Albert Einstein or Donald Trump?

• How is intelligence measured by schools?

• How has this impacted your life?

40

A Conceptual Definition of Intelligence

• Intelligence is an inferred process that humans use to explain the different degrees of adaptive success in people’s behavior.

41

Operational Definitions of Intelligence

• Intelligence is .........– A person’s score on an IQ test– The extent of a person’s education– A person’s verbal skills

A person’s adaptability in new circumstances

A person’s yearly income

42

What is Intelligence?

Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new

situations.

In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures.

This tends to be “school smarts.”

43

Controversies About Intelligence

Despite general agreement among psychologists about the nature of

intelligence, two controversies remain:

1. Is intelligence a single overall ability or is it several specific abilities?

2. With modern neuroscience techniques, can we locate and measure intelligence within the brain?

44

Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?

Have you ever thought that since people’s mental abilities are so diverse, it

may not be justifiable to label those abilities with only one word, intelligence?

You may speculate that diverse abilities represent different kinds of intelligences.

How can you test this idea?

45

General Intelligence

The idea that general intelligence (g) exists comes from the work of Charles

Spearman (1863-1945) who helped develop the factor analysis approach in

statistics.

Athleticism, like intelligence, is many things

46

General Intelligence

Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis.

For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on

paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal

intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning

ability factor.

47

General Intelligence

Later psychologists analyzed Thurstone’s data and found a weak relationship

between these clusters, suggesting some evidence of a g factor.

Satoshi Kanazawa theorized that general intelligence evolved to help people solve

novel problems, distinct from evolutionarily familiar problems like reading emotions or finding a mate

(different type of intelligence)

48

General Intelligence

L. L. Thurstone, a critic of Spearman, analyzed his subjects NOT on a single scale of general intelligence, but on

seven clusters of primary mental abilities, including:

1. Word Fluency2. Verbal

Comprehension3. Spatial Ability4. Perceptual Speed5. Numerical Ability6. Inductive Reasoning7. Memory

49

Contemporary Intelligence Theories

Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) supports Thurstone’s idea that intelligence comes

in multiple forms. Gardner notes that brain damage may diminish one type of

ability but not others.

People with savant syndrome excel in abilitiesunrelated to general intelligence.

50

Howard Gardner

Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences and speculates about a ninth one — existential intelligence. Existential intelligence is the ability to think about the

question of life, death and existence.

51

DEVELOPING AND PRESENTING A LESSON ON

INTELLIGENCE

• Select the intelligence area

• Read the appropriate pages

• Plan lesson emphasizing your intelligence area in your activities

• Fill out lesson plan

52

LESSON PLAN CHECKLIST

• Do each of your objectives start with a verb?

• Is each objective measurable?• Do the activities reflect the intelligence

domain?• Do the activities match the objectives?• Is the lesson approximately 10 minutes in

length?

53

Robert Sternberg’ Triarchic Theory

Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with Gardner, but suggests three intelligences rather than eight.

1. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests.

2. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.

3. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).

54

Criticism of Sternberg

• Three intelligences are not as independent of each other as Sternberg asserts

• Three areas actually share an underlying general intelligence

• Practical intelligence is actually: g + personality + motivation

55

Theories: Comparison

56

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions (Salovey and colleagues, 2005). The test

of emotional intelligence measures overall emotional intelligence and its four

components.

57

Emotional Intelligence: Components

Component Description

Perceive emotionRecognize emotions in

faces, music and stories

Understand emotion

Predict emotions, how they change and blend

Manage emotionExpress emotions in different situations

Use emotionUtilize emotions to adapt or

be creative

58

Emotional Intelligence

Modestly better job performance

Can delay gratification

Often succeed in career, marriage, and parenting situations where academically smarter but emotionally less intelligent people fail

59

Emotional Intelligence: Criticism

Gardner and others criticize the idea of emotional intelligence and question whether

we stretch this idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our emotions.

“g” does predict both occupational status and job performance.

g gets you in the door; other factors determine success

60

Intelligence and Creativity

Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. It correlates

somewhat with intelligence.1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.2. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things

in novel ways.3. Adventuresome Personality: A personality that

seeks new experiences rather than following the pack.

4. Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within.

5. A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom.

61

CREATIVIY

• What is the difference between convergent and divergent thinking?

• Give examples of each.

• Which type of thinking, convergent or divergent, is generally associated with creativity?

62

Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable?

Recent Studies indicate some correlation (about +.40) between brain size and

intelligence. As brain size decreases with age, scores on verbal intelligence tests also

decrease.

Gray matter concentration in people with high intelligence.

63

Brain FunctionStudies of brain functions show that people

who score high on intelligence tests perceive stimuli faster, retrieve information from memory quicker, and show faster brain

response times.

People with higher intelligence respond correctly and quickly tothe above question.

64

Conceptual Difficulties

Psychologists believe that intelligence is a concept and not a thing.

When we think of intelligence as a trait (thing) we make an error called

reification — viewing an abstract immaterial concept as if it were a

concrete thing. (Example: She has an IQ of 120)

65

REIFICATION

• WE INVENT A CONCEPT, GIVE IT A NAME, AND THEN CONVICE OURSELF IT EXISTS.

66

INTELLIGENCE AND CULTURE

• Intelligence is a socially constructed concept. What does our culture deem as intelligent?

67

Generally Accepted Definition of Intelligence

• Mental quality consisting ofthe ability to learn from experience

solve problems

use knowledge to adapt to new situations

68

Controversies About Intelligence

Despite general agreement among psychologists about the nature of

intelligence, two controversies remain:

1. Is intelligence a single overall ability or is it several specific abilities?

2. With modern neuroscience techniques, can we locate and measure intelligence within the brain?

69

Assessing Intelligence

Psychologists define intelligence testing as a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others

using numerical scores.

70

Alfred Binet

Alfred Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon practiced a

more modern form of intelligence testing by developing questions

that would predict children’s future

progress in the Paris school system.

71

Alfred Binet

• Binet and Simon set out to measure mental age: the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

• They theorized that mental aptitude is a general capacity that might predict school achievement

• Binet refused to speculate as to what the test measured or what led to high or low scores

• Binet felt tests should be used solely to identify children needing special attention

72

Lewis TermanIn the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test for

American school children and named

the test the Stanford-Binet Test. The following is the

formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), introduced by

William Stern:

73

Intelligence Quotient

• IQ as measured by the Stanford-Binet worked well for children, but not for adults

• Current scores of intelligence are the test-taker’s performance relative to the average performance of others the same age (norms are established)

• Average score = 100

74

INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT

• Terman was an advocate of widespread use of intelligence tests (believed in innate intelligence) as well as eugenics (encourage only the smart and fit people to reproduce)

75

GENERAL APTITUDE TESTS

• DO GENERAL APTITUDE TESTS HAVE MORE RELIABILITY OR VALIDITY?– Predictive power diminishes with age– Best for young children– Major reason is the narrowness of the range

(who will you be competing against in college? Will SAT scores predict your performance?)

76

Abuses of Intelligence Tests

• Testing of immigrants led to quota laws

• World War I recruits used to establish unfair immigration laws with biased quotas esp against Southern and Eastern Europeans

http://encarta.msn.com/media_461550852_761570026_-1_1/

U_S_Army_Alpha_Intelligence_Test_Sample_Questions.html

77

Aptitude and Achievement Tests

Aptitude tests are intended to predict your ability to learn a new skill and achievement tests are intended to reflect what you have

already learned.

78

David Wechsler

Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

(WAIS) and later the Wechsler Intelligence

Scale for Children (WISC), an

intelligence test for preschoolers.

79

WAIS

WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intelligence that

are designed to assess clinical and educational problems.

80

WAIS AND WISC

• Significant improvement over previous tests

• Nonverbal performance scales less native language dependent

• Less dependent on culture knowledge

• Transparency examples:

81

• To keep average scores near 100, Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales are re-standardized.

82

Normal Curve

Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested

population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.

83

Flynn Effect

In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27

points. This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.

84

FLYNN EFFECT

• Reason is unknown• Possible explanations:

– Nutrition– Schooling– Stimulating environments– Hybrid vigor– Testing familiarity

85

Principles of Test Construction

For a psychological test to be acceptable it must fulfill the following three criteria:

1. Standardization

2. Reliability3. Validity

86

Standardization

Standardizing a test involves administering the test to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a

basis for meaningful comparison.

87

Reliability

A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers

establish different procedures:

1. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.

2. Reliability using different tests: Using different forms of the test to measure consistency between them.

3. Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.

88

RELIABILITY

• To establish reliability, you look for high correlation coefficient

• Current IQ tests are +.9

89

Validity

Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is

supposed to measure or predict.

1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait.

2. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.

3. Criterion Validity: Test agrees with an independent measure of what the test aims to assess.

90

ACTIVITY

• Within a small group, develop a test of general athletic ability.

• This activity will give you practice with the concepts of operational definitions, standardization, reliability, and validity.

91

The Dynamics of Intelligence

Does intelligence remain stable over a lifetime or does it change? Are individuals

on the two extremes of the intelligence scale really that different?

92

Stability or Change?

Intelligence scores become stable after about seven years of age. In numerous

studies, stability of intelligence scores have been determined (Angoff, 1988; Deary et al.,

2004).

93

STABILITY OR CHANGE?

• Based on SAT scores, verbal and math scores are only moderately correlated, indicating these aptitudes are distinct.

• Reliability between two verbal measurements or two math measurements is high, indicating stability

• Some studies have shown a link with late onset Alzheimer’s and lower verbal ability.

94

Extremes of Intelligence

A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high

intelligence (IQ 130). These two groups are significantly different.

95

Mental Retardation

Mentally retarded individuals required constant supervision a few decades ago, but with a supportive family environment and special education they can now care for

themselves.

96

CAUSES OF MENTAL RETARDATION

• Syndromes: Downs, Williams

• Familial retardation

• FAS

• Brain damage

97

High Intelligence

Contrary to popular belief, people with high intelligence test scores tend to be healthy,

well adjusted, and unusually successful academically.

98

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence

No other topic in psychology is so passionately followed as the one that asks

the question, “Is intelligence due to genetics or environment?”

99

GENETIC INFLUENCES

• Identical twin IQ scores virtually identical (including those raised separately – Bouchard)

• Identical twins have very similar gray matter volume

• Genes for genius?

100

Genetic Influences

Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children together support the idea

that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence.

101

Adoption Studies

Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted

parents.

102

HERITABILITY

• Definition: the variation is attributable to genetic factors

• We can attribute to heredity 50% of the variation in intelligence.

• We can never say what percentage of an individual’s intelligence is inherited.

• Explain: the more environments are similar, the more heritable are traits such as intelligence

• Why do genes and environment correlate? Outliers example.

103

Environmental Influences

Studies of twins and adopted children also show the following:

1. Fraternal twins raised together tend to show similarity in intelligence scores.

2. Identical twins raised apart show slightly less similarity in their intelligence scores.

104

Early Intervention Effects

Early neglect from caregivers leads children to develop a lack of personal control over the

environment, and it impoverishes their intelligence.

Romanian orphans with minimalhuman interaction are delayed in their development.

105

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

• Among the poor, environmental conditions can override genetic differences.

• Malnutrition• Environment has a bigger influence in

extreme cases than in “normal” compared to “enriched”

• Early intervention programs such as Head Start have marginal benefits

106

Schooling Effects

Schooling is an experience that pays dividends, which is reflected in intelligence scores. Increased schooling correlates with

higher intelligence scores.

To increase readiness for schoolwork,projects like Head Start facilitate leaning.

107

Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores

Why do groups differ in intelligence? How can we make sense of these differences?

108

Ethnic Similarities and Differences

1. Racial groups differ in their average intelligence scores.

2. High-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education and income.

To discuss this issue we begin with two disturbing but agreed upon facts:

109

Racial (Group) Differences

If we look at racial differences, white Americans score higher in average

intelligence than black Americans (Avery and others, 1994). European New

Zealanders score higher than native New Zealanders (Braden, 1994).

White-Americans Black-Americans

Average IQ = 100 Average IQ = 85

Hispanic Americans

110

GROUP DIFFERENCES

• Do these scores tell us anything about an individual’s performance on an IQ test?

• Graph of normal distributions

• Does heredity contribute to these group differences?

• Review heritability

111

REACTION RANGE

• An individual’s potential intelligence is their reaction range

• The reaction range is approximately 15 points

• What is the relevance for group differences?

112

Environmental Effects

Differences in intelligence among these groups are largely environmental, as if one environment is more fertile in developing

these abilities than another.

113

Reasons Why Environment Affects Intelligence

1. Races are remarkably alike genetically. 2. Race is a social category, not a neatly

defined biological category.3. Asian students outperform North American

students on math achievement and aptitude tests.

4. Today’s better prepared populations would outperform populations of the 1930s on intelligence tests.

5. White and black infants tend to score equally well on tests predicting future intelligence.

6. Different ethnic groups have experienced periods of remarkable achievement in different eras.

114

Reasons Why Environment Affects Intelligence, continued

The Flynn effect is the same margin that intelligence test scores differ between blacks and whites

Gap between black and white scores widen in High School and decrease rapidly in college. Explanation?

115

Gender Similarities and Differences

There are seven ways in which males and females differ in various abilities.

1. Girls are better spellers

2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large vocabularies

3. Girls are better at locating objects

4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color

5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement

6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, but under perform at math computation

7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do

116

Gender Similarities and Differences

8. Math SAT scores: males are over represented at extreme scores

9. Males do better in physics and computer science AP courses

10. Males tend to excel at spatial tasks such as rotating 3-dimensional objects in one’s mind

117

REASONS FOR GENDER DIFFERENCES

• Evolutionary history as hunters and gatherers

• Exposure to hormones during prenatal period

118

GENDER DIFFERENCES

• Eliz Spelke: differences are oversimplified

Women MenVerbal fluency verbal

analogies

Math calculations reasoning

etc

119

The Question of Bias

• Previous tests were biased in favor of certain cultural experiences, Wechsler’s addition of a nonverbal aspect improved this problem

• Current tests only expose unequal experience and opportunities that have real consequences (not bias, rather reality)

120

The Question of Bias

Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences.

However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense that they do accurately predict

performance of one group over the other.

121

Stereotype Threat

A stereotype threat is a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype (Claude Steele).

This phenomenon appears in some instances in intelligence testing among

African-Americans and among women of all colors.

122

STEREOTYPE THREAT

• Over time when reminded of stereotype– Students will disidentify with school

achievement

– Detach their self-esteem from academics and look for self-esteem elsewhere

123

INTELLIGENCE:COMPUTER ACTIVITIES

Go to my Web Page, Intelligence Homework Page

intelligence (sunsetpsychology)Complete this until you can do it without ANY

mistakes

PsychSim Get Smart