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Principles of Drama:Principles of Drama:Aristotle—Tragedy Aristotle—Tragedy

Dr. Stephen OgdenDr. Stephen Ogden

BCIT Liberal StudiesBCIT Liberal Studies

Commentary on DramaCommentary on Drama

PLATO (5PLATO (5thth C. BC) C. BC) The RepublicThe Republic: :

describes, from pure describes, from pure reason alone, the reason alone, the perfect State.perfect State. Set in dramatic formSet in dramatic form

Drama must justify its Drama must justify its place in the perfect place in the perfect society.society.

But, drama is not the But, drama is not the truth, by definition—it truth, by definition—it is a copy: an imitation, is a copy: an imitation, a LIE.a LIE.

It also shows bad It also shows bad things in a likeable waythings in a likeable way

The The qualityquality of the of the drama is irrelevant: in drama is irrelevant: in fact excellent artistry fact excellent artistry in an evil cause is the in an evil cause is the worst possible evil: worst possible evil: coruptio optima est coruptio optima est pessimapessima..

Drama is extremely Drama is extremely dangerous because dangerous because ordinary people ordinary people mistake– or even mistake– or even preferprefer –lies to truth: –lies to truth: that is, fantasy to that is, fantasy to reality.reality.

Two Main Conceptions of Two Main Conceptions of DramaDrama

PlatoPlato: the Rationalist-Moralist conception : the Rationalist-Moralist conception of Drama.of Drama. use rational process of reason to determine use rational process of reason to determine

what drama is (what drama is (i.e. i.e. its nature) and what follows its nature) and what follows from that necessarily by logic. Shows what from that necessarily by logic. Shows what shouldshould be the case in theory. be the case in theory.

AristotleAristotle: the empirical-scientific : the empirical-scientific conception of Drama.conception of Drama. use observation to show what works and what use observation to show what works and what

doesn’t work in fact. Shows what doesn’t work in fact. Shows what is is the case.the case.

One Alternative Modern One Alternative Modern Conception of DramaConception of Drama

The The political-ideologicalpolitical-ideological conception of conception of Drama.Drama. drama is approved to the degree that it drama is approved to the degree that it

promotes the principles or propaganda points promotes the principles or propaganda points of some specific political or ideological system.of some specific political or ideological system.

e.g.e.g. totalitarian systems demand that theatre totalitarian systems demand that theatre supports advances their underlying doctrinessupports advances their underlying doctrines

e.g. e.g. a playwright constructs a drama according to his a playwright constructs a drama according to his social, political or religious system (an ‘social, political or religious system (an ‘ologyology’ or ’ or ‘‘ismism’). ’). ExamplesExamples: :

heroes personify his principles ideas and villains heroes personify his principles ideas and villains oppose his ideas.oppose his ideas.

structure of drama reflects the structure of his dogmasstructure of drama reflects the structure of his dogmas

Sometimes termed “Sometimes termed “didactic dramadidactic drama” ” ((didact didact = L. ‘teacher’.)= L. ‘teacher’.)

ARISTOTLE: foundational science ARISTOTLE: foundational science of Dramaof Drama

1.1. Aristotle was taken to be scientific truth for Aristotle was taken to be scientific truth for so long in Western society that:so long in Western society that:

his particular method of analysis – the very his particular method of analysis – the very termsterms and the and the conceptsconcepts that he used – became that he used – became part of the way of not only part of the way of not only thinking & writingthinking & writing about Drama, but of actually about Drama, but of actually writingwriting the drama the drama itselfitself

dramatists wrote their plays according to dramatists wrote their plays according to Aristotle’s analysis.Aristotle’s analysis.

present-daypresent-day dramatists go dramatists go out of their out of their way way to claim that they do to claim that they do Greek dramaGreek drama

ARISTOTLE: methodARISTOTLE: method

Aristotle is modern, in the sense that his Aristotle is modern, in the sense that his analysis of Drama is founded on its analysis of Drama is founded on its effects—effects—the way that drama works on the the way that drama works on the audienceaudience..

Aristotle is thus grounding his analysis of Aristotle is thus grounding his analysis of drama on drama on human psychologyhuman psychology, not on , not on abstract or theoretical ideals; or on morality abstract or theoretical ideals; or on morality or theology.or theology.

Aristotle is showing what Aristotle is showing what worksworks: thus the : thus the best drama is the drama that works best.best drama is the drama that works best.

(He does have first principles about quality.)(He does have first principles about quality.)

ARISTOTLE: OriginARISTOTLE: Origin

Drama is imitation – Drama is imitation – MimesisMimesis..1.1. Imitation Imitation naturalnatural to humans ( to humans (homo homo

reddoreddo) from birth.) from birth. unique among animals, man learns & unique among animals, man learns &

likes learning by imitationlikes learning by imitation

2.2. There is a universal human pleasure There is a universal human pleasure in imitation—we like seeing images in imitation—we like seeing images of objects.of objects.

Understanding is a form of pleasureUnderstanding is a form of pleasure

ARISTOTLE: Drama = AgentsARISTOTLE: Drama = Agents Drama has the following characteristic Drama has the following characteristic

respects identifying its species of imitationrespects identifying its species of imitation1.1. MediumMedium: rhythm, language & melody : rhythm, language & melody

((e.g.e.g. diegetic & non-diegetic in film) diegetic & non-diegetic in film)

2.2. ModeMode: (: (i.i.) narration, () narration, (ii.ii.) monologue, or () monologue, or (iii.iii.) ) agents engaged in activity (‘dialogue’)agents engaged in activity (‘dialogue’)

Diegetic music & narration are Diegetic music & narration are nonnon-memietic drama-memietic drama

3.3. ObjectObject: imitate agents (‘actors’). Agents can : imitate agents (‘actors’). Agents can be be admirableadmirable or or inferior.inferior.

= Character= Character—the practice of moral behavior—the practice of moral behavior Characters differ by defect or excellenceCharacters differ by defect or excellence Thus agents can be better, worse or the same as usThus agents can be better, worse or the same as us Tragedy imitates people better than us; Comedy Tragedy imitates people better than us; Comedy

worseworse ‘‘Drama’ = Drama’ = agents & people DOING things:agents & people DOING things: ‘dram’ = ‘dram’ =

‘to do’‘to do’

ARISTOTLE: TragedyARISTOTLE: Tragedy

Forms of Forms of poiesispoiesis (Gr. ‘to make’) divided into (Gr. ‘to make’) divided into types of agents imitated:types of agents imitated: Serious-minded people imitated fine actionsSerious-minded people imitated fine actions Trivial-minded people imitated inferior personsTrivial-minded people imitated inferior persons

Narration (orig. epic poetry) ended & actors Narration (orig. epic poetry) ended & actors added; choral parts reduced.added; choral parts reduced.

ComedyComedy: imitating inferior people means : imitating inferior people means laughter, since we laugh at what is laughter, since we laugh at what is disgracefuldisgraceful.. ‘‘Laughable’=error or disgrace that does not Laughable’=error or disgrace that does not

involve pain or destructioninvolve pain or destruction

ARISTOTLE: Tragedy DefinedARISTOTLE: Tragedy Defined

Tragedy imitates action that is as follows:Tragedy imitates action that is as follows:1.1. AdmirableAdmirable

2.2. CompleteComplete

3.3. Possessing magnitudePossessing magnitude

4.4. Pleasurable languagePleasurable language

5.5. Separated into different parts (sections)Separated into different parts (sections)

6.6. Acted not narratedActed not narrated

7.7. Effecting fear and pityEffecting fear and pity

8.8. Through fear and pity, purifying the emotionsThrough fear and pity, purifying the emotions

ARISTOTLE: Tragedy’s PartsARISTOTLE: Tragedy’s Parts

1.1. SpectacleSpectacle2.2. Diction (Dialogue)Diction (Dialogue)3.3. CharacterCharacter4.4. ReasoningReasoning5.5. Lyric Poetry (Music Score in film?)Lyric Poetry (Music Score in film?)6.6. Plot (the organisation of the action—‘events’)Plot (the organisation of the action—‘events’)

SPECTACLESPECTACLE: Tragedy never performed is still a tragedy, and : Tragedy never performed is still a tragedy, and a good tragedy can be badly performed or set. a good tragedy can be badly performed or set.

DIALOGUEDIALOGUE: Likewise, because drama is the imitation of : Likewise, because drama is the imitation of action, the choice & arrangement of action to be imitated is action, the choice & arrangement of action to be imitated is more important than the way that the imitation is realised in more important than the way that the imitation is realised in words. A good dramatic idea can be badly written. words. A good dramatic idea can be badly written.

CHARACTERCHARACTER: Tragedy imitates actions, not persons.: Tragedy imitates actions, not persons. PLOTPLOT: Thus, because Drama is action “: Thus, because Drama is action “Plot is the source Plot is the source

and (as it were) the soul of tragedyand (as it were) the soul of tragedy.”.”

ARISTOTLE: ARISTOTLE: PlotPlot

PLOT: ‘PLOT: ‘ReasoningReasoning’ and ‘’ and ‘CharacterCharacter’.’. Given the action of drama, character & reasoning will be Given the action of drama, character & reasoning will be

part of tragedy.part of tragedy. CHARACTERCHARACTER: What an agent does in a particular : What an agent does in a particular

dramatic circumstance is determined by his dramatic circumstance is determined by his character—character—i.e.i.e. his moral virtue his moral virtue. . An unattended An unattended purse with a lot of money inside: will he steal it? purse with a lot of money inside: will he steal it? Depends upon his Depends upon his charactercharacter. .

REASONINGREASONING: What are the facts—past, present & : What are the facts—past, present & future—that affect the agent’s decision about the future—that affect the agent’s decision about the purse? purse? The decision will depend upon the agent’s The decision will depend upon the agent’s reasoningreasoning.. Character reveals the nature of Character reveals the nature of choicechoice..

ARISTOTLE: Primacy of PlotARISTOTLE: Primacy of Plot

Tragedy is imitation of actions & life, not of Tragedy is imitation of actions & life, not of personspersons

1.1. Well-being and ill-being reside in actionWell-being and ill-being reside in action

2.2. ““The goal of life is an activity not a quality.”The goal of life is an activity not a quality.” (Good and Evil are not what you (Good and Evil are not what you areare but what you but what you do.do.) )

3.3. The imitation of character is not the purpose The imitation of character is not the purpose what actors do: character is included as one of what actors do: character is included as one of the actions in the drama.the actions in the drama.

4.4. So, events—the plot—are what tragedy (drama) So, events—the plot—are what tragedy (drama) is there for and that is the most important thing is there for and that is the most important thing of all.of all.

ARISTOTLE: Plot—Basic ARISTOTLE: Plot—Basic ConceptsConcepts

COMPLETENESSCOMPLETENESS: A (correct) Plot has a : A (correct) Plot has a beginning, middle and end.beginning, middle and end. Not a trivial remark: a plot thus has Not a trivial remark: a plot thus has UnityUnity and and

is non-arbitrary.is non-arbitrary.Beginning: How the events come about.Beginning: How the events come about.

Ab initio; ab ovoAb initio; ab ovo; ; in media res.in media res.Middle: the sequence of action.Middle: the sequence of action.End: a resolution and a closure.End: a resolution and a closure.

Not ‘Episodic”: no soap opera…Not ‘Episodic”: no soap opera… Two parts: Complication & Resolution Two parts: Complication & Resolution

what come before & after the change of what come before & after the change of fortune.fortune.

““The Three Unities”The Three Unities”

Unity of TimeUnity of Time:: the audience cannot easily comprehend, the audience cannot easily comprehend,

and stagecraft is challenged to present, and stagecraft is challenged to present, radical shifts in time.radical shifts in time.

Unity of Action:Unity of Action:human psychology expects and feels human psychology expects and feels

rewarded by single series of complete actionrewarded by single series of complete actionUnity of PlaceUnity of Place::

stagecraft is overcome by, and audiences stagecraft is overcome by, and audiences are puzzled by, radical change of setting.are puzzled by, radical change of setting.

ARISTOTLE: Plot—Basic ARISTOTLE: Plot—Basic ConceptsConcepts

MAGNITUDEMAGNITUDE: a sense that too small and too : a sense that too small and too large are incomprehensible, so a plot has to large are incomprehensible, so a plot has to sufficiently sized to be held in memory & sufficiently sized to be held in memory & comprehensioncomprehension

UNITY & DETERMINATE STRUTUREUNITY & DETERMINATE STRUTURE: each : each component event must be related to the component event must be related to the concepts of drama (e.g. exciting fear & pity) concepts of drama (e.g. exciting fear & pity) and must be such that the removal of it and must be such that the removal of it dislodges & changes the whole. If the event dislodges & changes the whole. If the event does not do this, it is not part of the unity or does not do this, it is not part of the unity or structure.structure.

ARISTOTLE: Plot—Basic ARISTOTLE: Plot—Basic ConceptsConcepts

UNIVERSALITYUNIVERSALITY: The dramatist says what : The dramatist says what wouldwould happen, as opposed to the historian happen, as opposed to the historian who says what has happened.who says what has happened. Thus the dramatist is more philosophical & Thus the dramatist is more philosophical &

serious than the historian: the historian serious than the historian: the historian expresses only particulars but dramatist expresses only particulars but dramatist expresses what is universal.expresses what is universal.

‘‘UniversalUniversal’ means speech or action that ’ means speech or action that agrees with some given kind of person in agrees with some given kind of person in accordance accordance probabilityprobability or or necessitynecessity.. The facts of life require plausible responses and The facts of life require plausible responses and

expected responses: expected responses: e.g. e.g. parents protect their parents protect their kidskids

No “No “Deus ex Machina.”Deus ex Machina.”

Deus ex MachinaDeus ex Machina

‘‘God from the God from the machinamachina””

(the device by which (the device by which gods were gods were suspended above the suspended above the stage in the Greek stage in the Greek theatre.)theatre.)

A power, event, A power, event, person, or thing person, or thing that comes in the nick of time to to solve a plot difficulty..

ARISTOTLE: ARISTOTLE: PlotPlot—basic —basic conceptsconcepts

ASTONISHMENTASTONISHMENT: (‘: (‘to thaumastonto thaumaston’)’)

1.1. Tragedy is imitation of events that Tragedy is imitation of events that evoke fear and pity.evoke fear and pity.

2.2. These come about when things These come about when things happen contrary to expectation and happen contrary to expectation and because of one another (rather than because of one another (rather than randomly)randomly)

3.3. When this happens we feel When this happens we feel astonishmentastonishment

ARISTOTLE: ARISTOTLE: PlotPlot—basic —basic conceptsconcepts

SUFFERING: (SUFFERING: (pathospathos):):an action which involves pain or an action which involves pain or

destructiondestructiondeath, injury, extreme agony (includes death, injury, extreme agony (includes

emotional pain and destruction of emotional pain and destruction of attachments)attachments)

essential for purification (essential for purification (katharsiskatharsis))

ARISTOTLE: Plot—Simple ARISTOTLE: Plot—Simple vsvs ComplexComplex

COMPLEX ACTIONCOMPLEX ACTION: : the best kind of plotthe best kind of plot.. Has a change of fortune, and one that Has a change of fortune, and one that

involves reversal or recognition or bothinvolves reversal or recognition or both REVERSALREVERSAL: (: (peripeteiaperipeteia) a change to the ) a change to the

opposite in the actions being performed, in opposite in the actions being performed, in accordance with probability or necessityaccordance with probability or necessity

RECOGNITIONRECOGNITION: (: (anagnorisisanagnorisis) a change from ) a change from ignorance to knowledge.ignorance to knowledge. disclosing a either a close relationship or enmity disclosing a either a close relationship or enmity

on people marked out for good or bad fortune.on people marked out for good or bad fortune. best when occurs simultaneously with best when occurs simultaneously with

peripeteia.peripeteia. involves fear and pity, and astonishment.involves fear and pity, and astonishment.

ARISTOTLE: Plot—Best kindARISTOTLE: Plot—Best kind Should not show decent men or women changing from Should not show decent men or women changing from

good fortune to bad: good fortune to bad: this creates disgust not fear & pitythis creates disgust not fear & pity

Nor should depraved people been seen changing from bad Nor should depraved people been seen changing from bad fortune to goodfortune to good This least tragic: not even agreeableThis least tragic: not even agreeable

Nor again should a wicked person be seen falling from good Nor again should a wicked person be seen falling from good to bad fortune.to bad fortune. Agreeable but no fear or pityAgreeable but no fear or pity

Therefore the person should be intermediate between Therefore the person should be intermediate between these (these (The Golden Mean).:The Golden Mean).: Not outstandingly morally bad or good.Not outstandingly morally bad or good. But better than we are.But better than we are.

Error not due to any moral defect or depravity but to an Error not due to any moral defect or depravity but to an ERROR of some kind (ERROR of some kind (hamartia.)hamartia.)

ARISTOTLE: ARISTOTLE: Hamartia (Hamartia (w.w. Hubris)Hubris)

MisunderstoodMisunderstood as as ‘Tragic Flaw.’‘Tragic Flaw.’

Not ‘flaw’ but ‘serious Not ‘flaw’ but ‘serious error.’error.’ remember that remember that

character is action not character is action not quality.quality.

The error should be, in principle, correctible, but ……

Allows for the (factual) Allows for the (factual) operation of Fate in operation of Fate in human affairs.human affairs.

Serves as warning Serves as warning against against Hubris:Hubris:

= ‘= ‘wanton insolencewanton insolence’ ’ In ancient Greece, a In ancient Greece, a

high crime: high crime: humiliating a victim to humiliating a victim to

gratify the victor’s desire.gratify the victor’s desire. In drama, challenge to In drama, challenge to

the gods.the gods. C. S. LEWIS “Walk “Walk

carefully, do not wake the carefully, do not wake the envy of the happy gods, envy of the happy gods, Shun Hubris.”Shun Hubris.”

Aeschylus’ Aeschylus’ AgamemnonAgamemnon. . Brings about Brings about Nemesis.Nemesis.

HamartiaHamartia example example

Mr. Darcy in Mr. Darcy in Pride & PrejudicePride & Prejudice commits this type of error: commits this type of error:

technicaltechnical because it fails to because it fails to comprehend the fullness of the code comprehend the fullness of the code of masculinity & gentility;of masculinity & gentility;

moralmoral because it was because it was mistakenmistaken Pride, Pride, or reserve, that caused it. or reserve, that caused it.

ARISTOTLE & ARISTOTLE & KatharsisKatharsis KatharsisKatharsis: : purificationpurification of the emotions of the emotions

(the complex (best) plot has effected fear & pity in (the complex (best) plot has effected fear & pity in the audience.)the audience.)

A medical idea: early psychiatryA medical idea: early psychiatry Aristotle recognises what is a very modern positionAristotle recognises what is a very modern position

—that emotions are an important part of human —that emotions are an important part of human health.health.

Disordered emotions lead to ‘stress’ which effect physical Disordered emotions lead to ‘stress’ which effect physical symptoms to the point of fatality.symptoms to the point of fatality.

Drama is thus a means of ordering, or balancing, Drama is thus a means of ordering, or balancing, the emotions so that good individual the emotions so that good individual and socialand social health are promoted,health are promoted,

this seems like a direct engagement with Plato’s position this seems like a direct engagement with Plato’s position on drama (that drama excites the emotions over Reason on drama (that drama excites the emotions over Reason and thereby creates individual and, ultimately, social and thereby creates individual and, ultimately, social imbalance.)imbalance.)

ARISTOTLE: Plot—CharacterARISTOTLE: Plot—Character

Four things that make for effective Four things that make for effective character in drama;character in drama;

1.1. GoodnessGoodness: makes deliberate good : makes deliberate good (socially & personally beneficial) choice. (socially & personally beneficial) choice.

2.2. AppropriatenessAppropriateness: consistent with : consistent with probability or necessityprobability or necessity

E.g.E.g. Jar Jar Binks does not make a good lover Jar Jar Binks does not make a good lover for Padmé Amidala.for Padmé Amidala.

3.3. LikenessLikeness: not too high or low compared : not too high or low compared with uswith us

4.4. ConsistencyConsistency: a given, again, in terms of : a given, again, in terms of probability or necessity.probability or necessity.