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INTRODUCTION: INTRODUCTION:

BASIC CONCEPTSBASIC CONCEPTS

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DEFINITIONSDEFINITIONS::

EthnicityEthnicity: The concept : The concept of of ethnicity is a ethnicity is a derivative of an older English term ‘ethnic’ derivative of an older English term ‘ethnic’ which derives from the ancient Greek term which derives from the ancient Greek term ‘‘ethnos’.ethnos’.

The ancient Greeks used the concept of The ancient Greeks used the concept of ‘ethnos’ in various ways. (Non-Greeks, ‘ethnos’ in various ways. (Non-Greeks, foreigners, barbarians, peripheral groups)foreigners, barbarians, peripheral groups)

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• As EriAs Erikseksen stated beginning in the mid-19th n stated beginning in the mid-19th century, the concept of ‘ethnic’ began to be used century, the concept of ‘ethnic’ began to be used to ‘refer to "racial" characteristics’. to ‘refer to "racial" characteristics’.

• ‘‘In the United States, "ethnics" came to be used In the United States, "ethnics" came to be used around the Second World War as a polite term around the Second World War as a polite term referring to Jews, Italians, Irish and other people referring to Jews, Italians, Irish and other people considered inferior to the dominant group of considered inferior to the dominant group of largely British descent’ (Eriksen).largely British descent’ (Eriksen).

For Weber ethnic groups can be defined as For Weber ethnic groups can be defined as collectivities which share the belief of common collectivities which share the belief of common origin and heritage. origin and heritage. (no shared territory)(no shared territory)

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- If we argue that ethnicity is something If we argue that ethnicity is something based on culture it is not possible to based on culture it is not possible to distinguish it from the concept of nation distinguish it from the concept of nation whose content too is cultural.whose content too is cultural.

- OommenOommen argues that ‘nation/nationality argues that ‘nation/nationality exists when territory and culture are in exists when territory and culture are in union: a nation is the homeland of a union: a nation is the homeland of a people who shares a common culture. people who shares a common culture. Ethnicity emerges when culture and Ethnicity emerges when culture and territory are disassociated’ (p. 89). territory are disassociated’ (p. 89).

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Ethnocentrism:Ethnocentrism:‘‘The belief that one’s own ethnie is The belief that one’s own ethnie is superior tosuperior to other ethnies.’ other ethnies.’

- It refers to specific behaviors which can - It refers to specific behaviors which can

also underline nationalism and racism.also underline nationalism and racism.

The individual shows favorable attitudes The individual shows favorable attitudes about his/her own ethnic group and about his/her own ethnic group and unfavorable attitudes about other ethnic unfavorable attitudes about other ethnic groups.groups.

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Ethnic politics: Ethnic politics: A concept used to describe A concept used to describe

political activities of a group aiming at protecting the political activities of a group aiming at protecting the rights of the group within the legitimacy of the existing rights of the group within the legitimacy of the existing system.system.

* Race is not a scientific category because there is no fixed biological boundary between human groups.

Racism, ‘‘is an ideology and practice based on the assumed is an ideology and practice based on the assumed

superiority of certain races’superiority of certain races’ (Oommen(Oommen, T. K. ‘, T. K. ‘Race, Race, Ethnicity and Class: An Analysis of Interrelations’, ISSJ, Ethnicity and Class: An Analysis of Interrelations’, ISSJ, no. 139, 1994, p. 84).no. 139, 1994, p. 84).

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-- -- ‘since ethnic ideologies tend to stress common ‘since ethnic ideologies tend to stress common descent among their members, the distinction descent among their members, the distinction between race and ethnicity is a problematic between race and ethnicity is a problematic one’ (Eriksen).one’ (Eriksen).

NationNation::The term ‘nation’ comes from Latin word ‘The term ‘nation’ comes from Latin word ‘nationatio’ ’ which was used to describe ‘distant’ or which was used to describe ‘distant’ or ‘barbarian’ peoples while the term ‘‘barbarian’ peoples while the term ‘populuspopulus’ ’ was used for themselves.was used for themselves.

There is ambiguity in the meaning of the There is ambiguity in the meaning of the conceptsconcepts of ethnicity and nation of ethnicity and nation..

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The following are some examples of various The following are some examples of various meanings given to meanings given to tthheseese concept conceptss::

The concepts of nation and ethnicity are The concepts of nation and ethnicity are used in various meanings. Two usages used in various meanings. Two usages however should be mentioned here:however should be mentioned here:

1) The first usage includes a hierarchical 1) The first usage includes a hierarchical relationship between the two concepts: relationship between the two concepts:

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Nation Nation = the majority, independent, the ruling = the majority, independent, the ruling group, general identity.group, general identity.

Ethnic group = the minority, the dependent, the Ethnic group = the minority, the dependent, the marginal, specific identity, immigrants.marginal, specific identity, immigrants.

In English and American usage there is a In English and American usage there is a tendency to reserve the term tendency to reserve the term ‘‘nationnation’’ for for themselves and themselves and ‘‘ethnicethnic’’ for immigrant peoples. for immigrant peoples.

This usage sees nThis usage sees no ethical equality between o ethical equality between goupsgoups (nations and ethnic groups). (nations and ethnic groups).

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2) 2) In the second usage the concepts In the second usage the concepts nation & nation & ethnic group overlap each other.ethnic group overlap each other.

Defining characteristics of nations or ethnic Defining characteristics of nations or ethnic groups? groups?

a particular name to identify the collectivitya particular name to identify the collectivity

a myth of common ancestry-common origin a myth of common ancestry-common origin (not a fact)(not a fact)

shared historical memoriesshared historical memories

a common territory/homeland or symbolic a common territory/homeland or symbolic attachment to the ancestral land.attachment to the ancestral land.

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a common languagea common language

any element of common cultureany element of common culture

a sense of solidaritya sense of solidarity

a system of social communicationa system of social communication

a shared economic systema shared economic system

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Nationalism:Nationalism:

Nation & state should be congruent. Since Nation & state should be congruent. Since nation can be defined in “ethnic” or “civic” nation can be defined in “ethnic” or “civic” senses, nationalism can take these forms.senses, nationalism can take these forms.

There are some common elements that There are some common elements that are seen in each of nationalism: are seen in each of nationalism:

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In all cases nationalism declares the aim to In all cases nationalism declares the aim to defend and promote the interests of the nation.defend and promote the interests of the nation.

independent statehood is the basic target in all independent statehood is the basic target in all types of nationalism. In some cases nationalists types of nationalism. In some cases nationalists accept to be a unit in a federal state.accept to be a unit in a federal state.

But it is not possible to say that all federalists But it is not possible to say that all federalists would recognize themselves as nationalists.would recognize themselves as nationalists.

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ETHNICITY and SOCIAL CLASSETHNICITY and SOCIAL CLASS

- The term ethnicity refers to a group of people who The term ethnicity refers to a group of people who share a set of culturally distinctive elements.share a set of culturally distinctive elements.

- The Marxian concept of ‘class’ on the other hand The Marxian concept of ‘class’ on the other hand refers to a segment of society who share the same refers to a segment of society who share the same relationship to the means of productionrelationship to the means of production (capitalist class, the (capitalist class, the

middle class-self employed people and the working middle class-self employed people and the working class)class)..

- As Thomas H. Eriksen states, ethnicity and class, may As Thomas H. Eriksen states, ethnicity and class, may overlap each other. This means that ‘there is a high overlap each other. This means that ‘there is a high likelihood that persons belonging to specific ethnic groups likelihood that persons belonging to specific ethnic groups also belong to specific classes’.also belong to specific classes’.

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Why Nationalism and Ethnicity?Why Nationalism and Ethnicity?

Ethnicity and identity are usually seen as the Ethnicity and identity are usually seen as the source of conflict and political struggle. This source of conflict and political struggle. This connection, however, is not obvious in many connection, however, is not obvious in many cases. cases.

This means that there are various situations This means that there are various situations where ethnicity, culture or identity is irrelevant to where ethnicity, culture or identity is irrelevant to conflict and political struggle. Relations between conflict and political struggle. Relations between ethnethnic/ic/national groups may be classified into national groups may be classified into two broader categories:two broader categories:

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I - Non-political relationshipI - Non-political relationship

--Peaceful and cooperative relationshipPeaceful and cooperative relationship

-cultural differences do not affect political thinking -cultural differences do not affect political thinking and political actionand political action

a) integrant tendencya) integrant tendency

- ethnic groups tend to form a single inclusive - ethnic groups tend to form a single inclusive cultural unit.cultural unit.

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amalgamationamalgamation, two or more cultural groups , two or more cultural groups constitute a new culture by joining together. constitute a new culture by joining together.

cultural incorporationcultural incorporation in which a group joins in which a group joins into another group by giving up its basic into another group by giving up its basic characteristics.characteristics.Unity in diversityUnity in diversity

b) cultural disintegration:b) cultural disintegration: Cultural groups tend to maintain their internal Cultural groups tend to maintain their internal

solidarity by fortifying their existence with solidarity by fortifying their existence with distinct cultural elements.distinct cultural elements.

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II- Political relationshipII- Political relationship

Cultural differences tend to be associated with Cultural differences tend to be associated with political action and political thinking.political action and political thinking.

a) Politicisation of Ethno-national differencesa) Politicisation of Ethno-national differences

political demands of ethnic organisations that political demands of ethnic organisations that have no important function to intimidate the have no important function to intimidate the political legitimacy of the existing system. Such political legitimacy of the existing system. Such as:as:

- right to vote on an ethnic group basis, - right to vote on an ethnic group basis, - right to practice a definite religion, - right to practice a definite religion,

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- demand for human rights - demand for human rights

- demand for abolishing unfair policies - demand for abolishing unfair policies against a definite ethnic group.against a definite ethnic group.

- right to use a definite language - right to use a definite language in  education or public administration, in  education or public administration,

- political organisations tend to have some- political organisations tend to have some demands in the name of the ethnic group demands in the name of the ethnic group as a whole.as a whole.

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b -- Nationalismb -- Nationalism- a definite cultural unit is claimed to be the a definite cultural unit is claimed to be the

single legitimating basis of political single legitimating basis of political authority.authority.

- ethnic political organisations tend to be ethnic political organisations tend to be more centralised and aim to enforce strict more centralised and aim to enforce strict political control over a definite ethnic political control over a definite ethnic group.group.

- the right to rule in a definite territorial unit.- the right to rule in a definite territorial unit.

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Nationalism and ethnicity have become a central issue in Nationalism and ethnicity have become a central issue in politics since at least 1960s. There are many signs politics since at least 1960s. There are many signs

justifying this importance of the issue:justifying this importance of the issue:

Ethnic conflicts are creating political instability for many Ethnic conflicts are creating political instability for many developed and less-developed states [Spain, Northern developed and less-developed states [Spain, Northern Ireland, Northern Iraq, former Yugoslavia, Cyprus, Ireland, Northern Iraq, former Yugoslavia, Cyprus, Nigeria, Lebanon]Nigeria, Lebanon]

Ethnic violence is giving rise to dramatic situations where Ethnic violence is giving rise to dramatic situations where millions of lives have been lost.millions of lives have been lost.

Ethnic conflicts stimulate regional and international Ethnic conflicts stimulate regional and international conflicts which lead to foreign involvement or conflicts which lead to foreign involvement or intervention.intervention.

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This issue is important but it is also complex This issue is important but it is also complex because many theoretical frameworks that are because many theoretical frameworks that are conflicting with one another are available. It is conflicting with one another are available. It is necessary to say that, we have some necessary to say that, we have some difficulties in studying ethnicity and difficulties in studying ethnicity and Nationalism. The reasons for this are many:Nationalism. The reasons for this are many:

FirstlyFirstly, ethnic or national group membership , ethnic or national group membership may limit scientific understanding of issues may limit scientific understanding of issues relevant to ethnicity and nationalism. relevant to ethnicity and nationalism. [Objectivity may [Objectivity may not not be be possiblepossible]]

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SecondlySecondly, political authorities may not , political authorities may not show tolerance to those whose ideas show tolerance to those whose ideas and findings on ethnicity and and findings on ethnicity and nationalism are in conflict with the nationalism are in conflict with the official arguments and perspectives.official arguments and perspectives.

ThirdlyThirdly, as a result of distortions, , as a result of distortions, objective understanding of the issue objective understanding of the issue may not be possible, because may not be possible, because necessary information may not be necessary information may not be obtained to develop valid arguments.obtained to develop valid arguments.

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FourthFourth, there is very large and contradictory , there is very large and contradictory literature in the field. Not only political scientists literature in the field. Not only political scientists but also sociologists, historians, lawyers, but also sociologists, historians, lawyers, anthropologists and philosophers are studying anthropologists and philosophers are studying ethnicity & nationalism. In the case of political ethnicity & nationalism. In the case of political science, it is not easy to find out a particular science, it is not easy to find out a particular perspective which is distinctive within others.perspective which is distinctive within others.

The Fifth difficulty in the study of ethnicity and The Fifth difficulty in the study of ethnicity and nationalism is the ambiguity (vagueness) of the nationalism is the ambiguity (vagueness) of the words and concepts used.words and concepts used.

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Ethnicity and Human NatureEthnicity and Human Nature

What are the conditions under which members What are the conditions under which members of a cultural/ethnic group show solidarity?of a cultural/ethnic group show solidarity?

What are the conditions of nationalism?What are the conditions of nationalism?

There are various explanations for the above There are various explanations for the above questions. The arguments tend to question questions. The arguments tend to question human nature.human nature.

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1) Sociobiology1) Sociobiology

This approach asserts that ethnic sentiments is This approach asserts that ethnic sentiments is grounded in our genetic structure.grounded in our genetic structure.

Human genes aim to maximize their ‘inclusive Human genes aim to maximize their ‘inclusive fitness’ fitness’ [1][1] and ethnic sentiments are and ethnic sentiments are extensions of this maximization.extensions of this maximization.

[1][1] ‘ ‘IF’ means that genes spreads if their IF’ means that genes spreads if their carriers act to increase not only their own carriers act to increase not only their own fitness but also that of other individuals carrying fitness but also that of other individuals carrying the same genes.the same genes.

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Sociobiology hold thatSociobiology hold that:: --politics and political behaviorpolitics and political behavior are the are the

continuation of blood relationship.continuation of blood relationship.

-brotherhood is important because it implies a -brotherhood is important because it implies a closer blood relationship.closer blood relationship.

-the individual is born with definite genetic -the individual is born with definite genetic characteristics and ‘instincts’ (inborn pattern characteristics and ‘instincts’ (inborn pattern of behavior) and h/she can not escape from of behavior) and h/she can not escape from them.them.

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• For most social scientists the genetic basis of For most social scientists the genetic basis of ethnicity and nationalism can not explain the ethnicity and nationalism can not explain the reality. reality.

2) 2) An alternative view to sociobiology stresses An alternative view to sociobiology stresses idea that human behavior is a result of culture idea that human behavior is a result of culture and learning rather than biology.and learning rather than biology.

• For this approach there is no single and For this approach there is no single and universal human nature. But rather there are universal human nature. But rather there are many human natures that are produced by many human natures that are produced by different ‘causes’.different ‘causes’.

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- - Social relations can not be seen as outcomes of biological tendencies.

3) Social psychology provides another perspective to approach human nature. S. psychologists have conducted particular experiments which show that ethnic sentiments are the products of opposition between in-group and out-group.

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- When combined together in an in-group, human beings have a tendency to develop hostility towards the members of out-group.

- Individuals develop a sense of belonging Individuals develop a sense of belonging with the other members of the ingroup, even with the other members of the ingroup, even where no other attributes exist.where no other attributes exist.

-The conflict is more serious if the hostility -The conflict is more serious if the hostility between ingroup and outgroup is based on ethnic between ingroup and outgroup is based on ethnic characters.characters.

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- This seriousness derives from the fact that This seriousness derives from the fact that the in-group tends to use ethnic the in-group tends to use ethnic communalities to develop strong communalities to develop strong attachments within the in-group against attachments within the in-group against the out-group.the out-group.