1. nature of psychology - an introduction by prof. a.v. arias, jr

5/20/2018 1. Nature of Psychology - An Introduction by Prof. a.v. Arias, Jr.

1/41

THE NATURE OF

PSYCHOLOGY

A PowerPoint Presentation by:

Prof. A.V. Arias, Jr., MS, CCLP, CASP RGC

Psychology Department

MIT Intramuros

11 October2011


2/41

LOGIC, PHILOSOPHY & HISTORY OFPSYCHOLOGY
http://www.psyc.leeds.ac.uk/http://www.sdsu.edu/graphics/http://www.psyc.bbk.ac.uk/announce/jobs/index.html


3/41

DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

The study about how and why people think,feel and behave the way they do.

The study of the behavior and the mind. The science that studies behavior and

mental processes.

The study of behavior.

The study of mental activities.


4/41

Aspects of Behavior: Overt & Covert

In psychology, the termbehavior has a specialmeaning to include onlythose activities that areobservable. They are

known as overtprocesses.

In its generic sense,however, behavior also

includes activities thatcannot be observed. Theyare known as covertprocesses.


5/41

BEHAVIOR VS MIND

Behavior observable actions of aperson. E.g., smiling, giggling,crying, etc.
http://angritt.com/bac/acting.htm


6/41

BEHAVIOR VS MIND

Mind the sensations, memories, motives,emotions, thoughts, and other subjectivephenomena particular to an individualthat are not generally observed.
http://www.caryn.com/


7/41

The American Psychological Association

The American Psychological Association (APA) is the largestorganization of psychologists whose membershipextends worldwide. It is located in Washington DC, USA.

Membership includes full membership (for PhD degree

holders), associate membership (for MA/MS degreeholders), international affiliation, graduate studentaffiliation, etc.

Research standards and other psychological practices andactivities adhere to the APA standards, which areglobally-recognized standards; e.g., APA Style ofdocumentation, the international standard ofdocumentation in the social sciences.


8/41

PSYCHOLOGY: A SCIENCE?

Psychology is a sciencebecause it uses asystematic collectionand observation of data

as it attempts to answerquestions about humanbehavior.

Its goal is to analyze,

describe and predict thepast, present and futurebehavior of individuals.


9/41

Pseudo psychological practices

Pseudo means false. Pseudopsychological practices do nothave empirical or scientific basis.

They include palmistry, phrenology,astrology, etc.

Palmistry fate is determined by theintricate lines in ones palm.

Phrenology personality is based onthe shape of the skull.

Astrology fate and personality aredetermined by the alignment ofthe stars and the planets.


10/41

Is psychology also an art?

Psychology is also an art if itprovides a venue for expressingemotions and feelings.

In counseling, for instance,the counselor does not only usehis mind when he approaches hiscases rationally, but equally, heuses his heart when he

empathizes with his clients.


11/41

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

In attempting to trace the history of psychology,we will encounter various personalities andschools of thoughts about human behavior,including the many theories and assumptionsthat support the contributions of thesepersonalities and schools in the advancementof psychology as a discipline.
http://bobsleigh.com/history.html


12/41

I. Ancient Greek Philosophers

THE MIND

THE BODY

These ancient philosophers were actually the very first people tospeculate on the existence of the mind or the soul. They includedthe likes of Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, etc.

Dualism viewed the world as a dichotomy of the body and themind.
http://a-celebrity.net/lopez/


13/41

II. Advent of Scientific Revolution(c. 1600-1700)

After the heyday of the Greekphilosophers, there was a longperiod of time during whichrelatively little systematicinvestigation of psychological issueswas conducted. The dearth of

investigation was due, in part to thereligious belief that the spiritcould not be studied scientifically.

This view changed with the advent ofthe scientific revolution. Greatdiscoveries in biology, astronomy

and other sciences, along with themovements in philosophy and art,made it clear that human naturecould be subject of scientific inquiry.
http://futures.wharton.upenn.edu/~josephna/http://home.earthlink.net/~apickard/cdrom.html


14/41

III. Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

The mind is not observable and is not

subject to natural laws.

But the mind and body interact; the mind

controls the body while the body provides

the mind with sensory input for it to

decipher.

He believed that this interaction occurred

in the pineal gland, which is located deep

within the brain.
http://etonline.com/html/Movies/152.html


15/41

IV. John Locke (1632-1704)

He extended Descartesapplication of natural laws toinclude all things, including themind, as it is controlled bysuch laws of nature.

Empiricism - the acquisition of

truth through observations andexperiences.

Tabula rasa also known asblank slate; was used torefer to the mind of a child.

According to this view, allknowledge that we have couldbe learned; nothing wasinnate.


16/41

V. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

The idea of a soul or spirit, or evenof a mind was meaningless.

Philosophy of materialism - the

belief that the only things thatexisted were matter and energy.

What we experienced asconsciousness was simply a by-

product of the machinery of thebrain.


17/41

VI. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Evolutionary theory set the stagefor psychology by establishingbehavior as important andobservable, and therefore,subject to scientific scrutiny.

The theory of natural selection saidthat all creatures evolved intotheir present state over longperiods of time.

Over time, this process selectedphysical and behavioralcharacteristics that promotedsurvival.


18/41

VII. Structuralism

This school was concerned with the structure of themind and its parts. In other words, it wasconcerned with the contents of the mind, whichwas referred to as the consciousness. It employedthe method of introspection or introspectiveanalysis or analytical introspection, which requiredthe examination of ones own mind.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920) was credited as thefounder of the science of psychology when heinitiated the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig,Germany .

Wundt was trained in physiology. He hoped to apply

the methods that he used to study the body to thestudy of the mind.

Edward Titchener (1867-1927), an Englishman,through his writings popularized Wundts ideas.


19/41

VIII. Functionalism

This school was opposed to thestructuralist approach. More thanthe contents of the conscious mind,functionalism was concerned withthe use of these contents. Itcontinued to use introspection as itsmethod.

To the functionalists, what wasimportant was the function of themind.

William James (1842 1910)believed that the important thing tounderstand was how the mindfulfilled its purpose.


20/41

IX. Gestalt [pronounced as gesh-TALT]

This school of thought believed that behavior could not beapproached by looking into specific parts; rather, humanexperience must be viewed in its totality or wholeness.

It focused on the unity of perception.

Gestalt meant configuration.

Proponents included Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) andKurt Koffka (1886-1941) who argued that theconsciousness was more than the sum of its parts.


21/41

X. Psychoanalysis

Directly opposed to the idea of

consciousness, psychoanalysis

focused on the idea of the

unconscious mind.

Accordingly, mans behavior is

controlled by those irrational

forces from within. These irrational forces include

sex and aggression.

conscious

preconscious

unconscious


22/41

More about psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud (1856-1839) proponentof the classical psychoanalytic theory.

Freud used free association and dreaminterpretation as methods in thepsychoanalytic approach.

He authored the book Interpretation ofDreams.


23/41

XI. Behaviorism

Behaviorism rejected the idea of the conscious

and the unconscious mind. Instead, it

focused itself with those human

experiences that could observed and

measured objectively.

John B. Watson (1878-1958) founded behaviorism.

According to B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), a

Harvard psychologist, behavior was aconsequence of the presence of thestimulus in the environment.


24/41

XII. Humanistic Psychology

This school of psychology emphasized theimportance of the use of the free will andthe uniqueness of each human beingsexperience.

Proponents of the humanistic psychology

included Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Maslow proposed the Theory of Hierarchy ofNeeds which emphasized the need for self-actualization.

Rogers proposed the Client-Centered Theory,

which later came to be known as thePerson-Centered Approach. Rogersemphasized the need for congruencebetween the real self and the ideal self.


25/41

XIII. Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology went beyondbehaviorism by including themental processes that influencedan individuals behavior.

It combined the individualsresponse to the stimulus in hisenvironment with his mentalprocesses.

Proponents included Albert Bandura,Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck, etc.


26/41

XIV. Biopsychology

Psychology resorted to thescience of biology toexplain human behavior.

It examined how the human

genetic structure directlyaffected an individualsbehavior.

It investigated how ones

predisposition to certainbiological heritage led oneto specific abnormalities.


27/41

XV. Eclecticism

This school combined the

best features of the theories,

methods and techniques of

the various schools ofpsychology.

This school allowed researchers

to view a problem from variousorientation and perspective.


28/41

RELATION OF PSYCHOLOGY TOOTHER SCIENCES

Social Sciences

1) Sociology

2) Anthropology

3) Philippine Constitution

& Governance

4) Economics

5) Computer Science &Information Technology

Other Sciences

1) Chemistry / Pharmacy

- Psychopharmacology

2) Biology - Biopsychology

3) Neurology

Neuropsychology

4) Pathology

- Psychopathology

5) Psychiatry M.D.


29/41

Psychologists, Psychiatrists, Psychoanalysts:What are their differences?

A psychologistusually possesses a postgraduate degree in psychology, usually a PhD(doctor of philosophy) degree in psychology.He is usually not authorized to prescribemedicines except in certain cases. He caters to

both the normal and abnormal population.

A psychiatrist is a medical doctor, a graduate ofa degree in medicine. Being a medical doctor,he is authorized to prescribe medicines. He

usually caters to the abnormal population.

A psychoanalystis usually a psychiatrist whoundergoes years of training in psychoanalysis.


30/41

AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION IN

PSYCHOLOGY

1) Clinical

2) Community

3) Counseling

4) Developmental

5) Educational orSchool

6) Experimental

7) Industrial/Organizational

8) Social9) Personality

10) Psychometric

11) Abnormal Psychology

12) Forensic/Legal

13) Environmental

14) Ergonomic

15) Sports16) Health


31/41

The Scientific Method

1) Identify the research problem.

2) Propose a hypothesis.

3) Formulate a theoretical framework.

4) Gather your data and make the necessaryobservation.

5) Analyze and discuss the results.

6) Make the necessary conclusion/s and

recommendation/s.7) Generalize the results by replicating the

study.


32/41

METHODS OF PSYCHOGY

1) DESCRIPTIVE

a) Naturalisticb) Systematic

c) Clinical

2) EXPERIMENTAL

3) CORRELATIONAL

4) STATISTICAL
http://www.net.com/repository/product_guides/panavue/pana_ch8_fault.htmhttp://faculty-web.at.nwu.edu/slavic/theater/index4.htmlhttp://dnr.state.il.us/orep/inrin/ctap/sumrepo/chap5/forover.htmhttp://132.170.170.123/other/seirtec/mastery.htmlhttp://128.193.24.52/Resources/Publications/Proceedings/Variety_Testing/Current/index.htmlhttp://128.252.132.4/academic/msw.htmlhttp://128.252.132.4/academic/msw.html


33/41

The Experimental Method

This method is considered as the basis of all scientificresearch.

It usually begins with a statement of the hypothesis.

It consists of at least 2 variables, as follows:

1. Independent Variable stimulus (cause);

2. Dependent Variable response (effect).

Other variables that could affect the independent variableare factors known as extraneous variables.


34/41

Experimental versus Control Group

Experimental Group - thegroup in which thecondition under study ispresent.

Eg: The group that getslittle amount of sleep.

Control Group - the groupin which the condition isnot present.

Eg: The group that getssufficient amount ofsleep.


35/41

Correlation Study

This research methodology determines thedirection of the variables. It is notconcerned with causal relationships at all.There are 2 kinds: 1) Positive or Direct; 2)Negative or Indirect or Inverse.

Direct as one variable increases, the otheralso increases, and vice-versa.

Indirect as one variable increases, theother variable decreases or as onevariable decreases, the other increases.

The farther the correlation coefficient fromzero, the stronger the relationshipbetween the two variables; the closer tozero (whether positive or negative), theweaker the relationship.

Positive

Negative

S i i di id d i d i i


36/41

Statistics divided into descriptiveand inferential statistics.

Descriptive Statistics

summarizes data.

Inferential Statistics allows

researchers to test

hypotheses about data and

to determine how confident

they can be in their

inferences about the data.


37/41

Descriptive Statistics

Measures of CentralTendency

characterizes the typicalvalue in the set of data.

1) Mean the arithmeticaverage.

2) Mode the mostfrequently occurring valuein the data set.

3) Median the number thatfalls exactly in the middleof a distribution ofnumbers.

Measures of Variability

refers to how much thenumbers in the set differfrom each other.

1) Standard Deviation afunction of the averagedispersion of numbersaround the mean and is acommonly used measure ofvariability.

2) Percentiles express thestanding of one scorerelative to all other scoresin a set of data.


38/41

Validity and Reliability of Research Studies

A research study to be valid must measurewhat it is supposed to measure. A studyis not valid if it does not measure what itintends to measure.

A research study to be reliable must yieldconsistent results. If similar studies

using the same methodology yieldvarying results, then the results are notat all reliable.


39/41

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Occasionally, psychological experiments involve deception.

Eg: Obedience experiments conducted by StanleyMilgram in the 70s in which he convincedparticipants that they were administering painfulelectric shocks to other participants, when in fact,no shocks were given. Since this time, ethicalstandards for research have tightened.

1) Participants now give their informed consent.

2) Participants also receive debriefing after the study.

3) Animal rights are now recognized.

4) Intellectual property rights are now recognized.

5) Adherence to the APA Style of documentation in thesocial sciences is gaining more ground.

Additi l Ethi l G id li L


40/41

Additional Ethical Guidelines: LanguageBias Guidelines

1) Avoid stereotypic bias. E.g., typically female2) Avoid gender-biased terms. E.g., human instead of man,

humankind instead of mankind, parenting instead ofmothering, chairperson or chair instead of chairman,supervisor instead of foreman, postal worker instead ofpostman

3) Specify the gender of the participants. Avoid the label of

homosexuality. E.g. Gay Male Relationship4) Do not use the term non-white or non-black. Specify

the ethnicity instead.5) Indicate the person first before the label. E.g., person

with disability instead of disabled person, person withmental illness instead of mentally ill person

6) Do not label people by their disability. E.g., people whoare depressed instead of depressives, individuals withepilepsy instead of epileptics, patients with neurosisand not neurotic patients, adult with mental retardationinstead of retarded adult


41/41

THE END. . . . . . . . . .

Please prepare for an examination.

Merci beaucoup

1. nature of psychology - an introduction by prof. a.v. arias, jr

Documents