1

Metaphor and MetonymyMetaphor and Metonymy

Helena Helena GaoGao

Lecture 7 9 Nov., 2005Lecture 7 9 Nov., 2005

2

Required readings:Required readings: Yu, N. (2003). Chinese metaphors of thinking. Yu, N. (2003). Chinese metaphors of thinking.

Cognitive Linguistics, 14(2/3), 141–165Cognitive Linguistics, 14(2/3), 141–165 Huang, S. F. (1994). Chinese as a Metonymic Huang, S. F. (1994). Chinese as a Metonymic

Language. In Mathew Y. Chen and Ovid J.-L.. Tzeng. Language. In Mathew Y. Chen and Ovid J.-L.. Tzeng. (eds.), In Honor of William S-Y. Wang. (eds.), In Honor of William S-Y. Wang. Interdisciplinary Studies on Language and Interdisciplinary Studies on Language and Language Change. 223-252. Taipei: Pyramid. Language Change. 223-252. Taipei: Pyramid.

Recommended readings:Recommended readings: Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live

by. Chapter 1: Concepts we live by. pp. 3-6; chapter by. Chapter 1: Concepts we live by. pp. 3-6; chapter 8: Metonymy. pp. 35-40; Chapter 12: How is our 8: Metonymy. pp. 35-40; Chapter 12: How is our conceptual system grounded? pp. 56-60.conceptual system grounded? pp. 56-60.

Grady, J. E., Oakley, T., & Coulson, S. (1999). Grady, J. E., Oakley, T., & Coulson, S. (1999). Blending and Metaphor. In G. Steen & R. Gibbs Blending and Metaphor. In G. Steen & R. Gibbs (eds.), Metaphor in cognitive linguistics, pp.101–(eds.), Metaphor in cognitive linguistics, pp.101–124. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 124. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

3

Our concepts structure what we Our concepts structure what we see, how we get around the see, how we get around the world, and how we relate to world, and how we relate to other people. other people.

Our conceptual system thus Our conceptual system thus plays a central role in defining plays a central role in defining our everyday realities.our everyday realities.

According to According to Lakoff & Johnson (1980)Lakoff & Johnson (1980)

4

According to According to Lakoff & Johnson (1980)Lakoff & Johnson (1980)

Our conceptual system is Our conceptual system is not something we are not something we are normally aware of.normally aware of.

5

Since communication is Since communication is based on the same based on the same conceptual system that we conceptual system that we use in thinking and acting, use in thinking and acting, language is an important language is an important source of evidence for what source of evidence for what that system is like.that system is like.

According to According to Lakoff & Johnson (1980)Lakoff & Johnson (1980)

6

Conceptual System - Conceptual System - Metaphorical in NatureMetaphorical in NaturePrimarily on the basis of Primarily on the basis of

linguistic evidence, we have linguistic evidence, we have found that most of our found that most of our ordinary conceptual system is ordinary conceptual system is metaphorical in nature.metaphorical in nature.

According to According to Lakoff & Johnson (1980)Lakoff & Johnson (1980)

7

MetaphorMetaphor

A metaphor is the expression of an A metaphor is the expression of an understanding of one concept in understanding of one concept in terms of another concept, where terms of another concept, where there is some similarity or there is some similarity or correlation between the two. correlation between the two.

A metaphor is the understanding A metaphor is the understanding itself of one concept in terms of itself of one concept in terms of another. another.

8

The Concept of ARGUMENT

and the Conceptual Metaphor

ARGUMENT IS WAR

9

Examples of A Verbal Battle:Examples of A Verbal Battle:

Your claims are Your claims are indefensibleindefensible.. He He attacked every weakattacked every weak point in my point in my

argument.argument. His criticisms were His criticisms were right on targetright on target.. I I demolisheddemolished his argument. his argument. I’ve never I’ve never wonwon an argument with him. an argument with him. You disagree? Okay, You disagree? Okay, shootshoot!! If you use that If you use that strategystrategy, he’ll , he’ll wipe you wipe you

outout.. He He shot downshot down all of my arguments. all of my arguments. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)

10

We talk about arguments that way because we conceive of them that way – and we act according to the way we conceive of things.

The essence of metaphor is The essence of metaphor is understanding and understanding and experiencing one kind of experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.thing in terms of another.

According to According to Lakoff & Johnson (1980)Lakoff & Johnson (1980)

11

The concept is metaphorically The concept is metaphorically structuredstructured

The activity is metaphorically The activity is metaphorically structuredstructured

Consequently, the language is Consequently, the language is metaphorically structuredmetaphorically structured

According to According to Lakoff & Johnson (1980)Lakoff & Johnson (1980)

12

Metaphor is not just a matter of Metaphor is not just a matter of language, that is, of mere words. language, that is, of mere words.

Human thought processes are Human thought processes are largely metaphorical.largely metaphorical.

The human conceptual system is The human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and metaphorically structured and defined.defined.

According to According to Lakoff & Johnson (1980)Lakoff & Johnson (1980)

13

The metaphorical concept is systematicThe metaphorical concept is systematic

The language we use to talk about that The language we use to talk about that aspect of concept is systematicaspect of concept is systematic

Thus, we can use metaphorical linguistic Thus, we can use metaphorical linguistic expressions to study the nature of expressions to study the nature of metaphorical concepts and to gain an metaphorical concepts and to gain an understanding of the metaphorical nature understanding of the metaphorical nature of our activities.of our activities.

The Systematicity of Metaphorical The Systematicity of Metaphorical ConceptsConcepts

14

Chinese Metaphors of Chinese Metaphors of Thinking Thinking

Yu, N. (2003: 141-165)Yu, N. (2003: 141-165)

Thinking is Object ManipulationThinking is Object Manipulation

思想交流思想交流 思想火花思想火花 抛在脑后抛在脑后 挖空心思挖空心思 思想包袱思想包袱 思想疙瘩思想疙瘩 旧思想的束缚旧思想的束缚

谷子

15

Acquiring Ideas is EatingAcquiring Ideas is Eating

精神食粮精神食粮 陈腐观念陈腐观念 陈糠烂谷子陈糠烂谷子 馊主意馊主意 如饥似渴如饥似渴 囫囵吐枣囫囵吐枣 搜肠刮肚搜肠刮肚

16

Thinking is MovingThinking is Moving

思路思路 想到想到 想通想通 想出想出 想开想开

17

ExamplesExamples

门外一阵喧哗打断了她的思路。门外一阵喧哗打断了她的思路。 她忽然 想到一件重要的事情。她忽然 想到一件重要的事情。 只要相通了， 他就会积极地 去干 。只要相通了， 他就会积极地 去干 。 她想出一条妙计。她想出一条妙计。 想开点，别生气了。想开点，别生气了。 她遭人遗弃，一时想不开就自杀了。她遭人遗弃，一时想不开就自杀了。

。

18

Successful thinking takes a Successful thinking takes a correct directioncorrect direction

晕头转向晕头转向 这道算题真难，把我搞得晕头转向。这道算题真难，把我搞得晕头转向。

拐弯拐弯 他思想一时还拐不过弯来。他思想一时还拐不过弯来。

19

Make a turn in Make a turn in thinking in thinking in order to ‘get order to ‘get back to the back to the right track”right track”

反思反思 反省反省

““ Go back”Go back”

追思追思 追想追想 追溯追溯 追还追还 追念追念 追忆追忆 追悔追悔

20

One’s thinking One’s thinking can “travel” or can “travel” or “wander” very far “wander” very far and deepand deep

深谋远虑深谋远虑 思深虑远思深虑远 遐想遐想 遐思遐思 满天的繁星会引起人们满天的繁星会引起人们

无边无际的遐想。无边无际的遐想。

““ Hard thinking” Hard thinking” entails entails “movement”“movement”

想来想去 想来想去 我想来想去还是认为自我想来想去还是认为自

己没有错。己没有错。 左思右想左思右想 她躺在床上左思右想，她躺在床上左思右想，

一夜没合眼。一夜没合眼。 前思后想前思后想

21

““ back and forth movement”back and forth movement”

进退两难进退两难 左右为难左右为难 我想去看她，可是不是时候，不去吧，又我想去看她，可是不是时候，不去吧，又

不放心。真是左右为难。不放心。真是左右为难。

22

Thinking as SeeingThinking as Seeing 看看 看法看法 我 看他是个可靠的人。我 看他是个可靠的人。 你对这件事怎么看？你对这件事怎么看？ 我们应该全面地看问题。我们应该全面地看问题。 你们应该看清形式。你们应该看清形式。 你们必须从实质上看。你们必须从实质上看。 他把人民的利益看得高于他把人民的利益看得高于

一切。一切。

看穿看穿 看透看透 看破看破 看开看开

看扁看扁 看底看底 小看小看

23

In the mental domain In the mental domain

见见 见解见解 短见短见 高见高见 管见管见 偏见偏见 浅见浅见 远见远见 灼见灼见 卓见卓见

观观 观点观点 观念观念 悲观悲观 乐观乐观 客观客观 主观主观 人生观人生观 世界观世界观

Mental Mental activitiesactivities

视视 傲视傲视 鄙视鄙视 歧视歧视 忽视忽视 正视正视 轻视轻视 重视重视 珍视珍视

望望 瞻瞻 孤孤

24

““ Turn around and Turn around and look back: when look back: when recalling the pastrecalling the past

回首回首 回眸回眸 回溯回溯 回忆回忆 回想回想 回念回念 回思回思

Seeing is Seeing is conceptualized as the conceptualized as the ‘eye light” traveling ‘eye light” traveling from the eyes to the from the eyes to the targettarget

目光短浅目光短浅 目光远大目光远大 目光如炬目光如炬

Farsighted or farseeingFarsighted or farseeing

高瞻远瞩高瞻远瞩 站得高，看得远站得高，看得远

Light Light helpshelps明白明白明亮明亮模糊模糊朦胧朦胧

25

Thinking in the Heart or Thinking in the Heart or MindMind 心事心事 心思心思 心想心想 心算心算 心口如一心口如一 心想事成心想事成 眼不见，心不烦眼不见，心不烦 老心者治人，劳力者治于人老心者治人，劳力者治于人

26

Metaphorical concepts Metaphorical concepts reflected in contemporary reflected in contemporary

EnglishEnglish

example:example:

TIME IS MONEYTIME IS MONEY

27

You’re You’re wastingwasting my time. my time. This gadget will This gadget will savesave your hours. your hours. I don’t I don’t havehave the time to the time to givegive you. you. How do you How do you spendspend your time these days? your time these days? That flat tire That flat tire costcost me an hour. me an hour. I’ve I’ve investedinvested a lot of time in her. a lot of time in her. I don’t have I don’t have enoughenough time to time to sparespare for that. for that. You’re You’re running outrunning out of time. of time. You need to You need to budgetbudget your time. your time. Put asidePut aside some time for ping pong. some time for ping pong. Is that Is that worthworth your your whilewhile?? Do you Do you havehave much time much time leftleft?? He’s living on He’s living on borrowedborrowed time. time. You don’t You don’t useuse your time your time profitablyprofitably.. I I lostlost a lot of time when I got sick. a lot of time when I got sick. Thank you forThank you for your time. your time. (Lakoff & (Lakoff &

Johnson, 1980)Johnson, 1980)

28

In modern Western culture, In modern Western culture, time is money, time is money, time is a limited resource, time is a limited resource, and time is a valuable commodity.and time is a valuable commodity.

This isn’t a necessary way for This isn’t a necessary way for human beings to conceptualize human beings to conceptualize time; it is tied to western culture. time; it is tied to western culture.

There are cultures where time is There are cultures where time is non of these things.non of these things.

29

An entailment relationshipAn entailment relationship

There is subcategorization within There is subcategorization within this single system.this single system.

These subcategorization These subcategorization relationships characterize relationships characterize entailment relationships between entailment relationships between the metaphors .the metaphors .

TIME IS MONEY TIME IS A TIME IS MONEY TIME IS A LIMITED RESOURCE TIME LIMITED RESOURCE TIME IS A VALUABLE COMMODITYIS A VALUABLE COMMODITY..

30

Metaphorical entailments can Metaphorical entailments can characterize a coherent system of characterize a coherent system of metaphorical concepts and a metaphorical concepts and a corresponding coherent system of corresponding coherent system of metaphorical expressions for those metaphorical expressions for those concepts.concepts.

e.g. TIME IS e.g. TIME IS

Money -> Money -> spend, invest, budget, profitably, costspend, invest, budget, profitably, cost Resources -> Resources -> use, use up, have enough of, run out use, use up, have enough of, run out

ofof Commodities -> Commodities -> have, give, lose, thank you forhave, give, lose, thank you for

31

MetonymyMetonymy--

Using one entity to refer Using one entity to refer to another that is related to another that is related

to it.to it.

32

The primary function of Metaphor is understandingThe primary function of Metaphor is understanding According to Bernhard Debatin (1995: 381) the According to Bernhard Debatin (1995: 381) the

fundamental function of metaphor is that of rational fundamental function of metaphor is that of rational anticipation that comes from three basic functionsanticipation that comes from three basic functions the creative-cognitive the creative-cognitive the normative and world-disclosing the normative and world-disclosing the communicative-evocative functionsthe communicative-evocative functions

Metonymy has primarily a referential functionMetonymy has primarily a referential function It allows one to use one entity to stand for It allows one to use one entity to stand for

anotheranother It serves the function of providing understanding.It serves the function of providing understanding.

Functions of Metaphor and Functions of Metaphor and MetonymyMetonymy

33

Metonymy Metonymy

-> THE PART FOR THE -> THE PART FOR THE WHOLEWHOLE

There are many parts that can There are many parts that can stand for the wholestand for the whole

Which part we pick out determines Which part we pick out determines which aspect of the whole we are which aspect of the whole we are focusing onfocusing on

34

e.g.e.g. We need some We need some good headsgood heads on the on the

projects projects (good heads = intelligent people)(good heads = intelligent people)

headhead ->intelligent part of the body ->intelligent part of the body

The TimesThe Times hasn’t arrived at the press hasn’t arrived at the press conference yet. conference yet. ((The TimesThe Times = the reporter from the = the reporter from the

Times)Times) The Times -> The Times -> the the

importance of the institution the importance of the institution the reporter representsreporter represents

35

Metonymy Metonymy

-> THE PART FOR THE WHOLE-> THE PART FOR THE WHOLE

-> THE FACE FOR THE -> THE FACE FOR THE PERSONPERSON

She’s just a pretty She’s just a pretty faceface.. There are an awful lot of There are an awful lot of facesfaces out out

there in the audience.there in the audience. We need some new We need some new facesfaces around around

here.here.

36

Metonymies are not random or Metonymies are not random or arbitrary occurrencesarbitrary occurrences

Metonymic concepts are also Metonymic concepts are also systematicsystematic

They are instances of certain general metonymic They are instances of certain general metonymic concepts in terms of which we organize our concepts in terms of which we organize our thoughts and actions.thoughts and actions.

Metonymic concepts allow us to conceptualize Metonymic concepts allow us to conceptualize one thing by means of its relation to something one thing by means of its relation to something elseelse

37

e.g.e.g. THE PART FOR THE WHOLETHE PART FOR THE WHOLE

We don’ hire We don’ hire longhairslonghairs..

PRODUCER FOR PRODUCTPRODUCER FOR PRODUCTHe bought a He bought a FordFord..

OBJECT USED FOR USEROBJECT USED FOR USERThe The busesbuses are on strike are on strike

CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLEDCONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLEDNixonNixon bombed Hanoi bombed Hanoi

INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE RESPONSIBLEINSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE RESPONSIBLEYou will never get the You will never get the universityuniversity to to

agree to that.agree to that.

38

Thus, like metaphors, Thus, like metaphors, metonymic concepts structure metonymic concepts structure not just our language but our not just our language but our thoughts, attitudes, and actionsthoughts, attitudes, and actions

Like metaphoric concepts, Like metaphoric concepts, metonymic concepts are metonymic concepts are grounded in our experience.grounded in our experience.

39

The grounding of metonymic The grounding of metonymic concepts is in general more concepts is in general more obvious than is the case with obvious than is the case with metaphorical concepts.metaphorical concepts. It usually involves direct It usually involves direct

physical or causal association.physical or causal association.

40

How Is Our Conceptual System How Is Our Conceptual System Grounded?Grounded?

e.g.e.g. Concepts that are understood Concepts that are understood

directlydirectly

41

The structure of our spatial concepts The structure of our spatial concepts emerges from our constant spatial emerges from our constant spatial experience – our interaction with the experience – our interaction with the physical environmentphysical environment

Concepts that emerge in this way are Concepts that emerge in this way are concepts that we live by in the most concepts that we live by in the most fundamental wayfundamental way

Spatial conceptsSpatial concepts

42

Every experience takes place Every experience takes place within a vast background of within a vast background of cultural presuppositions.cultural presuppositions.

We experience our “world” in We experience our “world” in such a way that our culture is such a way that our culture is already present in the very already present in the very experience itself.experience itself.

43

UP-DOWN, IN-OUT, FRONT-BACK, UP-DOWN, IN-OUT, FRONT-BACK, LIGHT-DARK, WARM-COLD, MALE-LIGHT-DARK, WARM-COLD, MALE-FEMALE, etc.FEMALE, etc.

Such a sharply delineated Such a sharply delineated conceptual structure for space emerges conceptual structure for space emerges from our perceptual-motor functioningfrom our perceptual-motor functioning

Concepts in terms of our body Concepts in terms of our body functionsfunctions

44

We typically conceptualize the We typically conceptualize the nonphysical in terms of the nonphysical in terms of the physical – that is, we physical – that is, we conceptualize the less clearly conceptualize the less clearly delineated in terms of the more delineated in terms of the more clearly delineated.clearly delineated.

Grounding for our Grounding for our conceptual systemconceptual system

45

Homework:Homework:

Find five examples of metaphors in Find five examples of metaphors in your native language and illustrate your native language and illustrate them so that others can understand.them so that others can understand.

Find five examples of metonymy Find five examples of metonymy either in your native language or in either in your native language or in English that use human body parts English that use human body parts as THE PART FOR THE WHOLE and as THE PART FOR THE WHOLE and explain their relations.explain their relations.