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Locke: Locke: metaphysics & metaphysics & epistemology epistemology

ethics & politicsethics & politicsMark BedauMark Bedau

Hum 210Hum 210

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overviewoverview

Locke’s metaphysics and epistemologyLocke’s metaphysics and epistemology key: primary vs. secondary qualitieskey: primary vs. secondary qualities

rooted in new sciencerooted in new science evidence for distinctionevidence for distinction connection with skepticismconnection with skepticism

Locke’s ethics and politicsLocke’s ethics and politics similarities and differences with Hobbessimilarities and differences with Hobbes

especially propertyespecially property key problemskey problems

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broad ideological contextbroad ideological context

primary & secondary qualitiesprimary & secondary qualities contingent empirical natural science vs. contingent empirical natural science vs.

necessary a priori philosophy necessary a priori philosophy relation gives rise to primary/secondaryrelation gives rise to primary/secondary

private, subjective, internal perspective private, subjective, internal perspective vs. public, objective, external vs. public, objective, external perspectiveperspective appearance/reality ~ primary/secondaryappearance/reality ~ primary/secondary Aristotle downplays appearance/realityAristotle downplays appearance/reality

new science relies on appearance/realitynew science relies on appearance/reality

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idea of redness idea of roundness redness roundness

causes

primary qualityprimary qualitysecondary secondary qualityquality

Do ideas of Q Do ideas of Q resemble Q?resemble Q? yesyes nono

What causes What causes idea of Q?idea of Q? the primary the primary

qualityquality

a complex of a complex of primary primary qualitiesqualities

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““veil of ideas”veil of ideas”

immediate objects of awareness are immediate objects of awareness are ideasideas not objects or their qualitiesnot objects or their qualities anti-Aristoteliananti-Aristotelian

purely mental ideas merely purely mental ideas merely representrepresent external reality external reality symbolically stand for themsymbolically stand for them

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secondary qualitiessecondary qualities secondary: color, sound, taste, odor, heatsecondary: color, sound, taste, odor, heat primary: shape, size, motion, locationprimary: shape, size, motion, location explain perceptual relativity naturallyexplain perceptual relativity naturally

corpuscles in hand are in motioncorpuscles in hand are in motion ““warmth, as it is in the hand, is nothing but a warmth, as it is in the hand, is nothing but a

certain sort of motion in the minute particles of certain sort of motion in the minute particles of our nerves or animal spirits”our nerves or animal spirits”

contact between water corpuscles and hand contact between water corpuscles and hand corpuscles causes them to go faster/slowercorpuscles causes them to go faster/slower

causes hand to feel hotter/coldercauses hand to feel hotter/colder N.B. our ideas do not resemble their external N.B. our ideas do not resemble their external

causescauses

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metaphysical metaphysical consequencesconsequences

colors, odors, etc. are nothing in objects colors, odors, etc. are nothing in objects but powers to cause certain ideas in us?but powers to cause certain ideas in us? plausible for pain: caused by needle, persists plausible for pain: caused by needle, persists

after needle is gone, so after needle is gone, so not innot in needle needle consequence: nothing is really colored, etc.consequence: nothing is really colored, etc.

not black, white, gray, …not black, white, gray, … color is no more in needle than pain iscolor is no more in needle than pain is nothing in needle remotely resembles its colornothing in needle remotely resembles its color

Q - why believe this?Q - why believe this?

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perceptual relativity perceptual relativity argumentargument

ideas of secondary qualities vary with ideas of secondary qualities vary with conditions of perceiver (mind-dependent)conditions of perceiver (mind-dependent)

water feels hot/cold, porphyry, almond, manna, fire …water feels hot/cold, porphyry, almond, manna, fire … contrast constancy of ideas of primary qualitiescontrast constancy of ideas of primary qualities so, ideas of secondary qualities are “only so, ideas of secondary qualities are “only

powers to produce various sensations in us by powers to produce various sensations in us by their primary qualities”their primary qualities”

problem: perception of primary qualities also problem: perception of primary qualities also variesvaries

circle looks elliptical, rectangle looks square, …circle looks elliptical, rectangle looks square, … square tower looks round, straight oar looks bent, …square tower looks round, straight oar looks bent, …

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new science argumentnew science argument

new science posits corpuscular, new science posits corpuscular, atomistic view of natureatomistic view of nature

so, only PQs can be properties of so, only PQs can be properties of objectsobjects

shape, size, motion, location, solidityshape, size, motion, location, solidity so, ideas of SQ cannot resemble so, ideas of SQ cannot resemble

real Qsreal Qs

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new science argumentnew science argument

1.1. the corpuscular theory of matter is truethe corpuscular theory of matter is true2.2. if so, then perceived color, etc. are not real, if so, then perceived color, etc. are not real,

intrinsic qualities of objectsintrinsic qualities of objects3.3. so, in bodies they are only powers to produce so, in bodies they are only powers to produce

various sensations in us by primary qualities.various sensations in us by primary qualities.

issue with (2): corpuscular theory issue with (2): corpuscular theory consistentconsistent with real colors, etc. with real colors, etc.

(1) is real flaw: no compelling evidence (1) is real flaw: no compelling evidence for Locke that science could explain for Locke that science could explain everythingeverything

evidence compelling only 200 years laterevidence compelling only 200 years later

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upshot on evidenceupshot on evidence

problem: why believe it?problem: why believe it? no good arguments for PQ/SQ no good arguments for PQ/SQ

distinctiondistinction Locke and many others believed itLocke and many others believed it

possible solutionpossible solution take new science for granted, not take new science for granted, not

question itquestion it PQ/SQ distinction followsPQ/SQ distinction follows compare two perspectives on compare two perspectives on

skepticismskepticism

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global skepticismglobal skepticism

preoccupation: secure foundations for preoccupation: secure foundations for all knowledgeall knowledge inner sensory experience is certaininner sensory experience is certain build objective knowledge of external reality build objective knowledge of external reality

on subjective certainty of inner realityon subjective certainty of inner reality

but global skepticism equally hits PQ, but global skepticism equally hits PQ, SQSQ so why confident that PQs are veridical?so why confident that PQs are veridical?

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limited skepticismlimited skepticism preoccupation: metaphysics and preoccupation: metaphysics and

epistemology implied by new scienceepistemology implied by new science no demon-proof guarantee of new scienceno demon-proof guarantee of new science new science is new science is lessless intuitive than Aristotelean intuitive than Aristotelean key: take science for granted, it entails PQ/SQ key: take science for granted, it entails PQ/SQ

distinction, so our senses are mistakendistinction, so our senses are mistaken entails skepticism about SQ, not about PQentails skepticism about SQ, not about PQ

picture: L’s discussion of fire, etc. do not picture: L’s discussion of fire, etc. do not argueargue for distinction but for distinction but illustrateillustrate how how science accounts for puzzles of contextual science accounts for puzzles of contextual relativity and illusionsrelativity and illusions

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conclusion (part 1)conclusion (part 1) post-Aristotelian world of Galileo, post-Aristotelian world of Galileo,

Descartes, Hobbes, Locke is our worldDescartes, Hobbes, Locke is our world contemporary philosophy: colors, etc.?contemporary philosophy: colors, etc.?

consciousness paradoxconsciousness paradox contemporary sciencecontemporary science

PQs = root explanation + observable PQs = root explanation + observable propertiesproperties

today: nothing plays both rolestoday: nothing plays both roles everything is a secondary qualityeverything is a secondary quality science removes the world even further from science removes the world even further from

our graspour grasp

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and now for something completely and now for something completely different …different …

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ethics and politicsethics and politics

LockeLocke rightsrights governmentgovernment propertyproperty

first: compare Hobbesfirst: compare Hobbes both are social contract theoristsboth are social contract theorists

why differences?why differences? consequences?consequences?

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Locke = HobbesLocke = Hobbes

H&L - right of self preservation in a H&L - right of self preservation in a state of nature state of nature

H - problematic, since no “rights” in H - problematic, since no “rights” in state of naturestate of nature

L - religious foundation of right to self L - religious foundation of right to self preservationpreservation

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Locke = HobbesLocke = Hobbes H&L - “negative” liberty only: free from H&L - “negative” liberty only: free from

restrictions or coercion from societyrestrictions or coercion from society willingly give up in social contractwillingly give up in social contract

compare “positive” liberty requires societycompare “positive” liberty requires society Hegel: rational control rather than capriceHegel: rational control rather than caprice Marx: economic resources allowing choiceMarx: economic resources allowing choice

H - children and beasts are freeH - children and beasts are free L - freedom requires reason, recognition of L - freedom requires reason, recognition of truetrue

goodsgoods

Locke ≠ HobbesLocke ≠ Hobbes

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Locke ≠ HobbesLocke ≠ Hobbes

H - state of nature = warH - state of nature = war L - state of nature = peaceL - state of nature = peace

H - no property in state of natureH - no property in state of nature L - property in state of natureL - property in state of nature

property is Locke’s primary concernproperty is Locke’s primary concern

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Locke ≠ HobbesLocke ≠ Hobbes

H - no rights in state of natureH - no rights in state of nature morality is artificial -- radical viewmorality is artificial -- radical view

L - many rights in state of natureL - many rights in state of nature perfect freedom if respect self-preservation perfect freedom if respect self-preservation

of othersof others equal right to exercise natural freedoms equal right to exercise natural freedoms

(none subordinate to another)(none subordinate to another) rights to life, health, liberty, property, punish rights to life, health, liberty, property, punish

transgressorstransgressors no right to destroy self, to deprive others of no right to destroy self, to deprive others of

rightsrights we are all God’s propertywe are all God’s property

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Locke ≠ HobbesLocke ≠ Hobbes

H - no appeal to religion in ethics or H - no appeal to religion in ethics or politicspolitics

a novelty then, more natural nowa novelty then, more natural now

L - ethics is founded on religionL - ethics is founded on religion conventional then, less natural nowconventional then, less natural now

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Locke = HobbesLocke = Hobbes H&L- aim of political society is securityH&L- aim of political society is security

Locke ≠ HobbesLocke ≠ Hobbes L - government is just for protecting our rights, L - government is just for protecting our rights,

especially propertyespecially property government as “fiduciary” of the peoplegovernment as “fiduciary” of the people only purpose is to protect citizens’ interestsonly purpose is to protect citizens’ interests

H - nothing like thisH - nothing like this cp. Declaration of Independencecp. Declaration of Independence

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Locke ≠ HobbesLocke ≠ Hobbes

H - no right of rebellionH - no right of rebellion sovereign may do as he pleases, bound by sovereign may do as he pleases, bound by

no law no law

L - right of rebellionL - right of rebellion when government becomes a tyranny, “the when government becomes a tyranny, “the

people have no other remedy … but to people have no other remedy … but to appeal to heavenappeal to heaven” §168” §168

in 17th C. England means in 17th C. England means taking up armstaking up arms

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social contract problemsocial contract problem

is the contract hypothetical or historical?is the contract hypothetical or historical?

hypothetichypotheticalal how can it how can it

bind us?bind us?

historicalhistorical where and where and

when?when? why bind why bind

us?us?

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social contract problemsocial contract problem

is the contract hypothetical or historical?is the contract hypothetical or historical?

hypothetichypotheticalal how can it how can it

bind us?bind us?

historicalhistorical where and where and

when?when? why bind why bind

us?us?

tacit consent tacit consent if you benefitif you benefit real, dailyreal, daily

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propertyproperty God gave us the earth and all in it for our God gave us the earth and all in it for our

support and comfortsupport and comfort ours “in common”ours “in common” to be of use, how to apportion it?to be of use, how to apportion it?

you own your body and your laboryou own your body and your labor its your propertyits your property

removing something from state of labor removing something from state of labor and mixing your labor with it makes it and mixing your labor with it makes it your propertyyour property nobody else need consent, not robberynobody else need consent, not robbery

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mixing your labormixing your labor

acorns or apples you gather acorns or apples you gather deer you kill, fish you catchdeer you kill, fish you catch grass your horse eats grass your horse eats turfs your servant cutsturfs your servant cuts

not limited to your labornot limited to your labor permits tremendous wealth if you can hire permits tremendous wealth if you can hire

othersothers forerunner of capitalistic theory of forerunner of capitalistic theory of

appropriationappropriation

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landland ““As much land as a man tills, plants, As much land as a man tills, plants,

improves, cultivates, and can use the improves, cultivates, and can use the product of, so much is his property.” §32product of, so much is his property.” §32

God commanded us to labor, to improve God commanded us to labor, to improve the land for our own benefitthe land for our own benefit

““He that in obedience to this command of He that in obedience to this command of God, subdued, tilled and sowed any part God, subdued, tilled and sowed any part of it, thereby annexed to it something that of it, thereby annexed to it something that was his property, which another has no was his property, which another has no title to, nor could without injury take from title to, nor could without injury take from him.” §32him.” §32

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puzzles about propertypuzzles about property

1.1. When you mix your labor with something, why When you mix your labor with something, why don’t you own just the portion you put in?don’t you own just the portion you put in?

2.2. … … why don’t you just loose it?why don’t you just loose it?3.3. When you enclose something with a fence, When you enclose something with a fence,

why don’t you just own the part under the why don’t you just own the part under the posts?posts?

4.4. … … why don’t you acquire what’s “outside”?why don’t you acquire what’s “outside”?5.5. If ability to use is enough to acquire title, what If ability to use is enough to acquire title, what

about the 360º view from a mountain top?about the 360º view from a mountain top?6.6. If land is inherited legitimately only if previous If land is inherited legitimately only if previous

owner had legitimate title, does anyone have a owner had legitimate title, does anyone have a legitimate title?legitimate title?

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limitslimits

only as much as you can use and enjoy only as much as you can use and enjoy given by God for us to enjoy; so cannot waste itgiven by God for us to enjoy; so cannot waste it

Locke holds equality of persons and rights, Locke holds equality of persons and rights, but justifies vast inequalities in propertybut justifies vast inequalities in property money can exist only by convention, and it does money can exist only by convention, and it does

exist exist so we have consented to itso we have consented to it

consequence: money not spoil, allows vast consequence: money not spoil, allows vast inequalityinequality

so we have also consented to this consequenceso we have also consented to this consequence Protestant ethic: different degrees of industry Protestant ethic: different degrees of industry

determines your wealthdetermines your wealth

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Lockean provisoLockean proviso scarcity makes appropriation problematicscarcity makes appropriation problematic

no problem at flowing drinking fountainno problem at flowing drinking fountain if scarce, you can take only as much as would if scarce, you can take only as much as would

leave in common as much, and as goodleave in common as much, and as good then it’s just as if you didn’t take anythen it’s just as if you didn’t take any

problem: is the proviso ever met?problem: is the proviso ever met? not right to equal property but equal right to not right to equal property but equal right to

propertyproperty equal opportunity to mix our labor with itequal opportunity to mix our labor with it

but, given economic, social, and gender differences,but, given economic, social, and gender differences,is there is there reallyreally equal opportunity to exercise this equal opportunity to exercise this right?right?

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conclusions (part 2)conclusions (part 2)

Locke on rightsLocke on rights Can we make sense of natural rights without Can we make sense of natural rights without

God?God? Locke on propertyLocke on property

social and political consequences of L’s social and political consequences of L’s propertyproperty

forces us to confront deep questionsforces us to confront deep questions What is the proper way to view property?What is the proper way to view property?

legitimate possessionlegitimate possession redistribution without consentredistribution without consent