1

Learning

Chapter 8

2

ADAPTATION

• Adaptation is adjusting to a changed environment

• Development involves adapting to increasingly complex environments, using knowledge gained from experience

• Instinctive behavior is adaptive (ex:imprinting, others?)

3

Definition

Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to

experience.

Learning is more flexible in comparison to the genetically-programmed behaviors of

Chinooks, for example.

4

HABITUATION

• Habituation is a type of learning: adapting to stimuli that do not change

• It is NOT because the organism has learned about a relationship or an association

• Opponent Process Theory by Richard Solomon is based on habituation

5

OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY

• Habituation to repeated stimuli is the result of two interacting processes:– A Process = fixed automatic, emotional,

unlearned response– B Process = initially slower reaction, triggered

by the A Process; counter effect of A Process– Explains emotions, drug dependency

6

How Do We Learn?

EXPERIENCE IS THE KEY TO LEARNING

We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that

occur in sequence.

7

Stimulus-Stimulus LearningLearning to associate one stimulus

with another (basis of Classical Conditioning).

8

Stimulus-Stimulus Learning

Learning to associate one stimuluswith another.

9

Response-Consequence Learning

Learning to associate a responsewith a consequence (basis of Operant Conditioning).

10

Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His

work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F.

Skinner.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Sov

foto

11

BEHAVIORISM

• Behaviorism is a view that Psychology should:– Be an objective science (currently accepted)– Study behavior without reference to mental

processes, therefore a rejection of introspection (currently not accepted)

12

Pavlov’s Experiments

Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation

(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

13

Pavlov’s Experiments

During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in

salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits

salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

14

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• TERMINOLOGY– Conditioned = Learned– Unconditioned = Unlearned– Stimulus = Causes a response– Response = Behavioral reaction to stimulus

• BASIC COMPONENTS:– Natural reflex (automatic, involuntary)– Neutral stimulus– Association of stimuli– Timing

15

Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an

unconditioned stimulus takes place.

In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus.

The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second.

16

Extinction

When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and

eventually causes extinction. Example?

17

RECONDITIONING

THE QUICK RELEARNING OF A CONDITIONED RESPONSE AFTER EXTINCTION Example?

18

Spontaneous Recovery (NOT the same as Reconditioning)

After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS

(tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again. Example?

19

Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization.

Think of Baby Albert.

20

EXTENDING PAVLOV

• John Watson, another Behaviorist, worked with Baby Albert (Reading and Questions)

• Video: Phobias (define) and Wolpe’s systematic desensitization (define) treatment is based on CC

• Various Behavioral therapies – • Some medical treatments are based on classically

conditioning immune system response (placebos)

21

Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned

stimulus. Example?

22

SECOND ORDER CONDITIONING

• ALSO referred to as Higher Order Conditioning• When a conditioned stimulus acts like an

unconditioned stimulus, creating conditioned stimuli out of events associated with it.

• Example?• Very important adaptive characteristic of cc in

preparing organism for life threatening events

23

ACQUISITION SCHEDULES

• Delayed

• Interval

• Backward

24

Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the

scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of cognitive

processes and biological constraints.

25

Cognitive Processes

Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be

reduced to mindless mechanisms.

However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a

stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988).

26

Biological Predispositions

Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals.

Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning.

However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an

animal’s biology.

27

Biological Predispositions

John Garcia

Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and

the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A

biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to

others (light or sound).

Courtesy of John G

arcia

28

Biological Predispositions

Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.

29

Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology

is isolating elementary behaviors from more

complex ones through objective scientific

procedures.

Pavlov’s Legacy

Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)

30

Operant & Classical Conditioning

1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events (consequences).

31

Operant & Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

32

Skinner’s ExperimentsSkinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s

thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to

occur again.

Yale U

niversity Library

33

Operant Chamber

Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the

Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning.

Walter D

awn/ Photo R

esearchers, Inc.

From

The

Ess

entia

ls o

f Con

ditio

ning

and

Lea

rnin

g, 3

rd

Edi

tion

by M

icha

el P

. Dom

jan,

200

5. U

sed

with

per

mis

sion

by

Tho

mso

n L

earn

ing,

Wad

swor

th D

ivis

ion

34

Operant Chamber

The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that

an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record

the animal’s response.

35

Shaping

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the

desired target behavior through successive approximations (hot/cold activity).

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

Kham

is Ram

adhan/ Panapress/ Getty Im

ages

Fred Bavendam

/ Peter Arnold, Inc.

36

CHAINING =Linking a sequence of several different reinforced

behaviors

37

Types of Reinforcers

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows is a reinforcer. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.

Reuters/ C

orbis

38

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

• Remember: the behavior increases due to the removal or the end of an aversive stimuli

• Two types:– Escape conditioning: organism learns to make a

response to end the negative reinforcement– Avoidance conditioning: organism learns to

avoid the negative reinforcer.

39

• Avoidance conditioning (continued):– A powerful influence on everyday behavior– Maintains phobias etc. because the response is

reinforced by the reduction of the fear

40

Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.

Conditioned Reinforcer (sometimes called a secondary reinforcer): A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer. Example?

Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

41

Reinforcement Schedules

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. Learning is very rapid but extinction is also rapid.

2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on. You may need to start with a continuous schedule.

42

PARTIAL OR INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT TERMS

• Fixed - Never changing

• Variable - Changing

• Interval - Having to do with time

• Ratio - Having to do with behavior or performance

43

Partial or Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules

Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay.

Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)

44

Interval Schedules

Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.) Produces a scalloping response

Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

45

Schedules of Reinforcement

46

Punishment

An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.

47

PUNISHMENT

• REMEMBER:

• POSITIVE IS TO ADD • NEGATIVE IS TO SUBTRACT

• DO NOT THINK IN TERMS OF GOOD AND BAD!

48

Punishment

1. Results in unwanted side effect such as fear.2. Conveys no information to the organism.3. Justifies pain to others.4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in

its absence.5. Causes aggression towards the agent.6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in

place of another.

Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind,

2002), it usually leads to negative effects.

49

PUNISHMENT

• 7. Does not erase an undesirable habit, it merely suppresses it

• 8. Ineffective unless applied immediately after and each time

• 9. Does not specify correct behavior

50

GUIDELINES IN USING PUNISHMENT

• Specify why• Concentrate on behavior not the person• Should be immediate and strong enough

without being too strong• Be careful of escalation (if punishment is

not given early enough, bad behavior escalates

• Combine with other behavior

51

Extending Skinner’s Understanding

Skinner believed in inner thought processes and biological underpinnings, but many psychologists criticize him for

discounting them.

52

Cognition & Operant Conditioning

Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during

a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious

reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the

layout of the maze (environment).

53

COGNITIVE PROCESSES

• Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)

• Insight (Sultan’s Aha! Experience)

• Premack Principle (hierarchy of behavioral preferences)

• Disequalibrium Hypothesis (What you’ve been prevented from will increase as a reinforcer) “Reverse psychology!”

54

Latent Learning

Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

55

Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

56

Biological Predisposition

Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.Breland and Breland (1961) showed that

animals drift (instinctive drift) towards their

biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors.

Marian Breland Bailey

Ph

oto

: Bob

Baile

y

57

Skinner’s Legacy

Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and

feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

58

Applications of Operant Conditioning

In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring

unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

PARENTING:Reinforce correct behavior, target specific

behaviorIgnore whining

When behavior occurs, explain and give a time out.

59

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• Culturally approved gender roles

• Discriminative stimuli (insomnia)

• Socialization

• Others?

60

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

61

Mirror Neurons

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

Rep

rint

ed w

ith p

erm

issi

on f

rom

the

Am

eric

an

Ass

ocia

tion

for

the

Adv

ance

men

t of

Scie

nce,

Sub

iaul

et a

l., S

cien

ce 3

05: 4

07-4

10 (

2004

) ©

200

4 A

AA

S.

62

Imitation Onset

Learning by observation begins early in life. This

14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV

in pulling a toy apart.

Mel

tzof

f, A

.N. (

1998

). I

mita

tion

of te

levi

sed

mod

els

by in

fant

s. C

hild

Dev

elop

men

t, 59

122

1-12

29. P

hoto

s C

ourt

esy

of A

.N. M

eltz

off

and

M. H

anuk

.

63

Bandura's Experiments

Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961)

indicated that individuals

(children) learn through imitating

others who receive rewards and punishments.

Cou

rtes

y of

Alb

ert B

andu

ra, S

tanf

ord

Uni

vers

ity

64

Applications of Observational Learning

Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies

show that antisocial models (family,

neighborhood or TV) may have

antisocial effects.

65

Positive Observational Learning

Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.

Bob

Dae

mm

rich

/ The

Im

age

Wor

ks

66

Television and Observational Learning

Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children

in elementary school who are

exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased

aggression.

Ron

Cha

pple

/ Tax

i/ G

etty

Im

ages

67

Modeling Violence

Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

Bob

Dae

mm

rich

/ The

Im

age

Wor

ks

Gla

ssm

an/ T

he I

mag

e W

orks

68

iClicker Questions for

Chapter 8: Learning

Psychology, 8th Edition

by David G. Myers Karla Gingerich, Colorado State University

69

Through direct experience with animals, we come to anticipate that dogs will bark and that birds will

chirp. This best illustrates:

A. the law of effect.

B. spontaneous recovery.

C. respondent behavior.

D. associative learning.

70

Ivan Pavlov noticed that dogs began salivating at the mere sight of the

person who regularly brought food to them. For the dogs, the sight of this

person was a(n):

A. primary reinforcer.

B. unconditional stimulus.

C. immediate reinforcer.

D. conditioned stimulus.

71

Conditioning seldom occurs when a(n) ________ comes after a(n) _____.

A. CS; US

B. UR; CS

C. secondary reinforcer; operant behavior

D. negative reinforcer; operant behavior

72

The predictability of an association between a CS and a US facilitates an organism's ability to anticipate the

occurrence of the US. This fact is most likely to be highlighted by a(n)

________ perspective. A. evolutionary

B. behaviorist

C. cognitive

D. neuroscience

73

Researchers condition a flatworm to contract when exposed to light by

repeatedly pairing the light with electric shock. The electric shock is a(n):

A. negative reinforcer.

B. conditioned stimulus.

C. conditioned reinforcer.

D. unconditioned stimulus.

74

If you get violently ill a couple of hours after eating contaminated food, you will probably

develop an aversion to the taste of that food but not to the sight of the restaurant where you ate or to the sound of the music you heard there.

This best illustrates that associative learning is constrained by:

A. intrinsic motivation.

B. spontaneous recovery.

C. biological predispositions.

D. conditioned reinforcers.

75

After getting ill from eating her friend’s Thanksgiving turkey, Natalia couldn’t stand the the sight or smell of turkey.

However, when her friend baked a whole chicken, Natalia thought it sounded good.

This illustrates:A. generalization.B. discrimination.C. extinction.D. acquisition.

76

The law of effect relates most closely to:

A. modeling.

B. operant conditioning.

C. classical conditioning.

D. latent learning.

77

For some children who bite themselves or bang their heads, squirting water into their faces

when they hurt themselves has been observed to decrease the frequency of these self-abusive

behaviors. This best illustrates the potential value of:

A. punishment.

B. conditioned reinforcers.

C. negative reinforcers.

D. latent learning.

78

Occasional, unpredictable reinforcement usually results in _________ rates of

responding.

A. unpredictable

B. steady

C. delayed

D. speedy

79

Mirror neurons are important to the process of learning because they:

A. enhance cognitive maps.

B. enable imitation.

C. provide a neurological basis for operant conditioning.

D. explain aversive conditioning.

80

Critical Thinking Questions

81

Martin likes to shower in the men’s locker room after working out. During a shower he hears a toilet

flushing nearby. Suddenly boiling hot water comes out of the showerhead, causing Martin serious

discomfort. Later on in the shower, he hears another toilet flush and he immediately jumps out from under

the showerhead. In this scenario, what is the unconditioned response (UR)?

A. jumping out of the shower

B. sound of the toilet flushing

C. pain avoidance

D. boiling hot water

82

A child is sent to his room with no supper because he presented a bad report card to his parents. The parent’s intent was to:

A. punish poor academic performance.B. negatively reinforce poor academic

performance.C. extinguish poor academic performance.D. partially reinforce poor academic

performance.

83

Brian ate a tuna salad sandwich that had become tainted from being in the sun too long. Not long after eating, Brian became extremely nauseated and felt awful. After that, even the sight of a tuna sandwich caused Brian to feel

nauseated. In this scenario, what is the conditioned response (CR)?

A. tuna

B. nausea

C. mayonnaise

D. sight of any sandwich

84

Luke gets paid a fixed sum after every four pianos he tunes. He is on

a _________ schedule of reinforcement.

A. fixed interval

B. fixed ratio

C. variable interval

D. variable ratio

85

Extinction occurs ___________ in classical conditioning and ___________

in operant conditioning.A. when the CS is presented with the US; when

reinforcement increasesB. when the CS is presented alone repeatedly;

when reinforcement increasesC. when the CS is presented alone repeatedly;

when reinforcement stopsD. when the CS is presented with the US; when

reinforcement stops