1. indo_european languages
TRANSCRIPT
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The Indo-European languages are a family (phylum) of several hundred related languages and dialects including most major current languages of
Europe, the Iranian plateau, and
South Asia
Anatolia
Written attestations appearing since the Bronze Age
The Centum languages=the western European languages
The Satem languages=the eastern European and Asian languages
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Indo-European Languages Countries with a majority of speakers of one or more Indo-European languages Countries with one or more Indo-European minority languages with official status
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INDO-EUROPEAN AND THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
INDO-EUROPEAN HYPOTHESIS
Sir William Jones, 1786, hypothesis that most European languages and others (in India, parts of the Middle East, and Asia) are cognates (are related, as a family, by common origins)
notion of a common ancestor language, the Indo-European language, which was the origin of Sanskrit, Persian, Latin, Greek, Romance, Germanic and Celtic languages, and others
development of Indo-European theory in the early 19th century:
Franz Bopp (1816), comparisons of verbal systems Rasmus Rask (1818) and Jacob Grimm (1822), notice of systematic phonological
changes A. Schleicher, reconstruction of pre-historic Indo-European forms,
Stammbaumtheorie (tree stem theory)
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DESCENDANTS OF THE COMMON INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE
Indo-European Language Subfamilies and examples:
Indo-Iranian (Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Persian) Hellenic (Greek) Armenian (Western Armenian, Eastern Armenian) Balto-Slavic (Russian, Polish, Czech, Lithuanian) Albanian (Gheg, Tosk) Celtic (Irish Gaelic, Welsh) Italic (Latin, Spanish, Italian, French) Germanic (German, English, Danish, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian) Anatolian (extinct) (Hittite) Tocharian (extinct) (Tocharian A, Tocharian B)
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THE ORIGINAL INDO-EUROPEAN PEOPLE
Kurgan culture
It's speculated that the so called Kurgan were the original Indo-European people; lived northwest of the Caucasus, north of the Caspian Sea, as early as the fifth millennium B.C.
Their language is known by scholars as Common Indo-European or Proto-Indo-European.
domesticated cattle and horses,
farming, herding,
four-wheeled wagons, - mobility,
mound builders, hilltop forts,
complex sense of family relationship and organization;
counting skills; used gold and silver;
drank a honey based alcoholic beverage, mead;
multiple gods (worship of sky/thunder, sun, horse, boar, snake), belief in life after death, elaborate burials
(Reference: Maria GIMBUTAS, "The Beginning of the Bronze Age in Europe and the Indo-Europeans" 1973)
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Descendants of words for trees (ash, apple, oak, linden, aspen, pine), animals (bear, wolf), and other (honey, snow, cold, winter, father, mother) allow for hypotheses regarding their original homeland and culture.
Beginning around 3000 BC the Indo-European people abandoned their homeland and migrated in a variety of directions (found in Greece by 2000 BC, in northern India by 1500 BC)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMON INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
Lexicon
Words derived from the Common Indo-European language are preserved in a large number of languages:
numerals from one to ten;
the word meaning the sum of ten tens (Latin "centum," Avestan "satem," English "hundred");
words for certain body parts (heart, lung, head, foot);
words for certain natural phenomena (air, night, star, snow, sun, moon, mind);
certain plant and animal names (beech, corn, wolf, bear);
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certain cultural terms (yoke, mead, weave, sew);
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monosyllables that pertain to sex and excretion (example: modern English "fart" likely derived from Indo-European "perd";
also modern English slang "f---" perhaps derived from Indo-European "peig" or "pu" meaning respectively "hostile, evil-minded" and "to soil, defile")
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Phonology
many stops, voiced, voiceless, and aspirated ([bh] [dh]) poor in fricatives (only [s] and [z])
several laryngeal (h-like) consonants (could double as vowels)
nasals [n], [m], and liquids [l] and [r], and glides [y] and [w] (also could double as vowels)
vowels: [a], , [i], , [u],
Morphology
The Common Indo-European language was inflected. It used suffixes and internal (root) vowel changes (ablaut system) to indicate grammatical information like
case, number,
tense,
person,
mood, etc.
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Nouns
Indo-European nouns were inflected for eight cases:
nominative: subject of a sentence (The soldiers saw me.) vocative: person addressed (Students, listen!) accusative: direct object (They bought a car) genitive: possessor or source (the dog's bone) dative: indirect object, recipient (She gave the boy a flower) ablative: what is separated (He abstained from it) locative: place where (We danced at the bar) instrumental: means, instrument (She ate with chopsticks)
Example:
Hypothetical declension of Indo-European word EKWOS ("horse") (ancestor of Modern English, "horse," Latin: "equus," and Old English, "eoh")
Nominative: ekwos Accusative: ekwom
Genitive: ekwosyo
Dative: ekwoy
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Verbs
Indo-European verbs had six "aspects" (we would call them "tenses"):
present: continuing action in progress (I go) imperfect: continuing action in the past (I was going) aorist: momentary action in the past (I went) perfect: completed action (I have gone) pluperfect: completed action in the past (I had gone) future: actions to come (I shall go)
Indo-European had three voices:
active, passive and
middle (reflexive)
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Indo-European had five moods:
indicative(fact), subjunctive(will),
optative (wish),
imperative (command),
injunctive (unreality)
Indo-European had seven verb classes (distinguished by root vowels and following consonants)
Syntax
Indo-European had a flexible word order, tendency to Subject-Object-Verb (SOV)
Prosody/Accent
Indo-European accent could be on any syllable and was characterized by pitch rather than loudness
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INDO-EUROPEAN Language to GERMANIC (around 3000 BC) to Common Germanic (C.Gmc) (around 100 BC)
One of the oldest records of a Germanic language is a runic inscription identifying the workman who made a horn about A.D. 400. Transliterated it reads as follows:
ek hlewagastir holtijar horna tawido
Translated, it roughly means:
I, Hlewagastir Holtson, [this] horn made
Prosody:
Indo-European free, pitch accent became strong stress on the initial syllable in Germanic
Phonology
loss of Indo-European laryngeal consonants, articulation shifting higher up in the vocal tract
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1. Grimm's Law (Jakob Grimm, 1822):
o Indo-European voiceless stops (p, t, k) became Germanic voiceless fricatives (f, th, h):
Indo-European pœter, Germanic (English) father (contrast with non-Germanic: Latin pater)
Indo-European treyes, Germanic (English) three (contrast with non-Germanic: Latin tres) Indo-European kerd, Germanic (English) heart, (compare with non-Germanic: Latin cord)
o Indo-European voiced stops (b, d, g) became Germanic voiceless stops (p, t, k): Indo-European abel, Germanic (English) apple (contrast with non-Germanic: Russian
jabloko) Indo-European dent, Germanic (English) tooth (contrast with non-Germanic: Latin dentis) Indo-European grœno, Germanic (English) corn (contrast with non-Germanic: Latin
granum)o voiced aspirated stops(bh, dh, gh) to voiced stops (b, d, g):
Indo-European bhrater, Germanic (English) brother (contrast with non-Germanic: Latin frater)
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2. Verner's Law (Karl Verner, 1877)o explanation of an exception to Grimm's Law, sometimes Indo-European voiceless stops (p, t, k )
became Germanic voiced stops (b, d, g) when surrounded by voiced sounds and preceded by unaccented syllable or accent falling after the consonant in question), also; s became r; phenomenon explained by Verner as a result of original IE accent falling after consonant in question:
Indo-European kmtóm, English hundred (contrast with non-Germanic: Latin centum) Indo-European pœtér, Germanic (Old English) fæder (contrast with non-Germanic: Latin
pater) Indo-European snusós ("daughter-in-law), Old English snoru (contrast with non-
Germanic: Sanskrit snusá)
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Morphology
Relative preservation of Indo-European ablaut system (also known as apophony or vowel gradation): changes in root vowels indicated tense, number, part of speech (English sing, sang, sung is a survival of this system). The stability of this system was however undermined because the position of the Indo-European accent was a conditioning factor for the vowel changes and the accent/stress became fixed in the Germanic languages.
Simplification of the case system: In Germanic there was a fusion of ablative/locative/instrumental/dative and vocative/nominative; three numbers and genders retained
The deterioration of the case system (i.e. inflectional suffixes) is related to the initial-syllable stress patterns of Germanic (final syllables became unstressed or weakly stressed and lost their distinctness).
Verbs o tense/aspect: change from six aspects to only two tenses, present and preterit o mood: retained indicative and imperative and fused subjunctive, injunctive and optative o seven verb classes in Indo-European (distinguished by their vowel changes) were retained in
Germanic o Germanic added weak verbs (also called dental preterite verbs), featuring a dental sound [d] at
the end of a verb to indicate past tense (the ancestor of our regular past tenses: e.g. walk, walked)
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Syntax
Germanic retained a relatively free word order, but made greater use of prepositions to compensate for the loss of inflections
Lexicon
Germanic inheritance of many basic words of the Indo-European vocabulary (e.g. cold, winter, honey, wolf, snow, beech, pine, father, mother, sun, tree, long, red, foot, head, and verbs such as be, eat, lie) and forms for grammatical concepts (negation, interrogation)
borrowings from Italic, Celtic and Balto-Slavic languages large common and unique vocabulary of the Germanic languages (not present in other Indo-European
languages and perhaps borrowed from non-Indo-European languages) (e.g. back, blood, body, bone, bride, child, gate, ground, oar, rat, sea, soul)
extensive use derivative affixes and compounding to create new words
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West Germanic languages Dutch (Low Franconian, West Germanic) Low German (West Germanic) Central German (High German, West Germanic) Upper German (High German, West Germanic)
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OLD ENGLISH
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Old English was spoken in western Britain and southern Scotland until approximately the end of the 11th century, when it began to evolve into Middle English. At about the same time the Scots language began to diverge from Old English and eventually became established as a separate language.
English = West Germanic language heavy influence from Old Norse, Old French, and Romance languages widely spoken around the world due to previous British exploration and colonization and later
American expansion and cultural influence, including the internet spoken as a first language by more than 300 million people and as a second language by more than 500
million in European countries the rate of fluency in English is high