11

Globalization & Language Policy Responses in

Asian Contexts

Symposium on Language Issues in EMI Universities Across Asia

8-9 June 2006

Amy B.M. Tsui

The University of Hong Kong

22

33

e.g. China, Russia500m-1,000m

Expanding circle

The three “circles” of English (Crystal, 2003, p. 61)

e.g. India, Singapore300m-500m

Outer circle

Inner circle

e.g. USA, UK320m-500m

44

The Spread of EnglishThe Spread of English

Is English still spreading?

Is the spread of English orchestrated / fostered and to whose benefit?

Are there forces and processes transcending the English mother-tongue world which may also be contributing to the continued spread of English?

Fishman (1996)

55

GlobalizationGlobalization

Characteristics of globalization: Interconnectivity Intensity Instantaneity Simultaneity

Mediational Tools (global literacy skills) Information technology English

66

The Spread of EnglishThe Spread of English

Is the spread of English cultural-linguistic imperialism / neo-colonialism or the democratization of an elitist resource?

Is English a tool for economic exploitation or a multinational tool that enables former colonized regions to participate in the world capitalist system?

Does the spread of English necessarily lead to the displacement of local languages and cultural identities?

77

The Spread of EnglishThe Spread of English

“[English] is the inter-national language par excellence at the close of the twentieth century, and the first language of millions of people … Many people, …, of Africa, India and Europe are fully fluent in English, even speak it as their principal language, with no loss of their cultural identity” (Conrad, 1996, p. 21, author’s emphasis)

88

Questions AddressedQuestions Addressed

Is English perceived as a multinational tool or an imperialistic tool?

What are Asian countries’ language policy responses to globalization?

Do these policies lead to the democratization of English as an elitist resource?

Or do they legitimate the hegemony of English and the cultural domination of the West?

How do Asian countries resolve the paradox of preserving national cultural identities and promoting a foreign language and Western cultures?

99

Language Policy Responses to Language Policy Responses to Globalization Globalization

Components of Language Policy

Language management

Language practices: language varieties language use and language pedagogy

Language ideology (Spolsky, 2004)

1010

Language ManagementLanguage Management

Learning English as a national mission

The status of English as an official language as a second / working language as a medium of instruction

Curriculum time and resources

1111

Learning English as a National MissionLearning English as a National Mission

China: “Learning English is for the whole nation”

English study fever (yingyu re)

No. of CET test takers:

10,000 (1994) to 9.5 million (2004)

1212

Japan: Cultivation of “Japanese with English abilities” (MEXT 2002 White Paper)

National Strategy and Action Plan

Ability to interact socially in English for all Japanese

A working knowledge of English for all Japanese professionals

Learning English as a National MissionLearning English as a National Mission

1313

South Korea: young uh yul poong (English study fervor)

Six priority areas for development since 1995

Korean culture and Korean way of thinking (i.e., consciousness)

English language education : focus of educational reform

Learning English as a National MissionLearning English as a National Mission

1414

Malaysia: English and national interest

“Bahasa Malaysia has been given pride of place as the national language. The time has come to give English significant priority. It will be in the national interest to do so. In fact, the national interest demands it. (Singh, 1993, Dec 29, p.3, cited in Gill, 2004, p. 144)

Learning English as a National MissionLearning English as a National Mission

1515

English as an official language & MOIEnglish as an official language & MOI

Japan

Proposal to adopt English as a second official language (2000)

Establish 100 “super” high schools using English as MOI by 2005

South Korea

Proposals to adopt English an official English, to make English the new mother tongue (1999)

Proposals created a “second crisis” after Japanese occupation (Yim, 2003)

1616

English as an official language & MOIEnglish as an official language & MOI

Malaysia 26 (1958-1983 / 1985) years to complete Malay-

medium education at all levels of education 1993 / 1996: English as MOI re-introduced at tertiary

level 2003: starting from P1, S1 & S6 for science and math

China English as MOI in private schools English as MOI for science & technology in some

tertiary institutions

1717

English as an official language & MOIEnglish as an official language & MOI

Cambodia: English displaced French as preferred medium

Vietnam English adopted as a second language over and

above former colonial languages

Nepal, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Bangladesh English as MOI Language policy dictated by linguistic preferences

of international aid agencies

1818

Resolving the Paradox: Resolving the Paradox: Reconstructing National Cultural Reconstructing National Cultural Identity through the discourse of Identity through the discourse of

EnglishEnglish

“A national culture is a discourse – a way of constructing meaning which influences and organizes both our actions and our conceptions of ourselves … National cultures construct identities by producing meanings about ‘the nation’ with which we can identify; these are contained in the stories which are told about it, memories which connect its present with its past, images which are constructed of it.” (Stuart Hall, 1996, p. 613, original emphasis)

1919

Elements of Identity ConstructionElements of Identity Construction

Uniqueness of a nation or national culture

Shared historical memory

Future adversities and achievements of the nation

Origin, continuity, tradition and timelessness of the nation

2020

Resolving the ParadoxResolving the Paradox China: Re-defining “national greatness” & HK

Japan: “Deconstructing English” and reaffirming “Japaneseness”

South Korea: English as a new language of nationalism

Malaysia: Reconstructing nationalism through English

Singapore: National identity crafted in English with Asian images

2121

China: Re-defining “national greatness”China: Re-defining “national greatness”

“Only by constantly improving our economic strength, national defense strength, and national cohesiveness, can we remain invincible amidst increasingly intensive international competition and truly safeguard our national sovereignty and national pride.” (Jiang Zhemin; Cited in Moore, 2000, p.122 )

2222

“I hope all the classes will be taught in English. I don’t worship foreign languages, but we need to exchange our ideas with the rest of the world.” (Zhu Rongji, China varsities to teach in English, 2001, September 20, cited in Gill, 2004).

Hong Kong: “Resinicization” and Hong Kong: “Resinicization” and retention of EMI retention of EMI

educationeducation

China: Re-defining “national greatness”China: Re-defining “national greatness”

2323

Japan: “Deconstructing English” &Japan: “Deconstructing English” &reaffirming “Japaneseness”reaffirming “Japaneseness”

1994: assimilation of foreign culture must be changed1994: assimilation of foreign culture must be changed 1998: cultivation of Japanese identity as one of the1998: cultivation of Japanese identity as one of the

aims of the national curriculumaims of the national curriculum 2003: learning Japanese is a prerequisite for learning 2003: learning Japanese is a prerequisite for learning EnglishEnglish

Deconstructing English is “removing English from Deconstructing English is “removing English from the core identity of Japan” by treating it as a mere the core identity of Japan” by treating it as a mere technical tool and by reaffirming the technical tool and by reaffirming the unique cultural unique cultural values and qualities of the Japanesevalues and qualities of the Japanese, hence , hence maintaining cultural independence from the West maintaining cultural independence from the West (Hashimoto, 2000, p. 49)(Hashimoto, 2000, p. 49)

2424

S. Korea: English curriculum as a mediating S. Korea: English curriculum as a mediating tool for national identity constructiontool for national identity construction

“ ‘In order to win, know your enemy better.’ … Koreans can only overtake its competitors by getting intimately familiar with them” (Yim, 2003, p. 42)

2525

“Koreans are very proud of their language. Their language is called Korean. Written Korean is called Hangeul. It was invented in 1443 … Hangeul is very easy to read and write. So almost every Korean can read and write. In some countries people cannot read or write because their written language is too difficult. This is not true in Korea.”

“… My history teacher says that it [Korean history] goes back as far as five thousand years ago. Koreans are very proud of our long history.”

(Ji Hak Sa II, Lesson 10)

S. Korea: English curriculum as a mediating S. Korea: English curriculum as a mediating tool for national identity constructiontool for national identity construction

2626

“Learning the English language will reinforce the spirit of nationalism when it is used to bring about development and progress for the country. … True nationalism means doing everything possible for the country, even if it means learning the English language” (Mahathir Mohamad, The Sun, Sept 11, 1999, my emphasis).

Malaysia: Reconstructing nationalism Malaysia: Reconstructing nationalism through Englishthrough English

2727

Malaysia: Reconstructing nationalism Malaysia: Reconstructing nationalism through Englishthrough English

“We believe that a nationalist is someone who has acquired all the knowledge and mastered all the skills and is capable of contesting against the rest of the world. But they (some Malaysians) think that just being able to speak Malay makes you a nationalist, and that is wrong.” (Mahathir Mohamad, New Straits Times, December 29, 2000)

2828

Singapore: National identity crafted in Singapore: National identity crafted in English with Asian imagesEnglish with Asian images

“A uniquely Singaporean identity is being crafted in English, but with Asian imagery and imagination. … A major paradox is that English has emerged as the only contender for the supra link language to express a uniquely Singaporean identity and yet it is at the same time perceived to be the channel for avant garde, pseudo-westernized behaviours as opposed to conservative beliefs and practices grounded in and transmitted via ethnic languages.” (Pakir, 2004, p. 124-125)

2929

Democratization of English & English as Democratization of English & English as a resource for democratizationa resource for democratization

Is English perceived as a multinational tool or an Is English perceived as a multinational tool or an imperialistic tool?imperialistic tool?

What are Asian countries’ language policy What are Asian countries’ language policy responses to globalization? responses to globalization?

Do these policies lead to the democratization of Do these policies lead to the democratization of English as an elitist resource?English as an elitist resource?

Or do they legitimate the hegemony of English and Or do they legitimate the hegemony of English and the cultural domination of the West?the cultural domination of the West?

How do Asian countries resolve the paradox of How do Asian countries resolve the paradox of preserving national cultural identities and promoting preserving national cultural identities and promoting a foreign language and Western cultures?a foreign language and Western cultures?

3030

“There are so many different languages in the world. Korean is the language of Korea, and Japanese is the language of Japan. … Is English especially important because it is spoken by so many different countries? What about Chinese which is spoken by the large number of people? … One language can be more important than another. Think of English, which has become an international language. However, the most important language to anyone is the language he uses in his everyday life. To us Korean, the mother tongue is Korea. (The history of Korean language continues. …) Many Koreans think that it is better than any other alphabet in the world. It is right for us to love our own language.” (Ji Hak Sa, cited in Yim, 2003, p. 17)

3131

James W. Tollefson & Amy B. M. James W. Tollefson & Amy B. M. Tsui (Eds.) (2004) Tsui (Eds.) (2004) Medium of Medium of Instruction Policies: Whose Instruction Policies: Whose Agenda? Which Agenda? Agenda? Which Agenda? Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Associates.

Amy B. M. Tsui & James W. Amy B. M. Tsui & James W. Tollefson (Eds.) (2006) Tollefson (Eds.) (2006) Language Culture and Identity in Language Culture and Identity in Asian ContextsAsian Contexts. Mahwah, N.J.: . Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.