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DELINQUENCY

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Developmental theories are dynamic in that they emphasize that individuals develop along different pathways, and as they develop factors that were previously meaningful to them no longer are, and factors that previously meant little to them suddenly become meaningful.

Developmental theorists look at social, psychological, and biological factors simultaneously.

Introduction

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Delinquency: A legal term that distinguishes between youthful offenders and adult offenders that has its origins in the concept of culpability.

Except in rare instances, juvenile offenders are not referred to as criminals. Acts that are forbidden by law are called delinquent acts when committed by juveniles.

Introduction

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Juveniles do commit a disproportionate percentage of the UCR’s Part I index crimes.

In 2003, youths under 18 accounted for 15.5% of Part I index violent crimes and 28.9% of Part I index property crimes.

Delinquent pattern appears at puberty and they slowly burns itself out after reaching its peak between 16 and 18.

The age peak in delinquency remains unexplained by any known set of sociological variables.

The Extent of Delinquency

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Puberty: A developmental stage that marks the onset of the transition from childhood to adulthood.

Adolescence is a process that begins at puberty and ends with adulthood.

Adolescence is a period of limbo in which individuals no longer need parental care, but are not yet ready to take on the roles and responsibilities of adulthood.

Puberty, Adolescence, and Change

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Figure 9.2. Testosterone Levels of Human Males and Females

Across the Lifespan

Source: Ellis and Walsh, Criminology: A Global Perspective (2000)

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During adolescence there is an increase in testosterone, changes in the ration of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, and the physical restructuring of the brain.

The earlier the onset of puberty, the greater the level of problem behavior for both boys and girls.

Around the age of 20, the transmitters start to decrease and the inhibitory transmitters start to increase. Thus, more adult-like personality traits emerge.

Puberty, Adolescence, and Change

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Terrence Thornberry, David Huizinga, and Rolf Loeber (2004) focus on the escalation of seriousness of delinquent acts being committed as boys age.

The overall finding is that as boys get older, their crimes become more serious

Puberty, Adolescence, and Change

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Figure 9.3 Three Pathways to Boys’ Disruptive Behavior and

Delinquency

Source: Thornberry, Huizinga, & Loeber, 2004. U.S. Department of Justice: Juvenile Justice

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Table 9.1 Delinquency Risk Factors by Domain

Domain Early Onset (Ages 6–11) Late Onset (Ages 12–14) Protective Factors

Warm, supportive relationship with parents and other adultsParent’s positive evaluation of child’s peersParental monitoring

Poor parent-child relationshipLow socioeconomic statusHarsh, lax, or inconsistent parentingPoor monitoring, supervisionAntisocial parentsBroken homeAbusive parentsFamily conflict a

Low socioeconomic statusAntisocial parentsPoor parent-child relationshipHarsh, lax, or inconsistent parentingBroken homeSeparation from parentsAbusive parentsNeglect

Family

Intolerant attitude toward deviance High IQBeing femalePositive social orientationPerceived sanction for transgressions

RestlessnessDifficulty concentrating a

General offensesRisk takingAggression a

Being malePhysical violenceAntisocial attitudes, beliefsCrimes against personsLow IQSubstance abuse

Being maleADHD/impulsivityMedical, physical problemsAggressionLow IQGeneral offensesProblem (antisocial behavior) Substance abuseExposure to TV violenceAntisocial attitudes, beliefsDishonestya

Individual

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Stable, organized neighborhood

Neighborhood crime, drugsNeighborhood disorganization

Community

Friends who engage in conventional behavior

Weak social tiesAntisocial, delinquent peersGang membership

Weak social tiesAntisocial peers

Peer group

Commitment to schoolRecognition for involvement in conventional activities

Poor attitude, performanceAcademic failure

Poor attitude, performance

School

Adapted from Office of the Surgeon General, 2001. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. a. Males only.

Table 9.1 Delinquency Risk Factors by Domain

Domain Early Onset (Ages 6–11) Late Onset (Ages 12–14) Protective Factors

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Risk factor: Something in individuals’ personal characteristics or their environment that increases the probability of violent offending.

It is typical for risk factors to cluster together because the tendency is for miseries to multiply and advantages to aggregate.

ADHD: A chronic neurological condition that is behaviorally manifested as constant restlessness, impulsiveness, difficulty with peers, disruptive behavior, short attention span, academic underachievement, risk taking behavior, and extreme boredom.

Some children diagnosed with ADHD show EEG patterns of under arousal similar to adult psychopaths.

Such a brain wave pattern is experienced subjectively as boredom.

ADHD & CD

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ADHD is related to a wide variety of antisocial behaviors.

Conduct disorder (CD): The persistent display of serious antisocial actions that are extreme given the child’s developmental level and have a significant impact on the rights of others.

ADHD delinquents are more likely to persist in their offending as adults, but this probability rises dramatically for ADHD children also diagnosed with CD.

ADHD does not represent a hopeless pathology that leads its victims down the road to inevitable criminality, particularly when CD is not present.

ADHD & CD

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Some theories assume that a latent trait—a “master trait”—influences behavioral choices across times and situations while others do not.

Major Developmental Theories

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All theories maintain that although a criminal career may be initiated at any time, it is almost always begun in childhood.

Developmental theories require longitudinal studies.

Major Developmental Theories

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In the super traits theory, Agnew identifies five life domains that contain possible crime-generating factors:

Personality Family School

Robert Agnew’s General Theory or “Super Traits” Theory

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Peers Work Agnew identifies the latent traits of low self-

control and irritability as “super traits”

Robert Agnew’s General Theory or “Super Traits” Theory

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The neurological and endocrine changes during adolescence temporarily increase irritability/low self-control among adolescents who limit their offending to that period, while for those who continue to offend irritability/low self-control is a stable characteristic.

Robert Agnew’s General Theory or “Super Traits” Theory

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Figure 9.4 Agnew’s General or "Super Traits" Theory

PERSONALITYLow Self-Control/Irritability

FAMILY SCHOOL PEERS WORK

Poor parenting, child does not learn self-control orTo curb irritability. Poor marriage

Negative school experiences, low educational level

Associations with delinquent peers

Unemployment & poor paying jobs

DELINQUENCY & CRIME

Note: These five domains interact and feed back on one another.

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Figure 9.5 Sampson and Laub’s Age-Graded Developmental Theory

Gradual desisting from offending

Continued offending

Poor marriage, poor job

Serious delinquency

Poor bonds to parents and school

Low SES; low IQ, difficult temperament, family disposition

Childhood Adolescence Early Adulthood Late Adulthood

Social Capital Turning Points

Desist from offending

Good marriage, good job

Minor delinquency

Good bonds to parents and school

Lower level of risk factors

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Individuals with long-term AP tend to come from poor families, to be poorly socialized, low on anxiety, impulsive, sensation seeking, low IQ, and fail in school.

Short-term AP individuals suffer any deficits, but may temporarily increase their AP in response to certain situations or inducements.

David Farrington’s Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential (ICAP)

Theory

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Short-term AP can turn into long-term AP over time as a consequence of offending.

Desisting from offending occurs for both social and individual reasons and occurs at different rates according to a person’s level of AP.

David Farrington’s Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential (ICAP)

Theory

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The vast majority of youths who offend during adolescence desist and there are a small number of them who continue to offend in adulthood.

Life-course persistent offenders are individuals who begin offending prior to puberty and continue well into adulthood.

Adolescent limited (AL) offenders have a different developmental history that places them on a prosocial trajectory that is temporarily derailed at adolescence.

Terrie Moffitt’s Dual Pathway Developmental Theory

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Adolescent-Limited: Applicable to Many "Normal" Youths During Adolescence

Delinquency. Will desist with neurological and social maturity

Temporary antisocial characteristics

Association with delinquent peers. Antisocial behavior mimicked and reinforced

Early puberty, no real social role, desire for independence. Long wait for adult roles

Life Course Persistent: Applicable to Congenitally Predisposed Youths

Delinquency, crime, and numerous other antisocial behaviors (active G-E correlation)

Association with delinquent peers (active G-E correlation)

Antisocial characteristics, negative interaction with others (reactive G-E correlation)

Temperamental and neuropsychological deficits combine with inept parenting (passive G-E correlation)

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For some AL offenders, desistance from antisocial behavior is abrupt, for others it is a slower process.

AL offenders desist from offending because they are psychologically healthy and healthy youths respond adaptively to changing contingencies.

Desisting

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Developmental theories offer many advantages because of their dynamic nature.

Developmental theories generally integrate and consider sociological, psychological & biological factors as a coherent whole.

Evaluation of Developmental Theories

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They follow the same individuals over long periods of time.

They do not rely on convenient samples. The can identify characteristics that lead to

onset, persistence, and desistance from crime in the same individuals.

Evaluation of Developmental Theories

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Developmental theories support the same kind of family-based nurturing strategies supported by biosocial and social- and self-control theories.

The Nurse Family Partnership is one program advocated by developmental theorists.

Developmental theorists also advocate the Fast Track Project.

Developmental theories tell us that human life is characterized by dynamism and people can change at any time.

Policy and Prevention: Implications of Developmental

Theories