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Classes Provide Constructors

Mechanism to specify object creation Client can use objects similar to

native types

Constructor is member function with the same name as the class

Constructs values of the class type

Initializes data members

Frequently, allocates free store using new

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Getting Correct Memory for the Task

“Where did I put that memory? I need more to get the job done.”

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Built-in Operators new and delete

new allocates memory from free store

delete deal locates memory from free store

Constructors often use new

Destructors often use delete

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Using new

Initializer list

Expressions used by the object's constructor orsingle value used for a native type

p = new int(9); //pointer to int //initialized to 9 p = new int[9]; //pointer to 9 // element int array

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Using Constructors and Destructors

Constructors are more complicatedMay be overloaded and take

arguments

Constructor invokedAssociated type used in definition

Call-by-value used to pass value to a function

Neither can use return statements

Destructors implicitly invoked

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Constructors & Destructors

Form //can have multiple constructors class_name (parameter list); class_name (); //can have only 1 destructor ~class_name ();

Constructorsinitialization storage allocation

conversions

Destructorsfinalization storage reclamation

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Constructors and the use of new

Usually involve application of new new type-name optional-init-list

new operator returns a pointer to base address of created object

In the case of an array of objects, this is the address of its first element

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Constructor Initialization (1 of 2)

class mod_int {public: mod_int(int i) { v = i % modulus; } void assign(int i) { v = i % modulus; } void print() const { cout << v << '\t'; } const static int modulus;private: int v;};

const int mod_int::modulus = 60;

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Constructor Initialization (2 of 2)

int main(){ int seconds = 400; mod_int z(seconds); //mod_int(int)

cout << seconds << " seconds equals " << seconds / 60 << " minutes "; z.print(); cout << " seconds" << endl; return 0;}

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Comments on the mod_int Program

Integer v is restricted in value to 0, 1, 2, ...modulus - 1

Programmer's responsibility to enforce this

mod_int::mod_int() is constructor Invoked when objects of type mod_int are

declared

Function of one argument

Requires expression assignment-compatible with int parameter to be passed to it

Creates and initializes declared variable

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Other mod_int Declarations

mod_int a(0); // a.v = 0;mod_int b(61); // b.v = 1;

but not

mod_int a; // no parameter listmod_int c = 49; //construct mod_int(49) //and copy into c

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The Default Constructor

Constructor requiring no arguments

Empty argument list or all arguments have default values

Special purpose of initializing arrays of objects of its class

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Multiple Constructors

Convenient to overload constructor with several function declarations

If no constructor, then arrays of objects automatically allocated by system

If class has constructors but does not a default constructor, array allocation is syntactic error

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Default Constructor with mod_int

mod_int() { v = 0; }

Possible to have the following declarationsmod_int s1, s2; //init private v = 0mod_int d[5]; //arrays initialized

Empty parameter list constructor is invoked

Could have one constructor serve as both general initializer and default constructor

inline mod_int::mod_int(int i = 0) { v = i % modulus; }

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Conversion Constructors

Constructors of single parameter

Used automatically for conversion unless declared with the keyword explicit

Metal::Metal(Ore) provides code used to convert an Ore object to a Metal object

Printable program prints invisible characters with their ASCII designation

Code 07 (octal) is alarm or bel

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Printable program (1 of 3)

// ASCII printable characters// conversion constructor used

class pr_char {public:   pr_char(int i = 0) : c(i % 128) { }   void  print() const { cout << rep[c]; }private:   int  c;   static const char*  rep[128];};

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Printable program (2 of 3)

const char*  pr_char::rep[128] = { "nul", "soh", "stx",    ····· // filled in with table of //ASCII characters    "w", "x", "y", "z","{", "|", "}", "~", "del" };

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Printable program (3 of 3)

int main(){   pr_char  c;   for (int i = 0; i < 128; ++i) {      c = i;  // or c = static_cast<pr_char>(i);      c.print();      cout << endl;   }}

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A Stack Whose Size can Vary

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Constructing A Dynamically Sized Stack

Constructor can allocate space from free store

ch_stack’s length initialized by constructor

ch_stack has hidden implementation detailData members placed in private access

region

Public interface provides ch_stack abstraction

Public member functions, such as push() and pop()

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The Stack Functions

Accessor functions do not change ch_stack object, such as top_of() and empty()

Usual to make these const member functions

Mutator functions change ch_stack object, such as push() and pop()

Constructor member functionscreate and initialize ch_stackobjects

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Constructor Initializer (1 of 2)

Special syntax for initializing sub-elements of objects with constructors

Initializers for class members in comma-separated list following constructor parameter list

Initialization replaces assignment

Individual members must be initializable as member-name (expression list)

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Constructor Initializer (2 of 2)

When members are themselves classes with constructors, expression list is matched to appropriate constructor signature

When non-static member is either const or reference, this form of member initialization is required

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ch_stack Constructors (1 of 2)

ch_stack::ch_stack() : max_len (100), top (EMPTY) { //default constructor s = new char[100]; assert(s);}

ch_stack::ch_stack(int size) : max_len (size), top(EMPTY){ //specific size request assert(size > 0); s = new char[size]; assert (s);}

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ch_stack Constructors (2 of 2)

//domain transfer

ch_stack::ch_stack(int size, const char str[]) : max_len(size){ int i; assert (size > 0); s = new char[size]; assert(s); for (i=0; i < max_len && str[i]!=0; ++i) s[i] = str[i]; top = — —i;}

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Classes With Destructors

Member function whose name is the same as class name preceded by a tilde

Called implicitlyWhen exiting block in

which object was declared

When delete operator called on pointer to object having destructor

When deleting a subobjectof an object

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Using delete

Destructors usually involve delete delete expression delete [] expression

Pointer variable used in assignment from a new expression

Brackets used when allocation involves a bracketed expression

Array of objects are allocated off of free store

Destructors called on each object stored in array

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Problems with delete

Deletion of zero-valued pointer is harmless

Multiple deletions of same object is error

System-dependent behavior results

Deletion of pointer value not gottenfrom new expression is an error

System-dependent behavior results

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Destructor Details

Implicitly invoked when object out of scopeBlock and function exit

my_string sub_str(char c, string b){ //friend of my_string my_string substring; for (int i = 0; i <= b.len; ++i) if (c == s[i]) break; substring.assign(s + i); return substring;}

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Comments on sub_str()

b is call-by-value argument of type my_stringCopy constructor invoked to create a local

copy

Destructor is called on function exit

substring constructed upon block entry and destructor invoked on block exit

Return argument constructed and passed back into calling environment

Whether corresponding destructor is invoked depends on scope of object

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A Destructor for ch_stack

class ch_stack {public: . . . ~ch_stack() { delete [] s; } . . .};

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Comments on ch_stack with Destructor

External class interface remains the same

Destructor invoked implicitly on block and function exit to clean up storage that is no longer accessible

Good programming practice

Programs execute with less memory

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Using the Constructors

//default creates s[100]ch_stack data;

//creates N 100 element ch_stacksch_stack d[N]; //N is 100 elsewhere

//construct from my_string//w.s[0]='A'...w.s[3]='D' w.s[4] = 'A'ch_stack w(5, "ABCDA");

//constructs from existing ch_stackch_stack x(w);

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The Copy Constructor and call-by-value

Examine ch_stack and count number of occurrences of a given character

Repeatedly pop ch_stack, testing each element

To preserve ch_stack, call-by-value int cnt_char(char c, ch_stack s)

{ int count = 0; while (!s.empty()) count += (c == s.pop()); return count;}

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ch_stack and Copy Constructor

Original Copy During Originalch_stack of Original Pop

ch_stackch_stack Operations Preserved

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The Default Copy Constructor

Call-by-value requires that local copy of argument type be created and initialized from value of expression passed as actual argument

Compiler provides a default copy constructor ch_stack::ch_stack(const ch_stack&);

Compiler copies by memberwise initialization

Default copy constructor may not work in all circumstances for complicated aggregates with members who are themselves pointers

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Scope & Deletion in Copy Constructors

In many cases, pointer is address of object deleted when going out of scope

Duplicating pointer value but not object pointed at can lead to anomalous code

Deletion affects other instances that still expect object to exist

object

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Making a Copy Constructor for ch_stack

ch_stack::ch_stack(const ch_stack& str): max_len(str.max_len),top(str.top){ s = new char[str.max_len]; assert(s); memcpy(s, str.s, max_len);}

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Garbage Collection for Reclaiming Memory

list example shows system reclaiming memory by traversing each list and disposing of each element

Reclamation is a form of garbage collection

In LISP, Java, and C#, system itself is responsible for reclamation

Systems periodically invoke garbage collector to identify all cells currently accessible and reclaim remaining inaccessible cells

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Cheshire Cat Data Hiding

Indirection provides data hiding

Use of separate class for underlying data representation

Cheshire Cat technique, in honor of Lewis Carroll’s cat that disappeared leaving only a smile

This is a Design Pattern

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Cheshire Cat Version of ch_stack

class ch_stack {public:   void  reset() { ptr -> reset(); }   void  push(char c)      { ptr->push(c); }   char  pop() { return ptr->pop(); }   char  top_of() const { return ptr->top_of(); }   bool  empty() const      { return ptr -> empty(); }   bool  full() const      { return ptr -> full(); }private:   ch_stk_rep* ptr;      // opaque pointer};

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Cheshire Cat Comments

All data and underlying operations handled through ch_stk pointer

ch_stack is known as wrapper class

Relationship between wrapper class and underlying representation class is called handle design pattern

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Reference Counts

“Don’t shut me off,

fool, there are still 3

users attached!”

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Reference Counting

Each object tracks its active references

On object creation, reference count set to one

When object newly referenced, reference count incremented

Each time object loses a reference, count decremented

Delete object when reference count is zero

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Reference Counting Semantics

Underlying, frequently hidden, representation defined to include reference count

Wrapper publicly delivers objects and tracks reference count

Attention is paid to construction, destruction and assignment of object values

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Reference Counted String Class (1 of 4)

#include <string.h> //check compiler#include <iostream.h>

class str_obj {public: int len, ref_cnt; char* s; str_obj() : len(0), ref_cnt(1) { s = new char[1]; s[0] = 0; } str_obj(const char* p) : ref_cnt(1) { len = strlen(p); s = new char[len + 1];strcpy(s, p); } ~str_obj() { delete []s; }};

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Reference Counted String Class (2 of 4)

class my_string {public: my_string() { st = new str_obj; } my_string(const char* p) { st = new str_obj(p); } my_string(const my_string& str) { st = str.st; st -> ref_cnt++; } ~my_string(); void assign(const my_string& str); void print() const { cout << st -> s; }private: str_obj* st;};

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Reference Counted String Class (3 of 4)

void my_string::assign(const my_string& str){ if (str.st != st) { if (--st -> ref_cnt == 0) delete st; st = str.st; st -> ref_cnt++; }}

This could be replaced by overloaded =

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Reference Counted String Class (4 of 4)

my_string::~my_string(){ if (--st -> ref_cnt == 0) delete st;}

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Comments on Reference Count (1 of 2)

Client uses objects of type my_stringObjects implemented as pointers st

to values of type str_obj

Copy constructor uses reference semantics

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Comments on Reference Count (2 of 2)

Anytime object's reference count is decremented, test for deletion

Large aggregate copied by reference, with a small, fixed number of operations

Reference counter uses small storage

Change to pointer adds to reference count

Destructor must test reference count

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Assign() Semantics

Semantics of assign() show subtleties

Assignment occurs if my_string not being assigned its same value

Assignment causes assigned variable to lose its previous value

Equivalent to decrementing reference count of pointed-at str_obj value

When reference count decremented, it gets tested for deletion

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Advantages

Large aggregate is copied by reference, using few operations and small amount of storage for reference counter

Each possible change to pointer adds reference-count operation

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Summary

Class constructors and destructors manage storage

Constructors can be used for copy and conversion

Code destructors to get rid of memory if you use new to create object

Reference counting semantics can help with large aggregates