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Centre for Research in International Education, AIS St Centre for Research in International Education, AIS St Helens, Auckland, NZ, Conference: “The Internationalization Helens, Auckland, NZ, Conference: “The Internationalization of Education of Education in New Zealand,” August 12-15, 2004in New Zealand,” August 12-15, 2004

Enhancing Students’ Language Enhancing Students’ Language and Culture Learning in Study and Culture Learning in Study AbroadAbroadAndrew D. Cohen Andrew D. Cohen University of Minnesota & Visiting University of Minnesota & Visiting Professor, University of Auckland Professor, University of Auckland ad.cohen@auckland.ac.nzad.cohen@auckland.ac.nz

Others on the International Research & Others on the International Research & Studies Program GrantStudies Program Grant: Co-Investigator - : Co-Investigator - Michael Paige, Research Assistants - Michael Paige, Research Assistants - Rachel Shively, Holly Emert, Joe Hoff at Rachel Shively, Holly Emert, Joe Hoff at the Center for Advanced Research in the Center for Advanced Research in Language Acquisition, University of Language Acquisition, University of MinnesotaMinnesota

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Significance of Study AbroadSignificance of Study Abroad Language Learning in Study AbroadLanguage Learning in Study Abroad The Need for an Intervention in The Need for an Intervention in

Study AbroadStudy Abroad Research DesignResearch Design InstrumentsInstruments FindingsFindings

Overview of Overview of PresentationPresentation

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NumbersNumbers Close to 100 million students worldwideClose to 100 million students worldwide

study abroad each year.study abroad each year. Over 160,000 university students from the Over 160,000 university students from the

United States study abroad each year.United States study abroad each year.

Culture LearningCulture Learning Study abroad programs have great potential Study abroad programs have great potential

to enhance cultural awareness. to enhance cultural awareness.

Learning culture reinforces language Learning culture reinforces language learning.learning.

Significance of Study Significance of Study AbroadAbroad

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Language LearningLanguage Learning

Study abroad can offer an abundance Study abroad can offer an abundance of out-of-class opportunities for of out-of-class opportunities for language use with native speakers language use with native speakers (NSs) of the target language (TL).(NSs) of the target language (TL).

Study abroad can offer potential for Study abroad can offer potential for gains in students’ language gains in students’ language proficiency.proficiency.

Reaching advanced proficiency levels Reaching advanced proficiency levels often requires time spent in a TL often requires time spent in a TL country.country.

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Despite the potential for Despite the potential for increased language proficiency increased language proficiency that study abroad seems to that study abroad seems to offer, students who spend even offer, students who spend even a full academic semester a full academic semester abroadabroad do not always make do not always make more significant language gains more significant language gains in the TL than do their peers who in the TL than do their peers who stay home and study the TL stay home and study the TL (Freed, 1995).(Freed, 1995).

Why is this the case?Why is this the case?

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Students may not have an overall Students may not have an overall strategic plan for how to get the most out strategic plan for how to get the most out of their study abroad experiences in- and of their study abroad experiences in- and out-of-class.out-of-class.

Students may be unaware of strategies Students may be unaware of strategies that would help them increase their that would help them increase their contact with the TL.contact with the TL.

Language classes may give them only Language classes may give them only “survival” language at best, rather than “survival” language at best, rather than fine-tuned guidance on how to perform fine-tuned guidance on how to perform crucial speech functions or crucial speech functions or speech actsspeech acts such as requesting, thanking, such as requesting, thanking, complimenting, apologizing, and the like.complimenting, apologizing, and the like.

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Generally, students may have limited Generally, students may have limited preparation to be language and culture learners preparation to be language and culture learners in the study abroad environment.in the study abroad environment.

Students may lack specific strategies that they Students may lack specific strategies that they can use in practice to deal with the target can use in practice to deal with the target language and the culture in its own context.language and the culture in its own context.

Few materials are available that guide students Few materials are available that guide students and teachers in maximizing study abroad using and teachers in maximizing study abroad using language and culture strategies.language and culture strategies.

Research is lacking on the effects of curricular Research is lacking on the effects of curricular interventions in study abroad, especially those interventions in study abroad, especially those emphasizing language and culture strategies.emphasizing language and culture strategies.

Need for an Intervention, Need for an Intervention, and Hence This Studyand Hence This Study

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Maximizing Study Abroad: Maximizing Study Abroad: Students’ GuideStudents’ Guide and and Companion Guides for Companion Guides for Study Abroad Professionals Study Abroad Professionals and Language Instructorsand Language Instructors

The guides are a response The guides are a response to the felt need for materials to the felt need for materials to enhance study abroad.to enhance study abroad.

The guides employ a The guides employ a strategies-based approach to strategies-based approach to language and culture language and culture learning.learning.

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Language and culture learning may be Language and culture learning may be enhanced if students become aware of the enhanced if students become aware of the range of strategies that they can employ to range of strategies that they can employ to learn and use a foreign language and deal learn and use a foreign language and deal with another culture.with another culture.

Strategies can be taught explicitly in the Strategies can be taught explicitly in the classroom and by means of self-access classroom and by means of self-access materials for students.materials for students.

Examples of language and culture learning Examples of language and culture learning strategies in the strategies in the Students’Students’ Guide Guide can be can be found at: http://www.carla.umn.edu/maxsa/found at: http://www.carla.umn.edu/maxsa/

Strategies-Based Strategies-Based LearningLearning

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The The Maximizing Study AbroadMaximizing Study Abroad guides were guides were field-tested with a grant from the field-tested with a grant from the International Research and Studies Program International Research and Studies Program (IRSP), Office of International Education (IRSP), Office of International Education (USDOE).(USDOE).

Primary Research Question:Primary Research Question: To what extent To what extent does a strategies-based approach to does a strategies-based approach to developing language and culture skills – developing language and culture skills – transmitted through a set of study abroad transmitted through a set of study abroad guides – promote language gain and cultural guides – promote language gain and cultural adaptation by study abroad students?adaptation by study abroad students?

Maximizing Study Maximizing Study Abroad Research Abroad Research

ProjectProject

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Research Questions:Research Questions:

What strategies do study abroad What strategies do study abroad students use to deal with language students use to deal with language and culture?and culture?

In what contexts do they use these In what contexts do they use these strategies?strategies?

How frequently?How frequently?

What is their overall perception of a What is their overall perception of a strategies-based approach?strategies-based approach?

Student Study Student Study Research DesignResearch Design

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Two cohorts of university students studying Two cohorts of university students studying abroad either in Spring 2003 (Cohort A) or abroad either in Spring 2003 (Cohort A) or Fall 2003 (Cohort B).Fall 2003 (Cohort B).

Cohort A: 42 students Cohort A: 42 students (21 Experimental group, 21 Control group) (21 Experimental group, 21 Control group) Cohort B: 44 students (21 E, 23 C)Cohort B: 44 students (21 E, 23 C)Total: 86 studentsTotal: 86 students (Stratified random sample)(Stratified random sample)

Students had taken at least 4 semesters of Students had taken at least 4 semesters of Spanish or French language classes.Spanish or French language classes.

Studying abroad in Spanish- or French- Studying abroad in Spanish- or French- speaking countries for one semester.speaking countries for one semester.

SampleSample

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The Experimental (E) Group received the The Experimental (E) Group received the Students’ GuideStudents’ Guide before departure for before departure for their use while studying abroad.their use while studying abroad.

The E Group received a pre-departure The E Group received a pre-departure orientation on how to use some of the orientation on how to use some of the language and culture strategies in the language and culture strategies in the Students’Students’ GuideGuide and speech acts and speech acts..

The Control (C) Group did not receive the The Control (C) Group did not receive the Students’ GuideStudents’ Guide or the E group or the E group orientation – just a brief orientation to orientation – just a brief orientation to the research.the research.

TreatmentTreatment

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Background QuestionnaireBackground Questionnaire Intercultural Development InventoryIntercultural Development Inventory (Hammer (Hammer

& Bennett, 1998, 2001)& Bennett, 1998, 2001) Strategies Inventory for Learning CultureStrategies Inventory for Learning Culture

(Paige, Rong, Zhang, Kappler, Hoff, & Emert, (Paige, Rong, Zhang, Kappler, Hoff, & Emert, 2002)2002)

Language Strategy SurveyLanguage Strategy Survey (Cohen & Chi, 2001) (Cohen & Chi, 2001) Speech Act Measure of Language GainSpeech Act Measure of Language Gain (Cohen (Cohen

& Shively, 2002)& Shively, 2002) Bi-weekly Electronic Journal EntriesBi-weekly Electronic Journal Entries Exit Language Contact ProfileExit Language Contact Profile Follow-up Interview ProtocolFollow-up Interview Protocol

InstrumentsInstruments

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Items in the instrument addressItems in the instrument address:: Demographics (gender, year in school, Demographics (gender, year in school,

major).major). Host country and study abroad TL.Host country and study abroad TL. Native/dominant language(s).Native/dominant language(s). Family language(s).Family language(s). Language of pre-college education.Language of pre-college education. Length of study of the TL.Length of study of the TL. Study of languages other than the TL.Study of languages other than the TL. Self-assessment of ability in TL aural skills, Self-assessment of ability in TL aural skills,

and in TL literacy skills in both “popular” and in TL literacy skills in both “popular” and academic registers.and academic registers.

Background Background QuestionnaireQuestionnaire

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Measures “people’s basic orientations Measures “people’s basic orientations to cultural difference.”to cultural difference.”

Includes 50 questions, based on Milton Includes 50 questions, based on Milton Bennett’s Bennett’s Developmental Model of Developmental Model of Intercultural SensitivityIntercultural Sensitivity, which has 6 , which has 6 sequential stages:sequential stages: Ethnocentric stagesEthnocentric stages: :

Denial Denial Defense Defense Minimization Minimization Ethnorelative stagesEthnorelative stages: :

Acceptance Acceptance Adaptation Adaptation IntegrationIntegration

Intercultural Intercultural Development Development

InventoryInventory

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Measures the frequency of use of culture Measures the frequency of use of culture strategies.strategies.

Has nine categories of culture strategies Has nine categories of culture strategies for:for: Surroundings that are culturally different.Surroundings that are culturally different. Dealing with difficult times in another culture.Dealing with difficult times in another culture. Making interpretations in another culture.Making interpretations in another culture. Communicating in another culture.Communicating in another culture. Dealing with different communication styles.Dealing with different communication styles. Understanding non-verbal communication.Understanding non-verbal communication. Interacting with people in another culture.Interacting with people in another culture. Dealing with the living situation.Dealing with the living situation. Maintaining cultural ties to the host culture after Maintaining cultural ties to the host culture after

returning home.returning home.

Strategies Inventory Strategies Inventory for Learning Culturefor Learning Culture

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Measures the frequency of use of Measures the frequency of use of language strategies.language strategies.

Has language strategies organized by Has language strategies organized by skill: Listening, Vocabulary, Speaking, skill: Listening, Vocabulary, Speaking, Reading, Writing, Strategic Use of Reading, Writing, Strategic Use of Translation.Translation.

Earlier versions of the language and Earlier versions of the language and culture strategies surveys can be found culture strategies surveys can be found at: at: http://www.carla.umn.edu/maxsa/guides.htmlhttp://www.carla.umn.edu/maxsa/guides.html

Learning Strategy Learning Strategy SurveySurvey

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Employed written discourse Employed written discourse completion tasks (DCT’s) with multiple completion tasks (DCT’s) with multiple rejoinders to assess performance in rejoinders to assess performance in making requests and apologies.making requests and apologies.

Included 5 apology and 5 request Included 5 apology and 5 request vignettes (10 vignettes total).vignettes (10 vignettes total).

Had the description of each vignette in Had the description of each vignette in English, but the rejoinders in English, but the rejoinders in Peninsular Spanish, Latin American Peninsular Spanish, Latin American Spanish, or French.Spanish, or French.

Speech Act Speech Act MeasureMeasure

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Each vignette differs with regard to Each vignette differs with regard to three variables: three variables: social distance, social distance, relative status,relative status, severity of the infraction severity of the infraction

(apologies) or degree of imposition (apologies) or degree of imposition (requests).(requests).

Each version was translated from an Each version was translated from an English prototype by a native English prototype by a native speaker of the respective language speaker of the respective language or dialect (in the case of Spanish).or dialect (in the case of Spanish).

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E group students submitted a total of 7 E group students submitted a total of 7 e-journal entries on the research website, at e-journal entries on the research website, at bi-weekly intervals during their semester abroad.bi-weekly intervals during their semester abroad.

In their e-journals, students were to answer the In their e-journals, students were to answer the following questions:following questions:

What were your impressions of the readings and What were your impressions of the readings and activities in the assigned section? activities in the assigned section?

What types of language and culture strategies are What types of language and culture strategies are you using in order to deal with the host country you using in order to deal with the host country language and culture?language and culture?

What are the contexts and situations in which you What are the contexts and situations in which you use these language and culture strategies?use these language and culture strategies?

How have the readings and activities related to your How have the readings and activities related to your study abroad experience? Please give examples with study abroad experience? Please give examples with explanations.explanations.

E-journalsE-journals

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Items in the instrument addressItems in the instrument address:: Study abroad living situation (e.g., host Study abroad living situation (e.g., host

family, dorm, apartment).family, dorm, apartment). Use of the TL in the home with native and Use of the TL in the home with native and

non-native speakers of the TL.non-native speakers of the TL. Use of the TL outside of class.Use of the TL outside of class. Portion of friends who were native speakersPortion of friends who were native speakers

of the TL.of the TL. Participation in structured activities outsideParticipation in structured activities outside

of class.of class.

Exit Language Contact Exit Language Contact ProfileProfile

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Type(s) of study abroad program and Type(s) of study abroad program and coursework (e.g., regular university coursework (e.g., regular university courses, courses for study abroad courses, courses for study abroad students, internship, field experience).students, internship, field experience).

Self-assessment of language ability Self-assessment of language ability (identical to rating scale on the (identical to rating scale on the Entrance Entrance QuestionnaireQuestionnaire).).

Motivation to study the language of the Motivation to study the language of the host country (increased/decreased).host country (increased/decreased).

Travel plans after courses are completed.Travel plans after courses are completed. Perceived impact of the Perceived impact of the Students’ GuideStudents’ Guide (E (E

group only).group only). Recommendation of the Recommendation of the Students’ GuideStudents’ Guide

(E group only).(E group only).

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Research assistants (RAs) selected a Research assistants (RAs) selected a purposive sub-sample of E group purposive sub-sample of E group students (10 E group students from students (10 E group students from each cohort; total of 20 students) to each cohort; total of 20 students) to interview 3 to 5 months after interview 3 to 5 months after students’ return to the U.S. from students’ return to the U.S. from studying abroad.studying abroad.

Interviews were one-on-one between Interviews were one-on-one between students and RAs, semi-structured, students and RAs, semi-structured, and approximately 1 hour in length.and approximately 1 hour in length.

Follow-up Interview Follow-up Interview ProtocolProtocol

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E and C groups completed the instruments as pre-measures before departing for study abroad and as post-measures at the end of their semester abroad.

The E group submitted bi-weekly electronic journals describing their use of the language and culture strategies included in the Students’ Guide.

Data CollectionData Collection

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Analysis of the quantitative and Analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data is currently being qualitative data is currently being conducted by the research team.conducted by the research team.

Students’ performance on the Students’ performance on the Speech Speech Act Measure Act Measure (pre and post) was rated (pre and post) was rated by 2 native speakers (NS) each of by 2 native speakers (NS) each of French, Peninsular Spanish, and Latin French, Peninsular Spanish, and Latin American Spanish (total of 6 NS raters). American Spanish (total of 6 NS raters).

The NS raters received the students’ The NS raters received the students’ Speech Act MeasureSpeech Act Measure responses responses unlabeled as to whether pre- or post-unlabeled as to whether pre- or post-measure.measure.

Data AnalysisData Analysis

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Native speakers of Peninsular Spanish, Latin Native speakers of Peninsular Spanish, Latin American Spanish, and French rated the American Spanish, and French rated the appropriateness of each response for each appropriateness of each response for each of the following categories: of the following categories: • registerregister:: 3 separate scales; one each for 3 separate scales; one each for

vocabulary choice, verb tense/inflection, vocabulary choice, verb tense/inflection, and subject pronoun choice.and subject pronoun choice.

• politenesspoliteness (requests only). (requests only).• directnessdirectness (requests only). (requests only).• overall successoverall success of the request or the of the request or the

apology.apology.

Speech Act MeasureSpeech Act Measure Rating CriteriaRating Criteria

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In order to help interpret the native In order to help interpret the native speaker ratings, the researchers are also speaker ratings, the researchers are also currently assessing the following currently assessing the following elements:elements: coherence and cohesioncoherence and cohesion in the subject’s in the subject’s

response, given the preceding and response, given the preceding and following rejoinders.following rejoinders.

speech act-specific strategies usedspeech act-specific strategies used:: Requests: Requests: e.g., preparation, giving e.g., preparation, giving

reasons, and minimizing imposition.reasons, and minimizing imposition. Apologies:Apologies: e.g., apology expression, e.g., apology expression,

offer of repair, explanation, offer of repair, explanation, acknowledgement of responsibility, acknowledgement of responsibility, and promise of non-recurrence.and promise of non-recurrence.

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Quantitative findings: Intercultural Development Inventory Language Strategy Survey Strategies Inventory for Learning Culture

Speech Act Measure of Language Gain

Qualitative findings: E group electronic journals E group follow-up interviews

FindingsFindings

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The sample as a whole shifted in the The sample as a whole shifted in the direction of greater intercultural direction of greater intercultural sensitivity on the sensitivity on the IDIIDI, suggesting that , suggesting that study abroad in general has an impact on study abroad in general has an impact on students’ “students’ “intercultural worldviewintercultural worldview.”.”

There were no statistically significant There were no statistically significant differences between the E and C groups differences between the E and C groups on the on the IDIIDI, suggesting that , suggesting that the treatment the treatment did not have a measurable impact on did not have a measurable impact on students’ intercultural sensitivity.students’ intercultural sensitivity.

Intercultural Intercultural Development InventoryDevelopment Inventory

(IDI):(IDI): Findings Findings

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Sample as a whole:Sample as a whole: Whereas students increased in their Whereas students increased in their

reported use of speaking and listening reported use of speaking and listening strategies, they decreased in their reported strategies, they decreased in their reported use of reading and vocabulary strategies. use of reading and vocabulary strategies.

The context of study abroad may help The context of study abroad may help explain this finding. While abroad, students explain this finding. While abroad, students are likely to have more frequent are likely to have more frequent opportunities to interact with native opportunities to interact with native speakers and so strategies for listening and speakers and so strategies for listening and speaking effectively are likely to become speaking effectively are likely to become more crucial to them.more crucial to them.

Language Strategy Language Strategy Survey (LSS):Survey (LSS): Findings Findings

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While there was no statistically significant difference between While there was no statistically significant difference between the E and C groups as to reported gain in language strategy use the E and C groups as to reported gain in language strategy use overall from pre- to posttest, there was a difference at the .05 or overall from pre- to posttest, there was a difference at the .05 or better level on eight of the survey items.better level on eight of the survey items.Item

#LSS Item Description

E group mean gain

C group mean gain

p value

9

I pay special attention to specific aspects of the language; for example, the way the speaker pronounces certain sounds. (Listening)

.10 -.36 .05

13I listen for word and sentence stress to see what native speakers emphasize when they speak. (Listening)

.31 -.11 .03

52I ask questions as a way to be involved in the conversation. (Speaking)

.38 -.07 .02

61I use gestures as a way to try and get my meaning across. (Speaking)

.07 -.34 .05

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I try to understand what has been heard or read without translating it word-for-word into my own language. (Translation)

.57 .07 .02

27I pay attention to the structure of the new word. (Vocabulary)

-.17 .25 .06

28I break the words into parts that I can identify. (Vocabulary)

-.40 .02 .05

36I use flash cards in a systematic way to learn new words. (Vocabulary)

-.14 -.64 .04

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Vocabulary strategiesVocabulary strategies: E group decline on : E group decline on the vocabulary items #27, #28, and both E the vocabulary items #27, #28, and both E and C group decline on #36 was probably a and C group decline on #36 was probably a function of the L2 study abroad environment function of the L2 study abroad environment since vocabulary could be acquired without since vocabulary could be acquired without the need for the conscious focus which often the need for the conscious focus which often characterizes FL study.characterizes FL study.

Speaking strategiesSpeaking strategies: Items #52 and #61 : Items #52 and #61 show E group gains compared to the C group show E group gains compared to the C group decreases. This difference may reflect the decreases. This difference may reflect the fact that the fact that the GuideGuide advises students to make advises students to make ample use of both of these strategies.ample use of both of these strategies.

Translation strategiesTranslation strategies: The E group reported : The E group reported a greater shift away from word-for-word a greater shift away from word-for-word translation over time than the C group. The translation over time than the C group. The GuideGuide advises students not to depend advises students not to depend entirely on such word-to-word translations.entirely on such word-to-word translations.

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Sample as a whole:Sample as a whole: E & C students together increased in their E & C students together increased in their

reported use of 41 of the 52 culture strategies reported use of 41 of the 52 culture strategies from pre- to posttest, and decreased in from pre- to posttest, and decreased in reported use of 11 culture strategies.reported use of 11 culture strategies.

Decreases occurred on items pertaining to Decreases occurred on items pertaining to homestay strategies and on strategies to use homestay strategies and on strategies to use upon returning home. These findings are upon returning home. These findings are difficult to interpret since we might have difficult to interpret since we might have expected an increase in reported homestay expected an increase in reported homestay strategies, given that 74% of the students were strategies, given that 74% of the students were in homestays. In addition, we would think the in homestays. In addition, we would think the students would be more directed to post-study students would be more directed to post-study abroad strategies as their overseas experience abroad strategies as their overseas experience was ending.was ending.

Strategies Inventory for Strategies Inventory for Learning Culture (SILC):Learning Culture (SILC):

FindingsFindings

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As a whole, there was no statistical difference between As a whole, there was no statistical difference between the E and C groups as to reported gain in culture the E and C groups as to reported gain in culture strategy use overall on the strategy use overall on the SILC SILC from pre- to posttest.from pre- to posttest.

5 individual items were at or near significance (p 5 individual items were at or near significance (p <.05), 3 with greater gain in reported strategy use for <.05), 3 with greater gain in reported strategy use for the C group and 2 with greater gain for the E group.the C group and 2 with greater gain for the E group.

Item #

SILC Item DescriptionE group

mean gain

C group mean gain

p value

5

I counter stereotypes others use about people

from my country by using generalizations and

cultural values instead. (Interpreting Culture).

.64 .14 .06

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I respect the way people from another culture

express themselves. (Communication).

.14 -.20 .03

2

I figure out what cultural values might be involved when I encounter a conflict or something goes wrong. (Interpreting Culture).

.10 .43 .06

25I build relations with local people by finding opportunities to spend time with them. (Communication)

-.05 .48 .05

49I take a class that will help me keep up with the other culture. (Reentry).

-.40 .36 .05

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On the rating criteria “overall success”, On the rating criteria “overall success”, the E group had a higher mean gain the E group had a higher mean gain score compared to the C group (E = score compared to the C group (E = 4.38, C = 1.24). This difference 4.38, C = 1.24). This difference became statistically significant (p became statistically significant (p < .05) when the scores were grouped < .05) when the scores were grouped into 3 categories (loss, no change, into 3 categories (loss, no change, gain): E = .74, C = .41.gain): E = .74, C = .41.

The higher achievement of the E group The higher achievement of the E group in “overall success” on the language in “overall success” on the language gain measure as a whole may be gain measure as a whole may be attributed to the treatment.attributed to the treatment.

Speech Act Measure:Speech Act Measure: FindingsFindings

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DirectnessDirectness When looking at the gain scores for the request When looking at the gain scores for the request

vignettes grouped together, the E group came vignettes grouped together, the E group came out significantly higher than the C group on the out significantly higher than the C group on the rating criteria “appropriateness of the level of rating criteria “appropriateness of the level of directness” (E = 2.38, C = 1.09). The directness” (E = 2.38, C = 1.09). The Guide Guide does does specifically recommend that students consider specifically recommend that students consider their level of directness in performing requests.their level of directness in performing requests.

RegisterRegister The E group also came out higher on the vignette The E group also came out higher on the vignette

#9, “forgetting a meeting with your professor” #9, “forgetting a meeting with your professor” for two criteria: “overall success” (E = .56, C for two criteria: “overall success” (E = .56, C = .01) and “fit between vocabulary and formality = .01) and “fit between vocabulary and formality level” (E =.37, C = -.08). This result may be an level” (E =.37, C = -.08). This result may be an outgrowth of the treatment since the outgrowth of the treatment since the GuideGuide instructs students to be sensitive to the social instructs students to be sensitive to the social status of the interlocutor as well as to the social status of the interlocutor as well as to the social situation when they perform speech acts.situation when they perform speech acts.

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1.1. Higher Higher reported use of the translation reported use of the translation strategy “strategy “Put my own language out of mind Put my own language out of mind and think only in the target language as and think only in the target language as much as possiblemuch as possible” in the posttest correlated ” in the posttest correlated with a positive gain score on the professor with a positive gain score on the professor apology vignette, #9 (r = .44**). [Note: * apology vignette, #9 (r = .44**). [Note: * p<05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001]p<05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001]InterpretationInterpretation: : This finding suggests that This finding suggests that (1) consciously trying to think as much as (1) consciously trying to think as much as possible in the target language may be possible in the target language may be related to improved language performance, related to improved language performance, and (2) and (2) explicitexplicit training in using this strategy training in using this strategy may be related to rated language gain (i.e., may be related to rated language gain (i.e., correlations were found for the E group only).correlations were found for the E group only).

E Group Correlations E Group Correlations Between Language Between Language

Strategy Use & Rated Strategy Use & Rated Language GainLanguage Gain

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2.2. Higher Higher reported use of the listening reported use of the listening strategy “Use the speakers’ tone of strategy “Use the speakers’ tone of voice as a clue to the meaning of what voice as a clue to the meaning of what they are saying” in the posttest they are saying” in the posttest correlated with a positive gain score on correlated with a positive gain score on the measure as a whole (r = .62***), the measure as a whole (r = .62***), and on apology vignettes #3 (“losing and on apology vignettes #3 (“losing friend’s book”) (r = .50***) and #9 friend’s book”) (r = .50***) and #9 (“forgetting meeting with professor”) (r (“forgetting meeting with professor”) (r = .53**) respectively.= .53**) respectively.InterpretationInterpretation:: This finding suggests This finding suggests that E group students may have been that E group students may have been able to improve their language ability by able to improve their language ability by reading about this strategy in the reading about this strategy in the GuideGuide and then becoming more strategic about and then becoming more strategic about listening by not only paying attention to listening by not only paying attention to words but also to the tone of voice.words but also to the tone of voice.

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3.3. LowerLower reported use of the speaking reported use of the speaking strategy “Figure out and model NSs’ strategy “Figure out and model NSs’ language patterns when requesting, language patterns when requesting, apologizing, or complaining” in the posttest apologizing, or complaining” in the posttest correlated with a positive language gain correlated with a positive language gain score on the request vignette #10 (“sibling score on the request vignette #10 (“sibling to leave for school earlier”) (r = .52***).to leave for school earlier”) (r = .52***).

InterpretationInterpretation:: We would have expected We would have expected the contrary. One possible explanation is the contrary. One possible explanation is that students may have not had many that students may have not had many opportunities during study abroad to use opportunities during study abroad to use this strategy, as some speech acts may this strategy, as some speech acts may have occurred relatively infrequently in the have occurred relatively infrequently in the contexts that students were exposed to.contexts that students were exposed to.

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When grouping students’ mean language gain When grouping students’ mean language gain scores on all apology and all request vignettes scores on all apology and all request vignettes separately, five significant correlations with separately, five significant correlations with specific items on the specific items on the LSSLSS emerged: emerged:

LSS itemMean gain score on

LSSMean gain score on Apology vignettes

Mean gain score on Request vignettes

Ask for clarification if I don’t understand it the first time around. (#22)

E .05C -.18

E .43**C ---

 

Use the speakers’ tone of voice as a clue to the meaning of what they are saying. (#23)

E .17C .07

E .65***C ---

Find things to read for pleasure in the target language. (#64)

E .48C .34

E .44**C --- 

Review words periodically so I don’t forget them. (#38)

E .10C -.05

E ---C -.41** 

Draw on my general background knowledge to get the main idea. (#25)

E -.05C -.07

E ---C .41**

 

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The difference between the E and C groups in The difference between the E and C groups in frequency of language contact was not frequency of language contact was not statistically significant.statistically significant.

Students who took subject courses in the TL Students who took subject courses in the TL for for study abroad studentsstudy abroad students achieved a significantly achieved a significantly higher language gain score than did students who higher language gain score than did students who took subject courses in the TL intended took subject courses in the TL intended for TL for TL native speakers.native speakers. This finding may reflect the This finding may reflect the fact that the courses designed for study abroad fact that the courses designed for study abroad students were directed more specifically at their students were directed more specifically at their language needs.language needs.

Living with a host family was found to help Living with a host family was found to help C C groupgroup students achieve a significantly higher students achieve a significantly higher language gain score than that obtained by their language gain score than that obtained by their peers not living with a family. Living with a host peers not living with a family. Living with a host family had family had nono statistical impact on the E group’s statistical impact on the E group’s language gain score.language gain score.

Exit Language Contact Exit Language Contact Profile:Profile: Findings Findings

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Overall, students reported finding the Overall, students reported finding the language and culture strategies in the language and culture strategies in the Students’ GuideStudents’ Guide useful for study useful for study abroadabroad..

““MaximizingMaximizing [ [Study AbroadStudy Abroad] has been an ] has been an effective book not because it answers effective book not because it answers all all of of my questions, but because it provides my questions, but because it provides guidance and structure during a time when guidance and structure during a time when one can feel utterly lost, wandering around one can feel utterly lost, wandering around in a mental, physical, and cultural landscape in a mental, physical, and cultural landscape without any landmarks in sight.” without any landmarks in sight.” – Student in – Student in Salamanca, Spain; Spring, ’03 Week 11Salamanca, Spain; Spring, ’03 Week 11

E-journals: E-journals: FindingsFindings

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Language strategies helped Language strategies helped students communicate more students communicate more effectively in the target effectively in the target language.language.

““I was in a hurry to get some food I was in a hurry to get some food before meeting a friend. I wanted before meeting a friend. I wanted to say that I need the food ‘to go.’ to say that I need the food ‘to go.’ Obviously saying Obviously saying comida ircomida ir, the , the literal translation would not work, literal translation would not work, so following the advice of the so following the advice of the guide, I substituted words. I said I guide, I substituted words. I said I needed plastic plates because I needed plastic plates because I had to take it with had to take it with me.” – me.” – Student in Havana, Student in Havana, Cuba; Spring ’03, Week 6Cuba; Spring ’03, Week 6

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Culture strategies helped students Culture strategies helped students become more knowledgeable about become more knowledgeable about communication styles.communication styles.

One of the greatest things about this guide is that it One of the greatest things about this guide is that it helps put new words to things we've been struggling helps put new words to things we've been struggling with, things that are an inherent part of any with, things that are an inherent part of any experience like [study abroad]. Sometimes, it names experience like [study abroad]. Sometimes, it names the things we struggle with and helps us recognize the things we struggle with and helps us recognize that they're there – often you'll struggle in a situation that they're there – often you'll struggle in a situation and feel irritated or discouraged, but not really be and feel irritated or discouraged, but not really be sure why, and then you do your readings for the sure why, and then you do your readings for the week and you realize the source of the problem...I sit week and you realize the source of the problem...I sit up late nights reading in my mosquito net and all of a up late nights reading in my mosquito net and all of a sudden think, "Oh! It's because I'm a linear sudden think, "Oh! It's because I'm a linear communicator and she's a circular communicator. communicator and she's a circular communicator. Huh." And then the suggestions about how to Huh." And then the suggestions about how to negotiate those things help me digest and deal negotiate those things help me digest and deal better with the issue.” better with the issue.” – Student in Cameroon; Spring – Student in Cameroon; Spring ’03, Week 8’03, Week 8

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The The Students’ GuideStudents’ Guide encouraged encouraged students to be data gatherers to students to be data gatherers to improve language learning.improve language learning.

““The [The [Students’ GuideStudents’ Guide] section on ] section on Varying Strategies for ApologizingVarying Strategies for Apologizing was important. I seem to be always was important. I seem to be always saying the wrong thing. I am still saying the wrong thing. I am still working on [apologies] and playing working on [apologies] and playing language detective by asking my host language detective by asking my host mom about appropriate expressions.” mom about appropriate expressions.” – – Student in Santiago, Chile; Spring ’03, Student in Santiago, Chile; Spring ’03, Week 4Week 4

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Students’ overall reaction to the Students’ overall reaction to the GuideGuide some some three-to-five months after returning to the U.S. three-to-five months after returning to the U.S. was very positive.was very positive.

While most students expressed the desire to While most students expressed the desire to maintain their target-language skills after maintain their target-language skills after returning to the U.S., many found they were either returning to the U.S., many found they were either too busy or not motivated enough to follow the too busy or not motivated enough to follow the strategies for language maintenance contained in strategies for language maintenance contained in the the GuideGuide..

Many students reported that they maintained Many students reported that they maintained some link, however small, to the culture in which some link, however small, to the culture in which they had lived during study abroad. Examples they had lived during study abroad. Examples included regularly reading a host country included regularly reading a host country newspaper on-line and choosing to do research newspaper on-line and choosing to do research papers on the host country in university content papers on the host country in university content courses.courses.

Follow-up Interviews: Follow-up Interviews: FindingsFindings

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The treatment appears to have enhanced The treatment appears to have enhanced speech act performance among study abroad speech act performance among study abroad students in Spanish- and French-speaking students in Spanish- and French-speaking countries over time.countries over time.

The reported gain in use of certain language The reported gain in use of certain language strategies by the treatment group was strategies by the treatment group was correlated with rated gain in speech act correlated with rated gain in speech act performance.performance.

The treatment did not appear to have a The treatment did not appear to have a measurable impact on the development of measurable impact on the development of students’ intercultural sensitivity. However, students’ intercultural sensitivity. However, many E group students reported that the many E group students reported that the GuideGuide helped them to improve their intercultural skills.helped them to improve their intercultural skills.

Students reported finding the Students reported finding the GuideGuide to be a to be a useful tool for language and culture learning useful tool for language and culture learning during their study abroad.during their study abroad.

Data analysis is on-going and more findings will Data analysis is on-going and more findings will be available in the near future.be available in the near future.

ConclusionsConclusions