1 career needs and career development programs: an investigation of the concept of gap pao-long...
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Career Needs and Career Career Needs and Career Development Programs: An Development Programs: An
Investigation of the Concept of GapInvestigation of the Concept of Gap
Pao-Long ChangPao-Long ChangDepartment of Business AdministrationDepartment of Business Administration
Feng Chia UniversityFeng Chia University2005-05-122005-05-12
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Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L., and Yeh, C.W. An investigation oChen, T.Y., Chang, P.L., and Yeh, C.W. An investigation of career development programs, job satisfaction, professiof career development programs, job satisfaction, professional development and productivity: The case of Taiwan. nal development and productivity: The case of Taiwan. HuHuman Resource Development Internationalman Resource Development International
Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L., and Yeh, C.W. (2004). A study of Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L., and Yeh, C.W. (2004). A study of career needs, career development programs, job satisfactiocareer needs, career development programs, job satisfaction and the turnover intentions of R&D personnel. n and the turnover intentions of R&D personnel. Career DCareer Development International, 9evelopment International, 9(4), 424-437. (4), 424-437.
Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L. and Yeh, C.W. (2003). The study oChen, T.Y., Chang, P.L. and Yeh, C.W. (2003). The study of career needs, career development programs and job satisff career needs, career development programs and job satisfaction levels of R&D personnel: The case of Taiwan. action levels of R&D personnel: The case of Taiwan. InternInternational Journal of Human Resource Management,ational Journal of Human Resource Management, 1414(6), 10(6), 1001-1026. (SSCI) 01-1026. (SSCI)
Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L. and Yeh, C.W. (2003). Square of cChen, T.Y., Chang, P.L. and Yeh, C.W. (2003). Square of correspondence between career needs and career developmorrespondence between career needs and career development programs for R&D personnel. ent programs for R&D personnel. Journal of High TechnolJournal of High Technology Management Research,ogy Management Research, 1414, 189-211 , 189-211
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Career Stage (I)Career Stage (I) Super’s theory(1957)Super’s theory(1957)
5 stages5 stages childhood growth (up to the age of 14)childhood growth (up to the age of 14) search and inquiry (up to the age of 25)search and inquiry (up to the age of 25) establishment (up to age 45)establishment (up to age 45) continuity or maintenance (up to age 56)continuity or maintenance (up to age 56) decline or disengagementdecline or disengagement
age age career stage career stage age age social roles: child, student, leisure seeker, social roles: child, student, leisure seeker,
citizen, worker, home-makercitizen, worker, home-maker
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Career Stage (II)Career Stage (II)
Super, Savickas and Super (1996) give the dSuper, Savickas and Super (1996) give the description of Super’s stages (1)escription of Super’s stages (1) growth stagegrowth stage
dealing with the tasks associated with becoming concerned dealing with the tasks associated with becoming concerned about the future, increasing control over one’s own life, cabout the future, increasing control over one’s own life, committing to school and work, acquiring competent work ommitting to school and work, acquiring competent work habits and attitudeshabits and attitudes
exploration stageexploration stageencounter crystallizing, specifying and implementing occupencounter crystallizing, specifying and implementing occup
ational choiceational choice
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Career Stage (III)Career Stage (III)
Super, Savickas and Super (1996) give the dSuper, Savickas and Super (1996) give the description of Super’s stages (2)escription of Super’s stages (2) establishment stageestablishment stage
beginning of one’s career; the tasks are stabilizing, consolidbeginning of one’s career; the tasks are stabilizing, consolidating and advancing in one’s occupational positionating and advancing in one’s occupational position
maintenance stagemaintenance stageconcerned with issue of middle crisis; the tasks of holding oconcerned with issue of middle crisis; the tasks of holding o
n , keeping up and innovating. (career plateau)n , keeping up and innovating. (career plateau)
disengagement stagedisengagement stagephasing out and retirementphasing out and retirement
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Career Stage (IV)Career Stage (IV)
Levinson’s theory (1978)Levinson’s theory (1978)Seasons of man’s lifeSeasons of man’s life childhoodchildhood early adulthoodearly adulthood middle adulthoodmiddle adulthood late adulthoodlate adulthood
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Career Stage (V)Career Stage (V)
Dalton, Thompson and Price (1977)Dalton, Thompson and Price (1977)focus on professional growth and managerial focus on professional growth and managerial
developmentdevelopment apprenticesapprentices autonomous workautonomous work mentoring othersmentoring others direction, representation, sponsoringdirection, representation, sponsoring
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In our study, we focus on professional life In our study, we focus on professional life with specific stages of with specific stages of
explorationexploration establishmentestablishment maintenancemaintenance disengagementdisengagement
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Career Practices in 1990s Studies (I)Career Practices in 1990s Studies (I)
1.1. Job postingsJob postingsexternal recruitment vs. internal recruitmentexternal recruitment vs. internal recruitment
2.2. Formal education / tuition reimbursementFormal education / tuition reimbursement a first degree in engineering; an MBA; professional and a first degree in engineering; an MBA; professional and
vocational qualification coursesvocational qualification courses insecurity and instability of investment in peopleinsecurity and instability of investment in people
3.3. Performance appraisal for career Performance appraisal for career planningplanning
PA is the most fundamental practice of all career practicesPA is the most fundamental practice of all career practices
4.4. Counseling by managerCounseling by manager individual interestindividual interest career optionscareer options
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Career Practices in 1990s Studies Career Practices in 1990s Studies (II)(II)
5.5. Lateral movesLateral moves the flattening of organizationthe flattening of organization job rotations and role changesjob rotations and role changes
6.6. Counseling by HRCounseling by HRknowledge of organizational goals and development; HRM knowledge of organizational goals and development; HRM
planning for the whole enterpriseplanning for the whole enterprise
7.7. Pre- retirement programsPre- retirement programs financial programsfinancial programs psychological programspsychological programs Information on leisure activities and other fulfilling tasksInformation on leisure activities and other fulfilling tasks
8.8. Succession planningSuccession planningto decide on the possible replacement of every manager to decide on the possible replacement of every manager
within the organizationwithin the organization
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Career Practices in 1990s Studies (III)Career Practices in 1990s Studies (III)
9.9. MentoringMentoringbring togather a person with managerial potential and an ebring togather a person with managerial potential and an e
xperienced managerxperienced manager
10.10. Common career pathCommon career pathto lead people through various departments and units withito lead people through various departments and units withi
n the organization and in overseas subsidiariesn the organization and in overseas subsidiaries
11.11. Dual ladderDual laddera different promotion path for non-managerial staffa different promotion path for non-managerial staff
12.12. Career booklets / pamphletsCareer booklets / pamphletsInformation on career paths, the competencies required for Information on career paths, the competencies required for
each position on the path, time scales , ……each position on the path, time scales , ……
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Impact factorsImpact factors
sizesize ageage globalizationglobalization workforce diversityworkforce diversity
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Career Needs (I)Career Needs (I) Schein (1978, 1980), Hall (1986) and Meehan (19Schein (1978, 1980), Hall (1986) and Meehan (19
95) mentioned the importance of the concept of c95) mentioned the importance of the concept of career needs.areer needs.
We define career needs as:We define career needs as: Career goalsCareer goals focus on existing career needs and deter focus on existing career needs and deter
mination of the direction and aims of an individual’s cmination of the direction and aims of an individual’s current efforts.urrent efforts.
Career tasksCareer tasks pertain to the career needs that exist dur pertain to the career needs that exist during the achievement of these career goals.ing the achievement of these career goals.
Career challengesCareer challenges relate to future career needs which relate to future career needs which arise from subsequent career development opportunitarise from subsequent career development opportunities or obstacles.ies or obstacles.
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Career Needs (II)Career Needs (II) Using R&D personnel in high-tech Using R&D personnel in high-tech
industries as example.industries as example. a higher turnover rate exists among R&D a higher turnover rate exists among R&D
personnel in high-tech industries than personnel in high-tech industries than average level for industry as a wholeaverage level for industry as a whole
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Table 1a R&D personnel’s career needs and appropriate career development programs (during the exploration stage)
Constructs Career needs Career development programs
Career goals (i) gaining an understanding of their
own abilities and ascertaining their
interests.
(ii) evaluating the job requirements
and expectations in relation to the
organization’s values.
(iii) obtaining the support of superiors
along with the acceptance of
co-workers.
(i) self-assessment by those involved in
order to gain a complete
understanding of their professional
interests.
(ii) provision by the company of a job
description for each position.
(iii) the support of superiors, and
discussions between employees and
superiors concerning job content.
Career tasks (i) striving to achieve professional
knowledge.
(ii) making an effective contribution to
the organization.
(i) the provision of professional
training.
(ii) the implementation of on-the-job
training.
Career
challenges
(i) establishing one’s own inner
professional identity.
(ii) employing one’s knowledge within
the organization.
(iii) receiving challenging tasks.
(i) the provision of training that will
allow employees to realize their
potential.
(ii) the provision of guidance to help
employees to improve their job
performance.
(iii) clarification by superiors of the
prerequisites for the job, in terms of
characteristics, content and
qualifications.
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Table 1b R&D personnel’s career needs and appropriate career development programs (during
the establishment stage)
Constructs Career needs Career development programs
Career goals (i) striving to achieve success and to
become a professional in a certain
field.
(ii) seeking out their unique competitive
advantage, in order to rise above
others and win the respect of
co-workers.
(i) adopting project assignments as a
means of facilitating on-the-job
training.
(ii) encouraging personnel to participate
in seminars and to present their
project findings.
(iii) offering tuition fee assistance.
Career tasks (i) honing their professional skills and
know-how.
(ii) acquiring on-the-job autonomy.
(iii) developing their personal creativity
and innovative skills.
(i) assigning individuals for periods of
engagement in foreign training.
(ii) introducing job rotation.
(iii) providing opportunities for job
enrichment.
Career
challenges
(i) to improve their job performance in
order to enhance their promotional
prospects.
(ii) to try to maintain a balance between
the demands of the job and the
needs of their families.
(i) evaluating performance to help
employees to adjust their efforts
accordingly and to provide an
understanding of promotional
prospects and routes.
(ii) helping employees to find the
appropriate balance between their
jobs and their families.
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Table 1c R&D personnel’s career needs and appropriate career development programs (during the maintenance stage)
Constructs Career needs Career development programs
Career goals (i) to retain the status earned so far in
their career.
(ii) to reevaluate their current career
direction, finding the ‘second wind’
that will take them through the next
stage of their careers.
(iii) to be provided with opportunities
to guide the more junior members of
their core team.
(i) careful consideration of employees’
career paths within the organization.
(ii) consideration of offering
dual-career programs, to enable
personnel to select their future
direction, without jeopardizing their
promotion prospects.
(iii) cultivating personnel to become
professional consultants or
specialized lecturers.
Career tasks (i) maintaining a high level of
on-the-job performance.
(ii) broadening personal professional
horizons.
(iii) extending professional channels.
(i) setting up objective performance
appraisals to assess management
performance and future development.
(ii) encouraging personnel to learn
additional interpersonal skills,
counseling skills, and so on; and
(iii) assisting employees to jointly
formulate a development plan involving
more demanding roles.
Career
challenges
(i) maintaining their job motivation,
professionalism and competitiveness.
(ii) finding suitable ways of entering
into relevant fields where they can
continue to be innovative.
(iii) preventing new competitors from
entering their own fields.
(i) designing appropriate (material)
rewards and motivational systems.
(ii) subsidizing external educational
activities, and (iii) providing
interpersonal relationship counseling
and guidance, according to specific
needs.
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Table 1d R&D personnel’s career needs and appropriate career development programs (during the disengagement stage)
Constructs Career needs Career development programs
Career goals (i) the completion of a successful career
and preparations for a successful
handover.
(ii) gaining recognition as an
expert/specialist, passing on
knowledge and experience and
providing guidance.
(iii) securing an adequate pension
package for retirement.
(i) establishing succession planning and
training replacements.
(ii) providing retirement planning and
counseling.
(iii) possibly establishing an honorary
consultancy position.
Career tasks (i) maintaining an acceptable level of
performance.
(ii) seeking an identity outside of the
working environment.
(i) providing employees with
self-assessment means to maintain or
improve their performance.
(ii) setting basic job standards.
(iii) encouraging participation in
associations.
Career
challenges
(i) accepting career achievements.
(ii) adjusting identity and work
schedules.
(iii) adjusting and rearranging leisure
time.
(i) providing staff with counseling on
role-shifting.
(ii) providing staff with post-retirement
planning.
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The concept of Gap between career The concept of Gap between career development programs and career needsdevelopment programs and career needs
Three types of the gapThree types of the gap the gap between career goal needs and the gap between career goal needs and
corresponding career development programscorresponding career development programs the gap between career task needs and the gap between career task needs and
corresponding career development programscorresponding career development programs the gap between career challenge needs and the gap between career challenge needs and
corresponding career development programscorresponding career development programs
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Hypotheses (I)Hypotheses (I)1.1. Three types of the gap between career Three types of the gap between career
development programs and career needs will be development programs and career needs will be positively influenced with turnover intentionspositively influenced with turnover intentions
2.2. Three types of the gap between career Three types of the gap between career development programs and career needs will be development programs and career needs will be negatively influenced with job satisfactionnegatively influenced with job satisfaction
3.3. We expect job satisfaction to mediate the We expect job satisfaction to mediate the relationship between gap and turnover intentionsrelationship between gap and turnover intentions
4.4. Career stages may moderate the effect on job Career stages may moderate the effect on job satisfaction from the gap between career satisfaction from the gap between career development programs and career needsdevelopment programs and career needs
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Hypotheses (II)Hypotheses (II)
GapJob
SatisfactionTurnover intentions
Career stages
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Data sourceData source
The sample was drawn from R&D personnel The sample was drawn from R&D personnel in high-tech industry in HSIPin high-tech industry in HSIP
1300 questionnaires were distributed,1300 questionnaires were distributed, 367 valid questionnaires.367 valid questionnaires. Overall return rate 28.2%Overall return rate 28.2%
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Characteristics No %
Age
Under 25 years (Exploration stage) 128 34.9
25-44 years (Establishment stage) 170 46.3
45-64 years (Maintenance stage) 38 10.4
65 years or above (Disengagement stage) 31 8.4
Sex
Male 308 83.9
Female 59 16.1
Education
High School 2 0.5
Bachelors degree 120 32.7
Master 223 60.8
PhD 22 6
Income
Less than US$571 (NT 20,000) 1 0.3
US$572-1000 (NT 20,001-35,000) 40 10.9
US$1001-1429 (NT 35,001-50,000) 209 56.9
US$1430-2000 (NT 50,001-70,000) 85 23.2
US$2001-2857 (NT 70,001-100,000) 25 6.8
US$2858 or Above (NT 100,000 above) 7 1.9
Marital Status
Married 226 61.6
Single 141 38.4
Total 367 100
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Measurements (I)Measurements (I) Career stagesCareer stages Stage I
(Exploration)
At present, I hope to choose, as soon as possible, an occupation
which suits me so as to learn the skills required for my job. I
hope my superiors will support me and my co-workers will
accept me. Now I have a senior co-worker to guide me and, if I
have any problems, I may consult him. I am in charge of minor
details or routine work in the research projects.
Stage II
(Establishment)
I have consistently employed my skills to produce the best
possible results in my job so as to let others be aware of my
capabilities. In my current projects, I am responsible for a
specific technical sphere and I may make important decisions
with regard to the conduct of the projects. I hope to be
outstanding in my present position so as to gain the opportunity
for promotion in my job.
Stage III
(Maintenance)
I hope to be able to maintain the position that I have attained.
In an environment in which newcomers are competing against
one another, I hope to retain a space for myself. I spend most of
my time co-ordinating and integrating the projects in my
organization. I currently direct subordinates in the development
of several projects. The results of my subordinates’ work are
closely related to my job performance.
Stage IV
(Disengagement)
I am responsible for long-range planning in my organization
and determining the strategic responses to future organizational
development. I have begun to decentralize my responsibilities
and to seek a person with the ability to take over my job. I have
begun to find the jobs which, as an aging person, I will be able
to do and have started saving for my retirement years. I have
also started to make appropriate plans for my life after
retirement and have discussed life after retirement, and ways of
adjusting, with my retired friends. I hope to do the things that I
desire before retiring.
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Measurements (II)Measurements (II)
Career Needs: a 32-item scaleCareer Needs: a 32-item scale factor analyses confirm the underlying constructs factor analyses confirm the underlying constructs
(all Cronbach’s α are larger than 0.7)(all Cronbach’s α are larger than 0.7) Career development programs: a 33-item scaleCareer development programs: a 33-item scale
(all Cronbach’s α are larger than 0.7) (all Cronbach’s α are larger than 0.7)
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Measurements (III)Measurements (III)
The gaps are measured by subtracting the average aThe gaps are measured by subtracting the average awareness values of career development programs frowareness values of career development programs from the average career needs valuesm the average career needs values
Job satisfaction-- Job Descriptive Index scale of SmitJob satisfaction-- Job Descriptive Index scale of Smith et al. (1987), using a composite of 5 sub-scales: pay, h et al. (1987), using a composite of 5 sub-scales: pay, promotion, supervisors, co-workers and work (Cronpromotion, supervisors, co-workers and work (Cronbach’s α=0.92)bach’s α=0.92)
Turnover intentions-- based on Mobley, Horner and Turnover intentions-- based on Mobley, Horner and Hollingsworth (1978) (Cronbach’s α=0.88)Hollingsworth (1978) (Cronbach’s α=0.88)
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Empirical Results (I)Empirical Results (I)
Career needs Career stages
Exploration Establishment Maintenance Disengagement Mean
Goals
Tasks
Challenges
4.32
4.57
4.30
4.39
4.49
4.35
3.96
4.15
3.76
4.18
4.36
4.00
4.31
4.48
4.26
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Empirical Results (II)Empirical Results (II)
Career Stage Mean S.D.
Exploration 1.22 0.92
Establishment 1.39 0.93
Maintenance 1.40 0.91
The gap between
career development
programs and career
goal needs Disengagement 0.97 1.23
Exploration 1.42 1.04
Establishment 1.76 0.90
Maintenance 1.39 1.18
The gap between
career development
programs and career
task needs Disengagement 1.09 0.91
Exploration 1.23 1.04
Establishment 1.67 1.02
Maintenance 0.97 0.98
The gap between
career development
programs and career
challenge needs Disengagement 1.05 0.88
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Empirical Results (III)Empirical Results (III)Variables mediator
Job satisfaction
(equation 1)
dependent variable
Turnover intention
(equation 2)
Independent Variables
The gap between career development programs and
career needs for goals
-0.30*** 0.25**
The gap between career development programs and
career needs for tasks
-0.25*** 0.14*
The gap between career development programs and
career needs for challenges
-0.36*** 0.23***
R2 0.56 0.30
F 149.623*** 47.93***
NA dependent variable
Turnover intention
(equation 3)
Job satisfaction -0.76**
R2 0.57
F 489.69***
* P<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.001
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Empirical Results (IV)Empirical Results (IV)
Variables Turnover
intentions
dependent
variable
(equation 4)
Independent Variables
Job satisfaction (mediator)
-0.81***
The gap between career development programs and career needs for goals 0.04
The gap between career development programs and career needs for tasks 0.07
The gap between career development programs and career needs for challenges 0.06
R2 0.58
F 124.37***
***P<0.001
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Empirical Results (V)Empirical Results (V)Source of variation Sum of
squares
Degrees of
freedom
Mean
square
F-value p-value
(1)
Career stages
The gap between career
development programmes
and career needs
Interaction
1.63
49.26
7.23
3
2
6
0.54
24.63
1.21
1.62
73.44***
3.59**
0.185
0.001
0.002
(2) The simple main effects on the gap between career development
Exploration
Establishment
Maintenance
Disengagement
39.99
95.07
12.24
4.62
2
2
2
2
19.99
47.53
6.12
2.31
67.58***
134.31***
14.08***
26.26***
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
(3) The simple main effects on career stages
Low gaps between career
development programmes
and career needs
Medium gaps between
career development
programmes and career
needs
High gaps between career
development programmes
and career needs
2.33
0.73
5.99
3
3
3
0.78
0.24
1.99
2.72
0.81
3.96*
0.052
0.489
0.012
Notes ***p< .001; **P< .01; *P< .05.
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Empirical Results (VI)Empirical Results (VI)
Career stages The gaps between career development programmes and career needs
High (72) Medium (230) Low (65) Mean
Exploration (128)
Establishment (190)
Maintenance (38)
Disengagement (11)
Mean
2.84
2.24
2.71
3.33
2.45
3.47
3.44
3.62
3.67
3.47
4.57
4.33
4.85
4.89
4.63
3.65
3.34
3.73
4.30
3.47
Note
Values represent cell means. Number of cases is given in parentheses.
3333
Research IssuesResearch Issues
1.1. Scale development for general useScale development for general use
2.2. Explanatory power of gap vs. programs onExplanatory power of gap vs. programs onlyly
3.3. Procedual and distributive justiceProcedual and distributive justice