1 author: fox, randy, j rhetoric in graphic design … fox, randy, j. rhetoric in graphic design...
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1 Author: Fox, Randy, J
Title: Rhetoric in Graphic Design Curriculum
The accompanying research report is submitted to the University of Wisconsin-Stout, Graduate School in partial
completion of the requirements for the
Graduate Degree/ Major: MS Technical and Professional Communication
Research Advisor: Julie Watts, Ph.D.
Submission Term/Year: Summer, 2013
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NAME Randy J. Fox DATE: 7/28/2013
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NAME Julie Watts DATE: 7/28/2013
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2 Fox, Randy, J. Rhetoric in Graphic Design Curriculum
Abstract
While enrolled in the Masters of Science Technical and Professional Communication
program at the University of Wisconsin—Stout, I discovered the connection between rhetoric
and graphic design. While studying rhetorical theory and visual rhetoric I realized the important
role rhetoric might play in graphic design education. This research paper investigates rhetoric in
graphic design curriculum, specific to one course, Information Visualization. This is a theoretical
study and was not executed in the classroom due to limitations. The paper presents an overview
of visual literacy directed to communication design as well as rhetorical strategies, tools and
techniques that have potential to enhance students’ critical analysis and design skills. The paper
also discusses the basis of rhetoric in the Information Visualization course and presents the
means in which rhetoric principles are inserted into two course assignments. Finally, the paper
suggests future studies regarding rhetoric in the Information Visualization course as well as
thoughts about integrating rhetoric in graphic design education overall.
3 Acknowledgments
Dr. Julie Watts—thank you for supporting, enriching, enlightening, challenging, guiding,
and humoring me throughout my academic experience. Your mentorship and expertise has
helped me become a better writer, professional, and individual.
I would also like to thank my family and friends who have supported me throughout my
academic journey as well as their patience when I had to say—no, I have homework.
4 Table of Contents
.................................................................................................................................... Page
Chapter I: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 6
Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 7
Purpose of the Study .............................................................................................. 9
Limitations of the Study ....................................................................................... 10
Methodology ....................................................................................................... 11
Chapter II: Literature Review .......................................................................................... 12
Visual Literacy—A Basic Skill Set. ...................................................................... 12
A Rhetorical Perspective ...................................................................................... 14
Rhetorical Strategies ............................................................................................. 16
Visual Rhetoric—Tools for Design and Analysis ................................................. 19
Visual Literacy Exercised Through Visual Thinking ............................................. 25
Chapter III: Methodology ................................................................................................. 29
Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 30
Limitations .......................................................................................................... 31
Chapter IV: Results .......................................................................................................... 33
Rhetoric and Information Visualization ............................................................... 33
Course Overview—Information Visualization ...................................................... 34
Process Books ...................................................................................................... 35
Rhetorical Strategies and Information Graphics .................................................... 36
Visual Cognates .................................................................................................... 38
5 Gestalt and Semiotics ........................................................................................... 39
Chapter V: Discussion ...................................................................................................... 42
The Missing Link in Graphic Design Education .................................................... 42
Information Visualization with a Rhetorical Perspective ....................................... 43
Conclusions. ........................................................................................................ 44
Recommendations ................................................................................................ 44
References ............................................................................................................ 47
6
Chapter I: Introduction
During the last 20 years or so I have worked in the graphic design industry both as a
design professional and as an associate professor for a small art and design college. I consistently
explore strategies and processes to enhance my own design skills as well as to support my
students in creating effective visual messages. Many design educators also engage in this
practice: “In the very process of teaching students how to design, the design educator is also
investigating the nature of design, seeking to better understand its methods and principles”
(Buchanan, 1998, p. 65). Among methods and principles a range of communication skills are as
equally important. In fact, the graphic design profession requires excellent verbal and visual
communication skills—more crucial now then ever before.
Recently, I studied rhetorical theory in addition to visual rhetoric and realized the
connection they have to graphic design. Some practitioners in graphic design also make this
connection:
Graphic designers translate concepts and ideas into a visual representation, by organizing
and connecting elements into a structure. This arrangement of elements is done with an
intended effect in mind, a goal. Since the communication between designers and viewers
has defined purposes, design is essentially rhetorical. This intentional and deliberate
production of meaning is the rhetorical function of graphic design (Emanuel, 2010, p. 8).
Therefore, in my opinion, learning principles, tools, and techniques of rhetoric may help to
enhance the student’s understanding of the goals and objectives of graphic design. Building a
rhetorical perspective into graphic design education will expand a student’s design and critical
thinking skills to create as well as to analyze complex visual messages.
7 The relationship between graphic design and rhetoric is evident in that both disciplines
“are rooted in cultural, economic and technological developments” (Alameda, 2009, p. 6).
Rhetoric and graphic design begin by addressing an issue or problem directed to a specific
audience followed by “researching a topic, gathering information, assessing a situation, and
formulating a proposition” (Alameda, 2009, p. 3). The graphic design students at my college
learn to practice these principles; however, supported by a rhetorical perspective may offer them
tools and techniques to enhance their design process and ability to solve visual problems in
complex ways.
The graphic design industry has evolved over the years—once considered a trade, it
seemed to focus primarily on the aesthetic and technical values of design. Nowadays, the graphic
design industry is more human centric as it attempts to explore and understand the relationship,
connection, and perception of users as they interact with design texts. Graphic design education
also has placed more emphasis on the usability of products and a consideration of human
interaction and experience. In the last several years design courses at my college were
redeveloped to focus on user experience, making products more useable and appealing, compelling
people to act, feel, and think differently. However, my curriculum, overall, lacked a rhetorical
perspective as a means to guide the students in visual thinking when solving complex design
problems. Moreover, I have discovered rhetorical processes I believe to be integral to graphic
design education. This has inspired me to reevaluate a graphic design course I recently taught
and explore processes of generating and organizing information with a rhetorical perspective.
Statement of the Problem
Students are often surprised when they enter the graphic design program at my college.
8 They quickly learn that graphic design is much more than the use of digital technology and not
based solely on aesthetics. Scholars also acknowledge the importance of the design process.
According to Brumberger & Northcut, (2010), “The technologies for production do nothing, in
and of themselves, to promote the process of effectively applying design principles” (P. 463).
Often students enter my courses thinking graphic design is primarily about using the computer to
create graphic mediums. Computer programs such as Adobe Photoshop, an image-manipulation
software, is perceived by the students as part of the design process—manipulating images on a
computer screen until something looks good. Students often lack the understanding that graphic
design is less about technology and more about creating visual arguments and solving design
problems in complex ways. Students need to learn that graphic design involves a process of
exploration, analysis and discovery through process other than computer graphics software.
Moreover, I believe students would benefit by investigating rhetorical processes as a way to
discover various solutions to visual design problems.
Students have revealed to me that their high school teachers encouraged them to pursue a
career in graphic design, primarily due to their computer graphic skills. Most high school art
teachers are educated with a fine arts emphasis—few have experience in the graphic design
industry and have not directly experienced the shift in design thinking. They often teach basic
design principles but do not prepare the students with design processes required to succeed in
today’s industry.
Students who enter my courses, in most cases, have not yet learned the significance of
design process, research, and analysis. Students have yet to understand that the computer is a
production tool used to bring the design idea to final, tangible, visual texts. They tend to neglect
9 the importance of exploration to discover multiple solutions to a design problem and often
settle on their first idea. They often neglect basic design principles, instead relying on “special
effects” inherent in the software. In addition, once they begin producing designs digitally they
tend to lock in on one idea and disregard alternative options. Communication scholars recognize
students’ reliance on computer graphic software: “as students become familiar with the software,
they become more focused on the effects they achieve with the technology than on achieving
what they see as a more abstract communicative purpose. That is, they lose sight of the rhetorical
objectives of design in the face of interesting techniques” (Brumberger & Northcut, 2010, p.
463). Students need to understand that graphic design is about thinking critically, solving
complex visual problems, and developing visual arguments, all which happens beyond the
computer.
Moreover, my students often resist the critical ideation process that involves sketching
and iteration as a way to discover multiple solutions to a design problem—without the reliability
of computer software. Scholars recognize the importance of computer graphic skills in the design
industry and the need for students to value ideation and theory:
When students develop facility with design software, they immediately recognize that
they have acquired a tangible and marketable skill. Unfortunately, students do not
necessarily recognize that the theory and concepts we strive to teach are also marketable
and inherently more valuable.” (Brumberger & Northcut, 2010, p. 462)
In my opinion, students armed with processes of ideation backed with a rhetorical perspective
will be more prepared to solve critical design problems and rely less on computer technology.
Students need a structured pedagogy involving an arsenal of rhetorical strategies, tools
10 and techniques, supported by a foundation of visual literacy, which will provide them a guide
used to analyze as well as create effective visual messages. Having a structured guide will help
students move beyond making subjective design decisions to using a more organized, and well
thought out approach to solving design problems.
Purpose of the Study
I believe including a rhetorical perspective in today’s graphic design education is critical.
Currently, my curriculum involves a structured pedagogy of design philosophies and techniques;
however, it lacks basic principles, terminology, and application of rhetorical objectives. The
purpose of this paper is to explore the potential role rhetoric may play in design education in one
graphic design course.
Through this study I will explore a variety of rhetorical tools and techniques as a way to
guide my students when designing visual messages. In addition, I will reevaluate and revamp
two projects within my Information Visualization course to incorporate rhetorical strategies. I
hope to instill early in the student’s education a broader understanding of rhetoric as it applies to
graphic design, enabling them to make informed design decisions throughout their education.
Moreover, my goal in this course is to empower students with strong analytical vocabulary and
rhetorical devices to analyze, evaluate, and create effective visual messages. Through this paper I
hope to inspire students and faculty to advance their knowledge of rhetoric regarding verbal,
written, and visual communication.
Limitations of Study
The limitation of this study is not having the opportunity to test the curriculum I am
proposing. I began my research with intentions to restructure my course assignments to include a
11 rhetorical perspective; however, it was not guaranteed that I would be teaching the course
again—or at least in the next year. Knowing this I still felt it was important to research rhetoric
in graphic design on a theoretical basic. This paper provides a clear theoretical analysis of which
rhetorical theories principles and so forth seem to apply most readily to this graphic design
course. That is step one of the study, which comprises this field project. Step two would be to
examine the effects of this new curriculum on student learning. Step two is out of the scope of
this project primarily due to the fact that I will not have access to the Information Visualization
course for another year, or if at all.
In addition, I believe it is important to explore this issue on a theoretical level to ensure a
structured pedagogy be developed before implementing it into the classroom. My goal is to share
my study with graphic design faculty who may be interested in addressing the issues I have
presented. They may offer additional principles and theories, or even debate about whether or not
rhetoric would be an added value to graphic design education.
However, I am confident that other graphic design faculty will find value in this study. In
my opinion most all design courses will benefit with a rhetorical perspective— providing
students with the ability to analyze and create effective visual arguments.
Methodology
My study begins by defining visual literacy and why it is critically important to graphic
design students. I also identify the significance of visual thinking and explore a variety of
rhetorical strategies, tools, and techniques of visual analysis. Lastly, I attempt to revise my
course assignments to include rhetorical goals and objectives to teach students that graphic
design is much more than just making pretty pictures. My goal is to have students complete the
12 assignments having a keener knowledge of rhetorical situations, strategies, and processes. I
believe rhetorical tools and techniques will help students develop effective visual arguments and
solve design problems in complex ways. Therefore, solving problems in unique ways provide
valuable and effective visual experiences for specific audiences.
13 Chapter II: Literature Review
The following section will begin by examining the role of visual literacy as it pertains to
visual communication. Next I will investigate the significance of rhetoric and its relationship to
graphic design, as well as present strategies and analytical processes and techniques to be used as
a guide to assist in the design process. Finally, I will discuss visual literacy exercised through
visual thinking.
Visual Literacy—A Basic Skill Set
Graphic design students armed with strong visual literacy skills will be better prepared to
read, analyze, evaluate and solve visual communication problems. The research and theory I
review regarding visual literacy is mainly directed to communication design, visual
communication, and professional and technical communication; however, all directly relate to
graphic design. According to Portewig (2004) visual literacy “is the faculty of visually thinking,
analyzing, and communicating. Its instruction seeks to develop in students the cognitive process
of developing visuals as well as an understanding of the context and elements that form the
visual message” (p. 40). The moment students enter my college they begin developing basic
visual literacy skills. Students often enter my classroom with prior visual learning experiences;
however, these experiences are not necessarily directed specifically to graphic design.
Knowledge of visual literacy is essential in developing graphic design skills.
Visual literacy is the ability to read, analyze, and evoke meaning from visual text through
means of “visual grammar.” The definition of visual grammar is creating meaning through visual
language including typefaces, color, page structure, photographs, illustrations, graphs, charts,
and so on (Kress and Leeuwen, 2006, p. 2). Kress and colleagues (2006) argue:
14 Just as grammars of language describe how words combine in clauses, sentences and
texts, so our visual ‘grammar’ will describe the way in which depicted elements – people,
places and things—combine in visual ‘statements’ of greater or lesser complexity and
extension. (p. 1)
Furthermore, Kress (2006) and colleagues explain “In this sense ‘grammar’ is not a set of rules
for the correct use of language but rather a set of socially constructed resources for the
construction of meaning” (p. 3). Visual literacy offers students a foundation to build upon their
graphic design skills through the use of visual grammar. The ability to apply “visual grammar”
will ultimately empower students to make effective design choices.
Visual grammar will help students develop and analyze visual arguments as they practice
ideation processes. I have found that many students have a tendency to underestimate the value
of sketching and often settle on their first idea. By practicing a variety of processes students learn
their own methods of ideation. Visual grammar is the foundation in which students build upon to
lead them to new directions and discoveries. It offers a guideline for students to ponder, reflect
and ask questions that will lead them to exploration and discovery—personal experiences,
previous knowledge, and intuition work alongside basic rules and practices of design. Design
professionals share comparable ideas. Judith and Richard Wilde (2000), in Visual Literacy: A
Conceptual Approach to Graphic Problem Solving, offer the following insights for students
when addressing visual problems:
Reevaluating a problem in personal terms; creating conditions for self-questioning by
moving from the known to the unknown; encouraging the use of concepts to dictate
techniques, instead of the other way around; discovering design principles, rather than
15 directly learning or memorizing them; and discovering personal conceptual methods of
problem solving. (p. 11)
Visual literacy—as well as composing effective visual messages—is a required skill needed for
graphic designers to comprehend what they constantly see in the media. In the article “Making
Sense of the Visual in Technical Communication: A Visual Literacy Approach to Pedagogy,”
Portewig (2004) argues:
Being visually literate means having the knowledge of visual concepts as well as being
able to understand and produce visual messages. To attain visual literacy, we must be
aware of the rhetorical situation of using visuals as well as how to communicate, think
about, and represent the visual. (p. 32)
Students must consider the target audience, the purpose of the visual text as well as the context in
which it will be interacted with in order to produce effective design solutions.
A Rhetorical Perspective
While studying rhetorical theory and recognizing the relationship between rhetoric and
graphic design, I understand that rhetoric relies on written and verbal discourse whereas graphic
design relies primarily on imagery and typography; however, both are means to persuade, inform
or entertain a target audience. Scholars describe practices of design and rhetoric similarly.
According to Gallagher, Martin, and Ma (2011), both rhetoric and design are “two distinct fields
of study intricately related as reflected in their assumptions, goals and function” (p. 27). For
example, both rhetoric and design rely on a set of tools and techniques to communicate in a way
to provoke an audience.
Rhetoric plays an important role despite advancing technology. For over 100 years
16 print has been the primary means of visual communication; however, the graphic design
industry has advanced far beyond print media encompassing the Internet, digital technology, and
video, just to name a few. Changing technologies also are challenging and add to the mass
media, including smart phones and tablet computers such as the IPad, allowing everyone to
access visual information at the touch of a finger. It helps us understand that for over 5000 years,
despite advancing technology, rhetoric has played an important role in effective communication.
Rhetorical practices have worked with little to no technology and will continue to work
with old sets of tools and techniques and new media. Cristina de Almeida (2009) in “The
Rhetorical Genre in Graphic Design: Its Relationship to Design Authorship and Implications to
Design Education” explains:
From its beginnings in Antiquity, classical rhetoric was expanded from a discipline
pertaining solely to the art of speaking to include the art of writing once printing became
widespread during the Renaissance. Similarly, in the age of mass media, the art of
combining words and images into arguments represents one further step in the evolution
of human communications. (p. 187)
Furthermore, Almeida (2009) presents quotes from two authors revealing the relationship
between graphic design and rhetoric (p. 187). For example, she notes that Corbett and Connors
(1999) define rhetoric as “the art or the discipline that deals with the use of discourse… to
inform, persuade or motivate an audience” (p. 1). Corbett and Connors refer to rhetoric regarding
written and verbal discourse, whereas graphic designers communicate through images and
typography. In addition, Resnick (2003) argues similarly “…graphic design might include the
‘art’ of communication—to inform, educate, influence, persuade, and provide a visual
17 experience” (p. 15). At one time, the field of graphic design was perceived as pertaining
strictly to aesthetics; however, today social consciousness and human considerations are as much
of a priority. Understanding principles of rhetoric as well as visual rhetoric may enhance graphic
design students’ ability to convey meaning and construct a visual argument.
Visual rhetoric, as described by OWL, Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab, “has
been used to mean anything from the use of images as argument, to the arrangement of elements
on a page for rhetorical effect, to the use of typography (fonts), and more.” For example, visual
rhetoric might be in the form of a brochure promoting auto insurance to young drivers. The
purpose may be to entice an audience to buy their insurance by establishing credibility through
the use of design elements. According to Heller and Mirko (2012) “Type and image, composition
and arrangement, color and hue—choices that designers make all the time—can make a huge
difference in how we receive the messages and, ultimately, take those persistent orders from
others” (p. 8). Therefore, the structure of a document, poster, or website etc. can create a
rhetorical effect. Armed with knowledge of rhetorical techniques graphic design students will
have a better ability to critically solve complex design problems and create effective visual text.
Rhetorical Strategies
Students in my courses are taught to explore visual processes and examine a variety of
design strategies; however, my curriculum lacks a rhetorical viewpoint. More often than not, my
students base design decisions on personal likes and dislikes. They overlook the importance of
critically analyzing how their design choices ultimately affect the viewer’s perception of the
design text. The graphic design profession has evolved in the industry to be more human centric.
Communication scholars agree that it is our responsibility as design faculty to provide students
18 with a design perspective that meets their demands and expectations. According to Buchanan
(1998), “We must be alert to new developments and prepare our students for a changing world—
not only in technology but in the needs and expectations of the human beings whom we
ultimately must serve” (p. 65). It is our responsibility as design faculty to provide students with a
structured guideline incorporating a variety of tools and techniques to instill broader ideas to
solve complex design problems. I believe a structured pedagogy incorporating a rhetorical
perspective will empower students with analytical tools and techniques to create effective visual
arguments.
The first step is for students to gain an understanding of the nature and value of visual
argument. According to Barnet and Bedau (1999), authors of Critical Thinking: Reading &
Writing a Brief Guide to Argument, “visual arguments appeal to our emotions through flattery,
humor, threats—and pity—to name a few” (p. 137). Visual text as arguments can advocate or
state a position, articulate concepts, and explain difficult procedures. They also can entice
viewers to respond to messages, to act and think in a particular way. Visual arguments are
strengthened by rhetorical appeals, such as pathos, ethos and logos, as well as gestalt principles
and visual cognates. Identifying the rhetorical situation of a visual message is the first step in the
design process and will prepare students for persuasive argumentation, both in terms of creating
and analyzing visual texts.
Rhetorical situation—audience, purpose, and context. A variety of strategies and
processes are accessible for graphic design students when envisaging design problems, but where
do they begin? Before deciding the vehicle of a visual message, outcomes and goals should be
determined, as well as the rhetorical situation—audience, purpose and context. These
19 considerations will directly affect the visual message by the choice of typefaces, page layout,
color and images.
One aspect of rhetorical situation is the audience, which includes “users of information
accustomed to documents that communicate on a variety of levels through a variety of media”
(Brumberger, 2007, p. 377). The end result of the message depends on who will be most
affected. According to Soojin Jun (2009), in “Information Design and Rhetoric,” “If the form of
the poster is not created to serve the needs of the audience, it is useless, although visually
pleasing” (p. 2373). My students tend to forget that the visual message they are creating should
provoke a reaction from a target audience.
Another component of rhetorical situation is the purpose of the message. What should the
message accomplish? Should it inspire or inform the viewer of a new concept, or persuade them
to act, feel or think in a particular way (Kostelnick et al., 1998, p. 5)? When producing visual
text, the use of typography, images, and color play an integral part in stating the purpose. Images
can be used to inspire or motivate, color can set a desired mood or feeling, and the arrangement
of text can add to the overall appeal and flow. Defining the purpose for a visual design will help
to ensure a desired response to a specific message.
The final rhetorical situation is context. Designers must consider the place or situation in
which a visual text is viewed by or interacted with users (Kostelnick et al., 1998, p. 5). For
example, a brochure promoting lawn equipment at the new hardware store might go unnoticed at
a cosmetic conference. However, the same brochure might provoke a more positive response at a
home and garden exposition. Visual text can be viewed anywhere and by anyone but will be
most applicable if its location is considered—this will ensure the visual message reaches the
20 target audience and does not get lost completely.
Rhetorical Appeal—Aristotle says. Aristotle’s rhetorical Appeals—ethos, logos, and
pathos—is an additional rhetorical strategy to be considered: “Aristotle taught that a speaker’s
ability to persuade an audience is based on how well the speaker appeals to that audience”
(Lutzke & Henggeler, 2009). While Aristotle referred to public speaking, I believe these same
Appeals are valuable to graphic design students when creating visual texts.
Logos is supported by strong evidence of an argument. For example, when designing
visual text, logical reasoning, or facts, can be demonstrated through the use of charts and graphs.
Ethos is credibility, which can be established through tone and style of the visual message.
Pathos is an emotional appeal, which can be conveyed through the use of imagery and color.
Aristotle’s Appeals, however, may not all be considered in a single visual message, and will
depend on the rhetorical situation.
Visual Rhetoric—Tools for Design and Analysis
Rhetorical Situation and Appeals offer students a foundation of principles to reflect upon
as they research content and define their visual messages. Rhetorical strategies include design
and analysis tools that will guide students when creating visual texts. Applying rhetorical tools
for design and analysis is the next step in the design process.
Students need a structured pedagogy built with a rhetorical perspective, which include
tools and techniques to be use as a guide when they design visual texts. These tools will provoke
questions for students to ask themselves as they choose images, arrange text and the use of color.
Furthermore, they will empower student to solve critical design problems without depending on
computer software. Scholars recognize students’ reliance on special effects inherent in computer
21 graphic software. “…elements of design suffer as students get absorbed by technique and
neglect principles. Text in particular receives less attention than images and is often positioned
with little thought given to readability, alignment, and impact (Brumberger & Northcut, 2010,
p.464). The following rhetorical tools of design will guide students to make critical design
decisions that will affect the viewer of the visual text..
Five canons of rhetoric. A rhetorical consideration when designing texts is the Five
Canons of Rhetoric: Invention, Arrangement, Style, Memory, and Delivery, all to be used as
guides for effective communication. The Five Canons of Rhetoric were developed and organized
by Ciceros, a Roman Orator around 50 BC. Traditionally, the five canons of rhetoric are specific
to oral communication and speech delivery; however, scholars and researchers use them as a
guide to help create successful written and visual communication as well.
Invention is the development of an idea through research and process. Arrangement
refers to organization of the argument for greatest impact. Style is deciding how the argument
will be presented rhetorically. Memory is applying the research involved and finalizing the text
for “delivery and reception” (Smith, 2010, p. 117). Finally, Delivery is the final presentation of
the visual argument. Smith (2010) explains “Delivery is simply that—the way in which we
deliver recorded or printed messages to an audience” (p. 118). I believe the five canons of
rhetoric can be used as a foundational guide for graphic design students as they create and
analyze visual arguments.
Gestalt principles. Visual rhetoric refers to persuasive messages using visual language
and is accomplished by exploring and understanding the rhetorical use of visuals. Visual analysis
empowers graphic design students with the necessary resources and skills to compose as well as
22 evaluate visual texts. Graphic design students armed with structured criteria will have the
ability to create and critically analyze visual texts.
For example, Gestalt principles explain how people organize visual information.
Introduced in the 1920s by German psychologists, Gestalt principles are based on the psychology
of perception. Gestalt is a German term that means shape or form. The principles explain how we
perceive objects and assemble parts into unified wholes (Bang Wong, 2010, p. 863). Gestalt is
not intended as tools of persuasion but rather descriptive, a means to perceive “structures and
patterns” (Moore and Fitz, 1993, p. 392). Gestalt psychology is based on behavior and the human
mind—how we see things. According to Wong (2010), “The fundamental concept behind these
principles is grouping; we tend to perceive objects that look alike, are placed close together,
connected by lines or enclosed in a common space as belonging together. These are simple but
powerful ways to build context for information” (p. 863). Gestalt principles may be a valuable
guide for design students by offering them criteria to follow when making design decisions.
The key principles of Gestalt are figure-ground, symmetry, closure, proximity, good
continuation and similarity. Figure-ground segregation is the visual separation of foreground and
background. Similarity means elements on a page have similar appearances, such as size, shape,
color and/or value, and are therefore perceived as groups, or reference with similar ideas and/or
subject matter. Proximity refers to the arrangement of elements on a page. The perception of the
document, whether organized or chaotic, can be controlled by the proximity of text and graphics.
Good continuation can be a path or continuous line directing the eye beyond a visual area and
allows the viewer to fill in the gaps in their own minds. Closure is basically drawing conclusions
and can be implied with negative space to complete or segregate an idea or topic. Symmetry is
23 often referred to as balance—meaning equal distribution of objects divided by a central point
of axis.
Semiotics. Another essential rhetorical strategy for students to consider during their
design process is semiotics—the study of signs, which attempts to examine ways in which
images make meaning. According to Andrews (2008) semiotics “offers a range of analytical
tools for taking an image apart and tracing how it works in relation to broader systems of
meaning” (p. 42). It is critical for students to analyze and evaluate the graphics they create or
choose to incorporate visual text. Depending on the rhetorical situation signs may be interpreted
in a variety of ways. Hall (2012) asserts “Semiotics, then is (among other things) about the tools,
processes, structures, and contexts that human beings have for creating, interpreting, and
understanding meaning in a variety of different ways” (pg. 5). In my opinion, designers who
study semiotics gain insight regarding ways in which images and graphics are read and/or
perceived by their target audience.
Tools, processes, and structures of semiotics may be used as a guide for students in their
design process to ensure their viewers receive the visual message successfully. Hall (2012)
explains:
In the case of human beings, signs are shaped by the sources and resources that are used
to make them, formed by the cultural structures in which they are woven, communicated
through a series of diverse channels, and understood in terms of the nature of the societies
that created them. (p. 8)
This is another example of how critically important understanding rhetorical situation is to
ensure an effective visual message. In addition to rhetorical strategies, the next section will
24 introduce tools for design and analysis.
Six visual cognates. Tools for design and visual analysis also include the six visual
cognates, which can be used as a guide when designing visual messages. The six visual cognates:
arrangement, emphasis, clarity, conciseness, tone and ethos, developed by professional
communication strategists Kostelnick and Roberts (1998) can be applied through the design
process. This is especially important for undergraduate students to pull away from a strictly
instinctual or subjective approach by following a more structural design method.
The six visual cognates are interdependent; however, they often work best in pairs
because they correspond naturally with each other (Kostelnick and Roberts, 1998, p. 14).
Arrangement and emphasis largely reflect the overall structure of the visual message.
Arrangement refers to the visual composition of a document. Emphasis demonstrates a level of
importance by drawing attention to a specific area of the document. Clarity and conciseness refer
to the efficiency and style of a visual message. Clarity helps the viewer understand the document
clearly and swiftly (Kostelnick and Roberts, 1998, p. 14). Visual conciseness “means generating
designs that appropriately succinct within a particular situation” (Kostelnick et al., 1998, p. 19).
Tone and ethos pertain to expression and credibility and consider how an audience might receive
the visual message. Visual cognates are not meant to be used independently and may overlap
depending on the context of the situation (Kostelnick and Roberts, 1998, p. 14).
Many design decisions may be instinctual and stem from prior experiences; however, the
six visual cognates used as a guide will help student to analyze and create effective visual
messages. Figure 1 demonstrates rhetorical situation by attempting to persuade parents to buy a
health plan as a way to protect their children in case of an accident. This is accomplished with
25 the use of text, imagery, color, and the arrangement of information.
Figure 1. An advertisement for Hospital Alemán demonstrating six visual cognates.
In Figure 1 the arrangement of text elements and graphics are organized and balanced
inviting the viewer into the advertisement. The tree is emphasized by its size and color and
creates a point of focus for the viewer. The use of color also creates a relationship with the tree
and the text emphasizing the overall message of the advertisement.
Clarity and conciseness is demonstrated through the limited use of typography as well as
the simplicity of the graphic; however, the information is still informative and communicates the
message that parents cannot always keep their children from getting hurt, but if they do, Hospital
Alemán is the place to go for help.
Tone and ethos is established in several ways: use of color, arrangement of design
26 elements, and the choice of graphics. The gloomy, gray background gives a sense of dread.
The color blue used in the top area of the tree appears gloomy dreadful, which is reinforced by
the broken white vessel. Ethos is demonstrated by the use of the hospital’s logo located in the
lower right corner. This advertisement is an example of how visual language and the
consideration of the six visual cognates are used to establish a relationship between a designer
and reader.
Visual Literacy Exercised Through Visual Thinking
The graphic design industry requires students to be proficient communicators—written,
verbal, and visual skills are more crucial now than ever before. As students enter the profession
they are expected to present their ideas intelligibly as well as exhibit critical design thinking.
Students empowered with visual language and analytical skills based on a rhetorical perspective
will make informed design decisions, as well as gain the ability to explain their design choices
articulately. Therefore, in my opinion, graphic design education should include a structured
pedagogy including rhetorical tools and techniques as a way to enhance students’ visual and
verbal communication skills.
A solid foundation of visual literacy will enhance students’ ability to also think visually. I
believe that visual thinking through the use of thumbnail sketches, mockups and paper
prototypes can lead students to a deeper understanding of a visual problem. Drawing pictures
allows students to use their intuition and personal exploration to identify unique and effective
design principles. In addition, thinking visually offers students the means to experiment and
discover various design solutions, as well as articulate their ideas to an audience. According to
Wileman (1993), visual thinking is “the ability to conceptualize and transform thoughts, ideas,
27 and information of all types into pictures and graphics, or forms that help communicate
information” (p.37). Often times students verbalize their ideas to their instructors or their peers,
however, fall short in communicating their design concepts articulately. Presenting ideas through
a process of sketching will help students communicate clearly and concisely.
Through my research I have discovered that scholarly articles regarding visual thinking
primarily refer to professional and technical communication. In regards to technical writing
education, Brumberger (2007) argues, “Most of our students have learned to talk—as we have—
in verbal language, not in visual language, and, in turn, they think verbally, not visually” (p.
378). The context and process regarding visual thinking may differ for technical communicators
and graphic designers, but I believe they share the same basic principles. According to
Brumberger’s (2007) definition: “visual thinking, then, is the intuitive and intellectual process of
visual idea generation and problem solving” (P. 380). Graphic designers might have an
advantage over technical communicators having a foundation of visual literacy earlier in their
education; however they will benefit from a process that relies on visual language rather than a
verbal one.
Brumberger (2007) notes the changing paradigm in technical communication in that
writers are now more responsible for design, as well as electronic media, which tend to be more
image based (p. 377). In the article Making the Strange Familiar, Brumberger (2007) “examines
the literature and pedagogical practices of visually oriented disciplines to identify strategies for
helping students develop the ambidexterity of thought needed for the communication tasks of
today’s workplace” (p. 376). Brumberger’s (2007) approach to visual thinking is similar to
graphic design in the sense of visual analysis; however, I believe graphic design students would
28 benefit with more aggressive pedagogical practices as well.
Besides academic and scholarly presence, visual thinking also can be found in the trade.
For example, Clive Thompson (2010), a contributing writer for WIRED online magazine,
explains visual thinking as “drawing pictures to solve a problem.” Students need to understand
that the process of sketching will help to communicate their ideas to their peers, faculty and
ultimately to their future clients. Thompson (2010) refers to Dan Roam, a visual-thinking guru
and author of The Back of the Napkin:
Roam argues that our culture relies too heavily on words: Our school systems—and
political systems—are designed to promote people who are verbal and eloquent. And text
tends to encourage us to describe our problems as narratives or linear lists of facts.”
Many times my students begin their design projects by wanting to share their ideas verbally with
their faculty and classmates.
Verbalizing is an effective way to brainstorm and helps initiate the ideation process;
however, “a picture is worth a thousand words.” In my class, students begin their design process
with a few sketches but often neglect the importance to analyze, evaluate and iterate as a way to
refine their ideas to get to the root of the design problem. I believe a practice of visual thinking
will help students communicate ideas to their peers, instructors, and future professional
colleagues and clients.
Verbal explanations without visual reference leave room for distortion causing the
listener to misconstrue the initial concept. Moreover, when students verbally explain their
process they lack tangible evidence reflecting ideation process, as well as the opportunity for
reflection. Thompson (2010) quotes David Sibbet, a visualization expert, as saying “If you want
29 everyone to have the same mental model of a problem, the fastest way to do it is with a
picture.” Thompson (2010) recognizes that “These images provoke aha moments far more often
than typed or verbal summaries.” A foundation of visual literacy exercised through visual
thinking might enhance student’s ability to analyze and discuss their work as well as analyze the
work of their peers. It is critical for graphic designers to get their point across quickly and
accurately when presenting their ideas to their college peers, industry professionals, or clients.
Graphic design students rely on their faculty to provide them with pertinent resources to
become successful in their profession. It is the faculty’s responsibility to bridge the gap between
academia and the design industry. As I mentioned earlier in this chapter, the graphic design
profession is more human-centric than ever before and I believe a rhetorical perspective is
critical in graphic design education. Strategies such as rhetorical situations and appeals will
empower students to create and analyze effective visual arguments. The five canons of rhetoric,
visual cognates, Gestalt principles, and semiotics are tools and techniques to guide student in
making effective design decisions.
30 Chapter III: Methodology
Rhetoric plays an integral role in the graphic design profession and the development of
design texts and should be critical in graphic design education. Learning principles, tools, and
techniques of rhetoric will enhance and expand student’s critical thinking, and communication
skills, as well as empower them to create and analyze complex visual messages.
Currently the information visualization course that I teach includes a structured pedagogy
of design principles and processes; however, this sophomore-level course lacks basic principles,
terminology, and application of rhetorical objectives. As a result, I believe that my students are
not prepared as sufficiently as they could be for their upper-level design courses or for the world
of work in graphic design. Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to explain the methodology I
use—which is a theoretical approach—to address this problem.
While teaching Information Visualization for the first time I realized there were several
holes in my curriculum. Students entered my course with prior design experience; however, only
on a basic level. They understood basic design principles regarding composition including
balance, unity, contrast, and so forth, but only on a visual sense. They did not think about how
the design choices affected the visual messages they were creating. They also seem to lack
insight regarding the receiver of the message. While studying rhetoric I realized there are tools
and techniques I could offer my students to be used as a guide to assist them in the design
process.
My students tend not to recognize that each visual message has a purpose directed to a
target audience and belong within a specific context. When I asked my students who they
thought the viewer of their posters were and they often replied by saying “everyone.” When I
31 asked them to define whom they thought “everyone” was they were perplexed by the
question. It was also obvious that my students did not think about the purpose and context of
their design piece as well.
Students also lacked experience in researching a topic in order to fully understand the
concept behind the design text they were creating. They often made design decisions with little
reasoning or logic to back them up. Many design choices were formed solely on personal
experience and lacked creditability, which they could gain from reliable sources.
Data Analysis
To address these holes in the course curriculum, I have conducted extensive library
research, drawing on a range of rhetorical principles and theories that I believe will complement
and enrich my existing graphic design curriculum in the Information Visualization course. The
principles and theories I draw on include rhetorical situation, rhetorical appeals, Gestalt
principles, the five canons of rhetoric, six visual cognates, and semiotics. Below I sketch out the
ways I believe these principles and theories will help to address my problem. I describe in detail
in Chapter 4 the ways these principles and theories will be incorporated into my course.
Rhetorical situations and rhetorical appeals, I believe, will lead students to a more
structured approach as they begin their design projects. It would enable them to understand that
design is more than creating cool graphics and may inspire them to think more critically about
solving complex problems.
My students need a structured design process. While I expected them to document their
ideas through the process of research and preliminary sketches, to my surprise, they quickly
jumped on to their computers and started building graphics. Once the students began building
32 their ideas on the computer, it was difficult to change their direction. Even though preliminary
sketches were required and specified on the project spec sheets, students often resisted a process
of ideation. They tend to neglect the process of analysis and evaluation process as a way to
investigate effective design decisions.
In my opinion, through a process of design analysis and iteration students will discover a
variety of options when creating effective visual messages. I believe the six visual cognates offer
techniques and tools of analysis to be used as a guide to lead students to form effective content
when creating visual messages. Visual cognates inspire questions for students to reflect on as
they are researching content for their visual texts. These tools will help students define pertinent
information to be directed to their target audiences.
Students tend to lack insight regarding ways a composition—the placement of text and
graphics—affect viewers perception of visual information. Understanding gestalt may help
students consider how receivers of visual texts naturally look at information. Understanding
gestalt principles may guide students in organizing and arranging design elements, which in turn,
will help them create effective visual text and ultimately solve complex visual problems.
Moreover, in my experience students seem to lack insight regarding ways viewers make
meaning from images they interact with. Viewers have preconceived notions about what they see
based on their natural experiences. Understanding semiotics may help the students be more acute
when choosing and/or creating visual texts.
Finally, I find that my students have a difficult time articulating their design process
when presenting their work to their faculty or classmates. Developing a rhetorical language will
add to the student’s vocabulary and ultimately make the students, as well as their design
33 decisions more credible. They will be better prepared to communicate on a professional level
when they enter the design industry.
Limitations
One very important limitation to this study is that it is theoretical. When I began my
research I had intentions of implementing a new curriculum to include a rhetorical perspective
regarding the Information Visualization course. One of the problems I encountered was that the
course was not going to be offered until later in the year, and I was not sure I would have the
opportunity to teach it again. Moreover, I recently chose to change careers and no longer teach at
the college.
I believe it is important to explore this issue on a theoretical level to ensure a structured
pedagogy be developed before implementing it into the classroom. My goal is to share my study
with graphic design faculty who may be interested in addressing the issues I have presented.
They may offer additional principles and theories, or even debates about whether or not rhetoric
would be an added value to graphic design education.
34 Chapter IV: Results
As I appreciate rhetoric I am inspired to infuse it into a course I teach called Information
Visualization. My goal is to provide students with tools and techniques to articulate their design
ideas both visually and verbally. Currently, students enter the course with basic design skills;
however, they tend to focus primarily on aesthetics and lack understanding that design is about
solving visual problems. They tend to base their design choices on personal preference rather
than identifying the communication problem.
My goal for my students is for them to achieve a higher level of thinking about graphic
design—to obtain the skills necessary to create effective visual arguments and solve problems in
complex ways. I would like my students to leave my course with an arsenal of rhetorical
strategies they can use as a guide for all of their design work—strategies that will help them
analyze, evaluate, and discover a variety of design solutions to visual problems. I would also like
my students to increase their rhetorical and design vocabulary, which will ultimately enhance
their verbal communication skills. A rhetorical language can establish the student’s credibility
when having to present their ideas and processes to their peers, as well as their faculty, and
ultimately to design professionals.
Rhetoric and Information Visualization
Information Visualization is a fairly new course at my college and is offered to students
in their second year of studies. This course is primarily taught through a series of in-class
discussions and course assignments. I am interested in developing a structured pedagogy using a
rhetorical perspective that will benefit student in creating and analyzing information graphics.
Introducing rhetorical practices early in the graphic design program will guide students
35 throughout their graphic design education—better preparing them for the profession. Smith (2010)
asserts “Because it is conscious and strategic, rather than purely intuitive and inspirational,
rhetoric is an art that can be taught and learned, and demands skill with language and close
observation of one’s social context” (p. 115). Due to the rhetorical nature of my Information
Visualization course, I believe a structured pedagogy examining rhetorical theory, rhetorical
tools, as well as techniques of visual analysis are essential. Emanuel (2010) explains, “the pieces
of information design—as graphic design pieces in general—are destined for a specific audience,
purpose, and context. These factors have, therefore, influenced the creative decisions involving
information design as well” (p. 20). The Information Visualization course presents an
opportunity for students to be introduced to and practice rhetorical strategies to create and
analyze effective visual texts.
Course Overview—Information Visualization
The Information Visualization course focuses on information design, information
architecture, and information visualization. The students learn to organize, display data, and
storytelling, and to make data more accessible and relatable. According to Emanuel (2010):
Information design has basically three goals: making information clear, compelling and
convincing. It makes complex information clear as in easier to understand, unambiguous
and unequivocal. It makes information compelling, because information should grab
people’s attention. And information graphics should be convincing so that viewers
believe what they see on them. (p. 21)
This can all be accomplished by the rhetorical use of graphics, color, and typography, as well as
organization and arrangement of information. The following section presents the results of
36 incorporating a number of rhetorical tools and processes into the curriculum of the
Information Visualization course.
Process Books
I propose to begin the course by requiring students to generate process books. Process
books are a valuable means for students to organize and reflect on their design work. They can
take the form of sketchbooks or journals to be used as a means for documenting research,
conceptual sketches, and inspiration materials, as well a means to reflect on their ideology
throughout a design project. Process notebooks practiced in the classroom can also be valuable
resources in the design profession as well. According to Alameda (2009):
This is the space where the narrative of the construction of the visual/verbal argument can
unfold and later be recalled. In the classroom, the process book can be a revealing
blueprint of the student’s creative path, allowing for ideas and feedback to be shared
among classmates long after critique day. Similarly, in the professional world, this kind
of developmental report becomes a powerful tool in making the case for an idea to a
client. (p. 9)
Moreover, students have obtained employment at design firms based on their process books. A
portfolio of work is valuable in demonstrating visual and technical skills, however, accompanied
by a process book opens a window to a designers conceptual thought processes. They are
effective resources when demonstrating conceptual development.
In addition to collecting design materials and examples, students will be required to write a
brief description of their design process as well as analyses of their design choices. Students will
utilize their process books each week to discuss points in class demonstrating the five canons of
37 rhetoric as well as other rhetorical strategies. As students develop a language of rhetoric, and with
the support of their faculty, process books may be used as a guide during the design process and
through student’s peer reviews and formal critiques.
Rhetorical Strategies and Information Graphics
As I consider in what way to incorporate rhetorical strategies, tools, and techniques to my
course assignments, it is important to think about the order in which they will benefit and not
overwhelm the students. The goal is to offer tools and techniques to create a solid foundation for
students to build upon throughout the course.
The first assignment presents the opportunity to introduce rhetorical situations.
Identifying the audience, purpose, and context of the information graphic will guide students in
making informed design decisions from the start. Alameda (2009) asserts:
Presenting assignments where students have to apply design skills to both locate and
address specific communication scenarios, at the same time that they are encouraged to
critically examine how similar calls have been typified into rhetorical genres, could be a
path towards a graphic design pedagogy that places the student in the position of a social
agent first and before that of a service provider. (p. 7)
The rhetorical situation will also lead the students to understand that they are not designing for
themselves, but rather understanding the rhetorical situation starts the process of creating a visual
argument directed to a specific audience.
The first project requires students to select an information graphic they judge to be
ineffective both in terms of communication and aesthetics—while considering a rhetorical
perspective the students record their analysis in their process books. Based on their research
38 students recreate the information graphic by retelling the story clearly and concisely. The
overall design should describe the what, explain the how, and persuade the why of their topic.
The students research the topic of the information graphic to verify the data and possibly
discover additional information pertinent to the message they intend to communicate. During this
process the students have the opportunity to consider the rhetorical situation and develop content
to support the visual argument. Alameda (2009) explains:
The enhanced sense of agency of design over the shaping of the content invites us to
broaden the rhetorical role of graphic design beyond elocution, and calls for investigating
how the search for topics and collection of data…as well as the editing and organization
of content into an adequate format … can be established as integral parts of the design
process. (p. 3)
During the research stage students are encouraged to consider images and sketch layouts for the
information graphic. Brumberger (2007) explains the importance of sketching to design problem-
solving:
Two types of sketching are essential to the visual problem-solving process: the initial
sketching that is done primarily to understand the problem and to generate ideas and the
subsequent sketching that is done primarily to develop and record ideas. (p. 386)
Students often neglect the importance of ideation and iteration through the process of visual
thinking—they tend lock into their first idea without exploring other options.
Scholars have noted the importance of students generating multiple solutions for a single
design problem: “For example, they suggested that requiring students to generate multiple
solutions to a problem choose the most effective of those solutions develops students’ problem-
39 solving abilities and helps them to understand that any given problem can have many
successful solutions rather than a single right solution and multiple wrong ones.” (Brumberger,
2007, p. 387. In my experience, students tend to overlook the value of visualizing their ideas
through the process of sketching and iteration. Scholars note iteration is a critical part of
ideation: “These scholars consider the process of evaluating ideas and choosing between them to
be a vital part of visual thinking because it entails moving from the perspective of creator to that
of user and back again (Brumberger, 2007, p. 387. Students tend to avoid the sketching process
thinking they lack drawing skills, however, sketching quick thumbnail drawings while exploring
multiple concepts will the lead the students to discover a variety of solutions. According to
Alameda (2009) “A visualization phase ensues in which the overall look and feel of the piece is
determined through the building of prototypes ranging from thumbnails to more complete
layouts. These can be considered themselves rhetorical tools to guide initial deliberations” (p. 3).
The purpose of thumbnails sketching is to flush out ideas quickly as well as open new avenues of
exploration and discovery.
Visual Cognates
Visual Cognates introduced early in the course will allow students to investigate several
rhetorical aspects. As students begin their research they will also identify the rhetorical situation,
while considering the three types of rhetorical appeals—thus, supporting the consideration of
visual cognates. Identifying and understanding the audience, purpose and context of the
information graphic provide students insight when considering ethos, pathos, and logos.
The research process can seem daunting to students; however, having a structured guide
will help them develop pertinent and meaningful content. This guide will also be use to organize,
40 analyze and structure the information. It is important for design students to “begin researching
a topic, gather information, assess a situation, and formulate a proposition” (Alameda 2009, p.
3). As students develop their content they explore rhetorical practices to form their visual
argument. They will demonstrate an understanding of these practices through their process books
and class discussions by articulating and reflecting on the problems they faced throughout the
assignment—the decisions they made, and the outcomes of those decisions.
Applying rhetorical appeals will guide students to create visual messages that appeal to
their audience. Ethos refers to the credibility of the visual text. Pathos suggests the use of
emotion to initiate a desired response from the audience. Logos signifies the logic of the content
and demonstrates “good reason” which also instills credibility (Smith, 2010, p. 119). Rhetorical
appeals can be established through reliable sources, graphics, photography and typography, as
well as hierarchy and arrangement.
The six visual cognates, in conjunction with rhetorical appeals direct students to analyze
and evaluate content, as well as aid in basic but critical design decisions. The cognates help
students form questions to ponder as they create their visual argument.
Considering arrangement and emphasis will help students prioritize and organize
information; as well as identify points of emphasis, which will establish a hierarchy of the
information. Clarity and conciseness consider style and efficiency of the document as it pertains
to the audience as well as how the viewers read and understand the visual text. Tone and ethos
create credibility and establishes a mood or “voice” of the visual message. Tone can be
established with the use of visual language—text, color, images and so forth. I believe learning
visual cognates partnered with rhetorical situations and rhetorical appeals will build a strong
41 foundation for students to build upon as they progress in the course.
Gestalt and Semiotics
The first assignment, redesigning an existing infographic, will focus on building a
foundation of rhetorical strategies through the process of research, content development and
ideation. Gestalt principles and semiotics are additional rhetorical tools to guide student’s design
process during their second assignment—a large scale poster focusing on the persuasion aspect
of a topic though the use of imagery, typography and hierarchy, while being cohesive and
comprehensive. According to Brumberger (2007) “Teaching design as a process not only
demystifies it but also helps students establish connections to what they already know.” (p. 385).
Gestalt principles explain how people see and organize information based on prior knowledge
and experience. Semiotics relies on the nature of interpreting images.
The principles of gestalt and semiotics may offer insights for students when creating
visual arguments. Semiotics teaches students how to analyze images based on prior or learned
experienced. Gestalt offers a guide in arrangement and emphasis of design elements, also based
on the users prior experiences and knowledge.
Students will begin their second assignment by considering the rhetorical situation and
Appeals. Moreover, they will again explore the six visual cognates to help them develop and
organize their content. Gestalt will then be introduced and explored as a visual guide for students
during their design process as they put together the information graphic. Gestalt offers tools to
help students establish hierarchy, credibility, and tone through the principle of “grouping.”
Grouping is used to enhance the visual message naturally to meet the needs and expectations of
their audience. Gestalt principles offer students criteria to follow when organizing information,
42 graphics, style of typography, and the use of color. Gestalt also offers a vocabulary of terms to
be used in the analysis stage both for themselves as well as during class discussions and
critiques.
Understanding the basics of semiotics—signs, signifiers, and signified—will help
students analyze, choose and create images/graphics for their poster. Semiotics will give students
insight about how the viewer may interpret and respond to the graphics they create. Tools,
processes, and structures of semiotics also may be used as a guide for students in their design
process to help ensure their viewers successfully receive the visual message successfully.
In my opinion, having an understanding of rhetorical theories such as these could help build a
foundation for students to recognize design as an effective means for a persuasive argument, as well
as build on their written and oral communication skills. Moreover, strong rhetorical skills may offer
students an advantage by allowing them think more critically and participate in design discourse.
According to Smith (2010) “Rhetorical theory is worth studying because it can be used to produce
communication, as well as to analyze or critique communication. It is both a practical skill and a
philosophical humanistic study” (p. 114). Students are often involved in class discussions, peer
reviews and final critiques where they are required to reflect on and defend their design decisions but
also critically analyze each other’s work. Smith (2010), states “Communicators who grow accustomed
to rhetorical concepts and terms can use them among each other in order to defend their own strategic
choices and improve each other’s communicative effectiveness” (p.114). Understanding basic
principles of rhetoric early on in their college experience has potential in establishing a foundation of
communication skills that can be practiced and perfected for when they enter the professional
workplace.
43 Chapter V: Discussion
Working as a graphic designer for over twenty years I witnessed a transformation in
design thinking. When I first entered the design profession it seemed to concentrate on creating
graphics based primarily on aesthetic values. Over the past ten years or so human-centered
design became the focus. As I was working as a design professional I was also an associate
professor for a small art and design college. During the transition in the industry the graphic
design program at my college was also incorporating a human centric approach; however, we
lacked a structured pedagogy comprised of tools and techniques to assist students to design
effective visual messages for specific audiences.
The Missing Link in Graphic Design Education
Several years ago I enrolled in a Masters program studying professional and technical
communication. I discovered rhetoric might be the missing link in graphic design education. As I
studied rhetorical theory and visual rhetoric I learned of their direct connection with graphic
design—they share the same goals when attempting to communicate to target audiences.
Rhetoric primarily deals with verbal discourse whereas graphic design communicates through
visuals. I was inspired to investigate the possibility of incorporating a rhetorical perspective into
my curriculum.
When I began my investigation I initially thought rhetoric should be integrated
throughout the entire graphic design program at my college; however, I realized that I needed to
begin by evaluating and restructuring my own courses. As students entered my classes they often
believed graphic design was creating cool graphics on the computer. They relied on the special
effects of computer software without thinking through a design problem. They designed for
44 themselves and overlooked the viewer who would be interacting with the visual text. I
realized that I needed to develop a pedagogy encompassing tools and techniques, as a way to
direct them in understanding that they were designing visual messages directed to specific
audiences. Their message needed a purpose and context.
Information Visualization with a Rhetorical Perspective
Information Visualization is a fairly new course being offered at my college. I was given
an opportunity to teach this course for the first time and in doing so found the curriculum
missing an important element. The assignments in the course lacked a degree of conceptual
problem solving and the students mainly focused on creating graphics without an understanding
of purpose, context and to whom their graphics would ultimately affect. Practitioners and
scholars acknowledge rhetoric as an important consideration of graphic design education;
“Understanding graphic design as a rhetorical practice invites both the educator and the
practitioner to move away from medium-centered assignments towards a sharpened focus on
intention and strategy” (Alameda, 2009, p. 9). It was not until I began investigating rhetoric that I
realized the Information Visualization course needed a rhetorical perspective. Knowing that I
may not have the opportunity to teach the course again I felt it was worth investigating if only
theoretically. I began by considering the restructure of two assignments incorporating rhetorical
principles, tools, and techniques.
As I began my research I realized it was critical to begin with an overview of visual
literacy as it pertains to visual communication. Basic visual literacy skills are taught in
foundation courses; however, they need to be exercised throughout the graphic design program.
45 Graphic design students armed with strong visual literacy skills will be better prepared to
read, analyze, evaluate, and solve visual communication problems.
Visual literacy skills offer students a foundation to build upon a rhetorical perspective.
My research began with rhetorical strategies I felt would benefit my students when creating
information graphics. I found that I was already introducing rhetorical situations to my students;
however, I lacked a structured approach using terms and techniques that would be most
beneficial. In addition, I learned rhetorical appeals offered guidelines for students to follow as
they researched and conceptualized visual messages. I believe rhetorical appeals will direct
students to focus on and consider how their design decisions affect their target audiences.
Conclusions
As I explored rhetorical strategies I discovered a variety of rhetorical tools and
techniques for design and analysis of visual texts. For example, the five canons of rhetoric might
guide students as they develop content, as well as consider ways in which their decision may
ultimately affect the target audience. Gestalt and semiotics offer principles for students to
consider how viewers perceive visual information. The six visual cognates direct students in the
organization, development and delivery of design texts. These rhetorical tools and techniques
may empower students to analyze and create visual messages—to solve visual problems in
complex ways. I believe a rhetorical perspective will empower my students to achieve a higher
level of thinking about graphic design offering resources to analyze, evaluate, and discover a
variety of design solutions to visual problems. In addition, a rhetorical perspective may enhance
my students’ verbal communication skills, which, I believe, would increase their credibility as
prospective design professionals.
46 Recommendations
As I considered rhetorical strategies, tools and techniques I felt would benefit my
students’ creative process, the challenge was to consider how to incorporate them into the
Information Visualization course. My hope was to weave a rhetorical perspective into the
assignments without overwhelming my students. I planned to begin by building upon their visual
literacy skills as well as introduce rhetorical situations and appeals, which also would be used as
a guide for both assignments. I would then introduce the five canons of rhetoric and the six
visual cognates following with Gestalt and semiotics in the second assignment. The assignments
would have a structured guide in how to incorporate these strategies, tools and techniques;
however, this is a theoretical study, and I realize that I am missing a process of assessment. How
do I know that my students have benefited?
Assessment is a critical element in design education. For future studies I would
recommend several devices to measure students’ knowledge throughout the course and class
assignments. The rubrics might be presented in a form of an evaluation investigating terms, tools
and techniques students demonstrated in the assignments. I may also recommend a survey to be
filled out by the students before and after the course to measure their knowledge of visual
literacy and rhetoric. The process notebook, introduced earlier in this paper, should also be
considered a tool for assessment to measure students' ability to communicate rhetorically in
written and verbal discourse.
My recommendation for further investigation of rhetoric in graphic design education
would be to weave rhetorical studies and practices throughout the graphic design program.
Moreover, it is my opinion that all art and design students would benefit with courses in
47 rhetorical theory offered in their liberal studies curriculum. In addition, I would recommend a
visual rhetoric course early on in the students’ academic career, specifically related to
communication design. I believe rhetorical strategies should be inserted throughout all of the
graphic design courses.
I am disappointed not to be able to witness this study in the classroom; however, I intend
to share my research with interested graphic design faculty and design professionals. I am eager
to learn their perspective on rhetoric in graphic design curriculum as well as ways it can also
benefit the profession as a whole.
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