EXCRETORY SYSTEM(REMOVES WASTES)

Kidneys Skin Lungs Digestive system Respiratory system.

Metabolic processes give rise to chemical products which are of no use to the body.

In fact, some of them may prove detrimental to health, and accumulation of these waste products can even be fatal.

Hence waste products are removed from the body by the process of excretion.

URINARY SYSTEM

URINARY SYSTEM

METABOLIC WASTES INCLUDE

1. EXCESS WATER AND SALTS

2. CARBON DIOXIDE FROM CELLULAR RESPIRATION

3. NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS FROM THE

BREAKDOWN OF PROTEINS

4. UREA.

URINE FORMATIONA. Urine formation is involved glomerular filtration,

tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion.

B. Glomerular Filtration

C. Filtration Pressure

D. Filtration Rate

E. Regulation of Filtration Rate

F. Tubular Reabsorption

G. Sodium and Water Reabsorption

H. Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume

I. Urea and Uric Acid Excretion

J. Tubular Secretion

K. Urine Composition

Water, Electrolyte, & Acid-Base Balance A. To be in balance, the quantities of fluids and

electrolytes leaving the body should be equal to the amounts taken in.

B. Anything that alters the concentrations of electrolytes will also alter the concentration of water, and vice versa.

C. Distribution of Body Fluids A. A. Fluids occur in compartments in the body, and

movement of water and electrolytes between compartments is regulated.

B. Fluid Compartments

WATER BALANCE

A. Water balance exists when water intake equals water output.

B. Water Intake

C. Regulation of Water Intake

D. Water Output

E. Regulation of Water Output

ELECTROLYTE BALANCE

A. An electrolyte balance exists when the quantities of electrolytes gained equals the amount lost.

B. Electrolyte Intake

C. Regulation of Electrolyte Intake

D. Electrolyte Output

E. Regulation of Electrolyte Output

ACID-BASE BALANCE

A. Electrolytes that ionize in water and release hydrogen ions are acids; those that combine with hydrogen ions are bases.

B. Maintenance of homeostasis depends on the control of acids and bases in body fluids.

C. Sources of Hydrogen Ions.

D. Strengths of Acids and Bases.

E. Regulation of Hydrogen Ion Concentration.

Major causes of ARF in Neonatal

Prerenal

Obstructive

Intrinsic

PRERENALSystemic Hyporolemia

Fetal Hemorrhage

Septic shock

N.E.C.

Dehydration

Renal Hypoperfusion

Perinatal asphyxia

CCF

Cardiac surgery

RDS

Pharmacologic

Tolazoline

Captopril

Indomethacin

OBSTRUCTIVECong. Malformations

Imperforate prepuce

Urethral stricture

Post urethral valves

Urethral diverticulam

Primary V.U.Reflux

Ureterococle

Megacyotis – Megaureter

Eagle barratt Syndrome

Ureteropelvic jn. Obstr.

Extrinsic compression

Saccrococcygeal terabura

Hemalocolposs

Intrinsic compression

Renal calculi

Fungal ball

Neurogenic bladder

INTRINSICAcute tubular necrosis Congenital malformations

Bil. Agenesis

Renal dysplasia

Polycystic kid disease

Glomerular maturational arrest

Infection

Congenital

Syphilis, TOXO

Pyelonephritis

Renal vascular

R.Art.Thrombosis

R.Vein Thrombosis

D.I.C.

Nephrotoxins

Aminoglycosides

Indomethacin

Ampotericin B

Contrast media

Intra-renal obstruction

Uric acid nephropathy

Myoglobinuria

Hemoglobinuria

RENAL HEMODYNAMIC FACTORSRenal Vasoconstriction

Juxtaglomerular Apparatus Stimulates

Renin Angiotensin system

Further RBF

Renal Ischemia & Tubular InjuryNephronal Factors

Impaired glumetular capillary filtration

Intraluminal tubular obstruction

Tubular backleak of glomerular filtrate

Captopril blockade (Rats)

ACUTE RENAL FAILUREIncidence

Pathophysiology

Initiation phase

RENAL DISEASE & COMPLICATIONS

1. Renal dialysis

2. Renal failure (the inability of the person’s kidneys to function)

3. Nephritis

4. Nephrosis

5. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are caused by Gram negative bacteria such as E. coli.

6. Kidney stones (calcium-based stones)

THE SKIN (INTEGUMENT) It is the outer covering of the body. It is a major organ of the body, forming about

8% of the total mass.The average area (depending on the body build)

may range from 1.2 to 2.2 sqm.The total thickness is 1.4 to 4.0 mm.

SKIN STRUCTURE

The integument has a number of functions:

1. It is a barrier against germs.

2. It acts as a touch, resilient cushion – protection for the structures beneath.

3. It helps to regulate the body temperature. When it is hot, glands in the skin secrete perspiration on sweat. When sweat evaporates, cooling occurs. When it is cold, constriction of the blood vessels in the skin cuts down the flow of blood near the body’s surface. Hence it is decreased heat loss.

4. The skin is also a sense organ. Nerve ending (and other receptors) in the skin respond to pain, heat, cold, touch, and pressure.

5. The skin supplies much of the body’s needs for Vitamin D. a substance is produced in the skin, which changes into Vitamin D, when exposed to sunlight.

6. The skin gives rise to specialized structures such as hair and nails.

The skin has two distinct layers – the epidermis – outer covering and the inner dermis, or true skin.

The uppermost part consists of flat, old cells which are constantly being shed, or ‘sloughed off’.

The underlying part of the epidermis is made up of rapidly dividing cells.

These cells continuously push upward to replace dead cells.

Tiny blood vessels and nerve ending are densely woven into the flexible connective tissue which makes up the dermis.

Sweat and oil (sebaceous) glands are embedded in it.

There are also various types of receptors for the touch sensation, beneath the skin.

SWEAT GLANDS There are approximately 2 million sweat glands

all over the skin. They are tiny, coil shaped tubes. They extend from the deepest layer of the skin to

the surface. These glands help to regulate the body

temperature and also contribute to the excretion of water and salt from the body.

Sweat contains about 98-99% of water. Certain inorganic salts – specially sodium

chloride along with small make up the remaining 1-2%.

During exercise more blood moves through the vessels surrounding the sweat glands.

This increases the sweat secretion, helping to lose heat and to remove waste products.

In offering protection to the internal organs against germs and injuries, the skin itself is vulnerable to various insults.

In particular, the skin of certain persons is usually sensitive.

In extreme cases this hypersensitivity can lead to an allergic reaction.

This is observed in certain skin conditions, such as eczema.

SWEAT GLAND