08160332 topic 6 the world of work

� INTRODUCTION

As you read FranklinÊs quote on work ethics, to what extent does it reflect the way you work? What is your attitude towards work tasks that have been assigned to you? Do you start on them immediately, or do you adopt this attitude, „WhatÊs the hurry? I can always start working on it tomorrow‰.

„Work while it is called today, for you know not how much you will be hindered tomorrow. One today is worth two tomorrowÊs: never leave that till tomorrow which you can do today.‰

~ Benjamin Franklin ~

TTooppiicc

66 � The World of

Work

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of motivation to work;

2. Differentiate between need theories and cognitive theories;

3. Describe the three processes of career development;

4. Analyse the importance of making career adjustments; and

5. Evaluate the occupational and economic changes that occur during midlife.

TOPIC 6 THE WORLD OF WORK �

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Based on your experience, I am sure there are certain days when you find yourself all geared up to start on an assigned task. What could have been the possible reason? To gain your superiorÊs favour? To receive extra allowance, or words of praise from your colleagues? Or just simply to get a feeling of pride for good workmanship? Do heed FranklinÊs words of advice of not procrastinating until tomorrow what we can do today. We can never be sure what tomorrow will bring. Have you ever given a thought to what the term „work‰ means? The Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary provides a general definition of work as:

This activity encompasses one of the following:

(a) The sustained physical or mental effort to overcome obstacles and achieve an objective or result;

(b) The labour, task, or duty that is oneÊs accustomed means of livelihood; and

(c) A specific task, duty, function, or assignment often being a part or phase of some larger activity.

Given this conceptualisation of work, let us now read about the various aspects related to work and the world of work in this topic.

MOTIVATION TO WORK

Before we proceed further into learning about motivation to work, read the scenario as follows:

6.1

„WWork is an activity in which one exerts strength or faculties to do or perform something.‰

Rrrrringggg ... Mano reached over and shut off his alarm. „Gosh, is it 6.30 am already?‰ he mumbled sleepily to himself. „Never mind. IÊll give myself another ten minutes.‰ Suddenly he heard his motherÊs voice calling, ‰Mano, are you still in bed? ItÊs already 6.45 am. Get ready and come down for breakfast. Mr. Hamid will be here in twenty minutes to pick you up.‰ „Oh, Ma. Must I really go to school today? I am so tired this morning,‰ Mano responded. „Of course, you must, Mano. All 40 pupils in your Mathematics class are waiting for your lesson this morning!‰ replied ManoÊs mother.

� TOPIC 6 THE WORLD OF WORK

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After reading the scenario, how often do you find yourself behaving like Mano? Often times, we complain of students lacking in motivation to go to school. Now, you realise that teachers can also become demotivated as well. For one reason or another, we just feel like taking „French leave‰. Why does this happen? The answer to this question lies in our level of work motivation. The next section will discuss various aspects related to work motivation such as the concept and various work motivation theories.

6.1.1 Work Motivation

What is „work motivation‰? To better understand this term, we need to, first of all, define motivation.

Let us examine each of the three concepts: „Arousal of behaviour‰ concerns the reason for us to do anything at all; „direction of behaviour‰ asks why we do a particular thing that we do; and „persistence of behaviour‰ enquires why we keep on doing that particular thing.

(a) Based on the above conceptual definition, major theorists in work motivation pose the following questions:

(b) Why do we work?

(c) Why do we do a particular kind of work?

(d) Why do we continue working at the same job year after year?

(e) Why do we quit?

(Berry: 1998:234) As we all know, organisations today face the issue of how best to motivate their employees to work without counting the cost, as well as enhance job satisfaction, involvement and commitment. Lately, the automobile industry has come under fire for producing motor vehicles with faulty parts that have resulted in tragic road accidents and loss of lives. Similarly, the shoddy work of certain construction companies has also produced similar consequences. Upon analysis of such incidents, can we point the accusing finger at employees who no longer seem to care about doing a good job? Are they not motivated enough to do the best job possible under the given circumstances? On a personal

Motivation is said to be „the arousal, direction and persistence of an individualÊs behaviour.‰


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note, what is your level of work motivation? Are you happy at work? Do you give your level best? If that is so, congratulations. Otherwise, you should make an effort to find out what is causing you to be frustrated, dissatisfied and unhappy at work. Hopefully, the following discussion about the different theories of work motivation may offer options for making your work fulfilling and satisfying, rather than boring and dissatisfying. In the context of this topic, emphasis will be given to two categories of motivation, namely NNeed Theories and CCognitive Theories. Need theories, also known as Content theories, primarily focus on four elements related to work, namely the importance of work, work challenges, career growth opportunities and work responsibilities of employees. In short, these theories are concerned with the content of motivation and how our specific human needs prompt and lead our behaviour. On the other hand, Cognitive Theories are not related directly to work. Rather, they emphasise the cognitive processes involved when we make particular work choices and decisions. Table 6.1 summarises the two categories of work motivation theories as well as the theories contained in each category.

Table 6.1: Two Categories of Work Motivation Theories

Category Examples

Need Theories

� MaslowÊs Needs � Hierarchy Theory � Motivation is influenced by the gratification of lower order deprived needs progressing to higher order deprived needs in the hierarchy.

� HerzbergÊs Two-Factor Theory � Hygiene and motivator factors are outcomes that influence motivation.

� McClellandÊs Achievement Theory- The need for achievement produces motivating effects.

Cognitive Theories

� VroomÊs Expectancy Theory � Cognitive elements motivates a person to perform a given task.

� AdamÊs Equity Theory � Work motivation is determined by the results obtained through the comparison of a personÊs job input and outcomes with that of their colleagues or other people doing the same task.

� The High Performance Cycle � External and internal rewards that satisfy our needs lead to high job performance and high employee job satisfaction.

Let us now discuss about the Need Theories of Motivation and Cognitive Theories of Motivation in greater detail.


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6.1.2 Need Theories of Motivation

As we all know, our behaviour is largely driven by our needs. Generally, we become motivated for the simple reason that we are trying to satisfy a need. In the context of this section, three Need Theories will be discussed, namely:

� MaslowÊs Needs � Hierarchy Theory;

� HerzbergÊs Two � Factor Theory; and

� McClellandÊs Achievement Theory. (a) MMaslowÊs Needs � Hierarchy Theory Abraham Maslow who developed the needs-hierarchy theory of motivation

asserts that as human beings, we are always striving to satisfy our needs. When a need has been gratified, it will no longer serve as motivation for our behaviour. When this happens, new needs will emerge that prompt us to action.

As shown in Figure 6.1, our needs in the context of the workplace from

lowest to highest are as follows:

�Figure 6.1: MaslowÊs Needs-Hierarchy Theory

Source: http://www.successcircuit.com/articles /maslows-hierarchy-of-needs/


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(i) Physiological needs (Survival)�basic human needs that include food, water, physical amenities such as medical, electricity, transport and telecommunication.

(ii) Safety/Security needs � physical shelter, psychological security and

stability and insurance. (iii) Social/Belonging needs � friendship, love and affection from friends

and co-workers. (iv) Self-esteem needs � social recognition, admiration and respect. (v) Self-actualisation needs � self-fulfilment, self realisation and

achievement of our full potential. Based on the needs hierarchy in Figure 6.1, the lower order needs should be satisfied first. To illustrate, in times of economic recession when there is scarcity of jobs, we will be more concerned about survival, rather than attending to our higher order needs such as self-actualisation. Once we are assured of the physical and economic security of not losing our jobs, then, we will be motivated to focus on the next level of needs. As you will note, our social and belonging needs serve as important motivators. We often strive to develop a social support network amongst our fellow workers and establish a sense of belonging through our interaction with them. Having fulfilled these needs, we move on to our esteem needs where we aspire to own a bigger house or car, receive praises from our superior, be assigned a room to work in privacy and be allocated a reserved parking lot. Once these esteem needs are gratified, we endeavour to be given the opportunity for professional growth in the form of short courses, workshops, seminars, conferences and so on. The input obtained will ease our climb up the career ladder. In sum, knowledge of MaslowÊs Needs-Hierarchy Theory gives human resource management ideas to enhance worker motivation. As employees, this knowledge will make us become more aware of the fundamental elements that serve to motivate us and to respond accordingly in our workplace.


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(b) HHerzbergÊs Two Factor Theory

In comparison to MaslowÊs Needs-Hierarchy Theory, HerzbergÊs Two-Factor Theory is concerned with both motivation and the outcome of motivated behaviour or job satisfaction. Basically, we have two sets of needs (refer to Figure 6.2).

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Figure 6.2:Two sets of needs in HerzbergÊs Two-Factor Theory

1. List down MaslowÊs hierarchy of human needs. 2. How will you relate this needs-hierarchy theory in the context of

work and the working environment?

SELF-CHECK 6.1

Imagine you are asked to attend an emergency meeting immediately after school. You have not had your lunch and your six-year old son is waiting for you to pick him up from school. Explain your feelings and relate them to MaslowÊs Needs-Hierarchy Theory.

(a) During the next tutorial, role-play this situation with another coursemate.

(b) What have you learned from this role-play? Share your experiences with your coursemates and tutor.

ACTIVITY 6.1


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According to Herzberg, the hygiene factor motivates us away from job dissatisfaction, thus leaving us feeling „not dissatisfied.‰ In contrast, the motivator factor motivates toward job satisfaction, thus causing us to feel satisfied. Of the two outcomes, Herzberg asserted that intrinsic job outcomes were the more influential motivating force for all employees. What is your opinion? Let us look at Figure 6.3 which illustrates HerzbergÊs Two-Factor Theory prediction.

�Figure 6.3: HerzbergÊs Two-Factor Theory

Source: Berry, 1998:242


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Further Reading

Excerpt: What is it that Drives Us?

On September 8 1995, a baseball player made history. He did it by showing up for work. In fact, Cal Ripken, Jr., showed up exactly 2, 131 times every time his team, the Baltimore Orioles, played a major league baseball game. He has never recorded a single absence.

What is it that drives, pushes, goads and motivates workers like Cal Ripken to work hard � to do the best job they can, to be on time and to show up for work everyday? If you are curious about the great driving force of the 19th and 20th centuries that led to unimaginable heights of industrial, agricultural and commercial productivity and economic success, then work ethics is where you should begin. To many progressive economies, work is not a four-letter word.

It was John Calvin who came up with the term work ethics, where work was an emblem of faith. Old-fashioned, puritanical, nose-to-the-grindstone toil for its own sake became the motivation that drove millions of people to work hard all their lives and to feel virtuous for doing so. And it still drives millions of us each and every day to so the best job we can. And to show up for every game!

Source: odd, R (in Schultz & Schultz, 1998:242

Reflect on the excerpt. In your opinion, besides work ethics, what could be other underlying motivating forces behind RipkenÊs excellent work attendance record? Discuss this question from the perspective of HerzbergÊs Two-Factor Theory, giving reasons for your answer. During your next tutorial, share your answers with your coursemates and tutor. Compare your answer with that of your coursemates.

ACTIVITY 6.2

1. Explain HerzbergÊs Two-Factor Theory. 2. How is HerzbergÊs theory similar or different from MaslowÊs

Needs-Hierarchy Theory?

SELF-CHECK 6.2


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(c) MMcCellandÊs Achievement Theory Let us now read about the third needs theory of work motivation that is,

McClellandÊs Achievement Theory. The main principle of this theory is The Need for Achievement (N-Ach). In relation to this, McClelland proposed that if we possess a high need for achievement, then we will aim to have a high ability for certain activities that are characterised by the following:

(i) A standard for excellence; and

(ii) Possible success or failure. In elaborating, N-Ach is a combination of two related needs, namely: a need

to achieve success and a need to avoid failure. Generally, we are said to have varying amounts of these two needs. However, one of them is usually more dominant.

Review Table 6.2 and try to understand how the achievement theory

predicts individuals with a need to achieve success, or to avoid failure.

Table 6.2: Achievement Theory Predictions of Individuals with a Need to Gain Success or to Avoid Failure

Objective Nature of Achievement Personal Value of Achievement

Difficulty of Task

Probability of Success

Value of Outcome

For Person with Need to Gain

Success

For Person with Need to Avoid

Failure

Difficult Low High Low High

Moderate Moderate Moderate High Low

Easy High Low Low High

Source: Berry (1998:243)

With reference to Table 6.2, you can distinguish tasks by their difficulty level, as well as potential reward value. As you are aware, the chances of success for an easy task are high, but the reward value in terms of accomplishment is low. Conversely, if you succeed in doing a difficult task, accomplishment will be very rewarding, but it is highly unlikely to happen as the success rate is low.


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Thus, if your dominant need is to achieve success, then a moderately difficult task is the best way for you to achieve success. If, on the other hand, your need is to avoid failure, then you should give top priority to an easy task although the outcome value is low. You should not think of considering a difficult task at this point, as success, although valuable, would be highly unlikely. The same goes for a moderate task where the chances of avoiding failure are also low. Based on the discussion so far, how do you perceive yourself? Is your dominant need to achieve success, or to avoid failure? Are you a high achiever? To find out, ask yourself if you have the following characteristics:

(i) Like a work environment where you can take personal responsibility for solving problems;

(ii) Likely to take calculated risks and set moderately difficult achievement goals; and

(iii) Need early and continuing feedback on your work progress.

1. Explain the central feature in McClellandÊs work motivation theory.

2. How do you propose to enhance the N-Ach level of those who

only strive to avoid failure?

SELF-CHECK 6.3

Based on your observation of your colleaguesÊ need for achievement, identify those who fall under the category of high achievers. To what extent do they demonstrate the three characteristics enumerated above? Post your ideas online. Read the responses of your coursemates. How are they similar or different from yours?

ACTIVITY 6.3


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6.1.2 Cognitive Theories of Motivation

We will now turn our attention to the second category of work motivation theories, that is Cognitive Theories. As mentioned earlier, cognitive theories maintain that we have thoughts, feelings and expectations with respect to the actions that we take, as well as the outcomes of such actions. The focus of discussion in this section will be on the following theories:

� VroomÊs Expectancy Theory;

� AdamÊs Equity Theory; and

� The High Performance Cycle. (a) VVroomÊs Expectancy Theory Have you heard of VroomÊs Expectancy Theory? Also known as Valence-

Instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE) Theory, it maintains that the choices we make are based on our perceived expectancy that we will obtain certain rewards for a particular behaviour.

To calculate the motivational force behind our work behaviour, Vroom

formulated an equation that encompasses three cognitive components to calculate our motivational force:

Force = Expectancy � Instrumentality � Valence

Let us now consider each of the cognitive components featured in the

equation.

(i) Expectancy refers to the subjective estimate we make about the odds that we can perform a particular task successively, as well as the amount of effort needed to do it;

(ii) Instrumentality is our assessment of what will occur if we succeed in performing that task; and

(iii) Valence is our emotional response to an anticipated outcome. To illustrate, before sitting for an examination, do you always consider the

outcome of your performance? What is the possibility of you accomplishing a 90 percent score? How much effort do you need to put in? How will you feel if you succeed in obtaining that score?


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Based on the given equation, it is clear that if your aim is to obtain a motivational force that is greater than zero, then all the three components must be more than zero. In other words, you must believe that:

(i) You can achieve success (E > 0);

(ii) Success will lead to a positive outcome (I > 0); and

(iii) You really want the outcome (V> 0). In order to better understand how the VIE theory works, review Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4: Expectancy theory predictions of effort toward task under varied conditions of

Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I), and Valence (V) Source: Berry (1998:247)


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Based on Figure 6.4, you can draw four conclusions:

(i) A high expectancy of success combined with a high perception of instrumentality and a highly desirable outcome will result in a high motivating force towards performing the task;

(ii) A low expectancy of success combined with a high perception of instrumentality and a highly desirable outcome will result in a low motivating force towards performing the task;

(iii) A high expectancy of success combined with a low perception of instrumentality and a highly desirable outcome will result in a low motivating force towards performing the task; and

(iv) A high expectancy of success combined with a high perception of instrumentality but an undesirable outcome will result in a low motivating force towards performing the task.

How does VroomÊs Expectancy Theory apply in our professional life? Firstly, we will decide if certain job behaviours, for example: punctuality or

increased productivity will result in a particular outcome (E). Secondly, we try to find out if that outcome will extend to other outcomes,

for example: increased productivity leads to a year-end bonus (I). Finally, we will also decide if the outcome, that is the bonus, has enough

value to motivate us to continue exhibiting in that particular manner (V).

(b) AAdamÊs Equity Theory The Expectancy Theory that you have just learned, our thoughts, feelings

and opinions have a direct effect on our work. However, the difference is that the central feature of the Equity Theory is the relationship between the cognitive elements.

Describe how VroomÊs VIE theory applies in your working life? Post your responses on myVLE. Read about your coursemates experiences and provide them with some constructive feedback during your next tutorial.

ACTIVITY 6.4


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According to Adam, we tend to make certain types of social comparisons related to pay levels that can affect our work performance. Thus, if we are able to alter the consistency of how people think and feel about pay, this will bring about changes in motivation and work performance.

Before proceeding further, it is important for you to understand two

concepts: cconsonance and ddissonance. Thoughts and feelings are said to be consonant when they are consistent, stable and balanced. For example: when asked to move to another school, you refuse giving the excuse that you enjoy working in your present school. Dissonance occurs when you turn down a transfer to another school, even though you are unhappy working in your present school.

How do the two concepts of consonance and dissonance feature in the

social comparison process? What are the steps involved in this process? For your information, the first step in the social comparison process is self-assessment. We start to calculate the cognitive ratio of job inputs to job outputs. By job inputs, we mean academic qualifications, job experience and diligence. On the other hand, job outputs refer to what we gain from the job, such as money, position and recognition. The output/input (O/I) ratio indicates the degree of the exchange we are getting.

Generally, there are three types of exchanges:

(i) Fair exchange: where O = I;

(ii) Overpayment: where O > I; and

(iii) Underpayment: where O < I. At the second stage, we assess the O/I ratios of our co-workers before

making comparisons with our own self-ratios. This is where consonance or dissonance will occur. If our self-ratio is consistent with other-ratio, we feel consonant and comfortable. If, however, a difference occurs between our self-ratio and other-ratio, we will experience the tension of dissonance.

How do we resolve this tension of dissonance? Some of AdamÊs

suggestions are outlined as follows:

(i) Quit your job;

(ii) Change the person with whom you are making the comparison;

(iii) Tell yourself that you have underestimated your own talents; and

(iv) Change the quality or quantity of your work performance.


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To help you better understand how performance changes can reduce the tension of dissonance that is created as a result of underpayment or overpayment, you may refer to Table 6.3.

Table 6.3: Equity Theory Predictions for Performance Change Resulting from Dissonant

Cognitions about Pay

Dissonance Pay Basis Quality of Work Quantity of Work

Underpaid Hourly Reduce Reduce

Piece rate Reduce Maintain or increase

Overpaid Hourly Increase Increase

Piece rate Increase Maintain or reduce

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Recall an incident when you experienced dissonance in your workplace.

(a) What was the cause?

(b) Who was responsible?

(c) How did you resolve it?

(d) Did you employ any of the recommendations that you have just learned?

Share your experience with your coursemates and tutor during your next tutorial.

ACTIVITY 6.5

1. Explain the characteristics of VroomÊs Expectancy Theory and AdamÊs Equity Theory of work motivation.

2. How are these two theories of work motivation similar or

different?

SELF-CHECK 6.4


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(c) TThe High Performance Cycle In order to obtain a high job performance, we need to go through various

stages of the cycle. Firstly, we need to consider the demands, goals and challenges related to

our job. As you know, the goals we set will motivate us to improve our job performance. In reality, this may not be true as we may be facing challenges from demanding authority figures such as our superiors, or peer pressure from our colleagues. Nevertheless, the presence of other factors, commonly known as moderators can contribute to high job performance. Examples of moderators include the following:

(i) Commitment to the goal;

(ii) Progressive feedback about efforts demonstrated towards achieving the goal; and

(iii) High self-efficacy for excellent performance. Secondly, we need to nurture certain attributes that include attention, effort

and persistence towards our job. Another important consideration is the rewards we receive that serve as a motivator to maintain job performance. Generally, there are two types of reward as shown in Figure 6.5. �

�Figure 6.5: Types of reward

Typically, external and internal rewards are expected to satisfy our needs thus resulting in high job performance and high employee job satisfaction. High job satisfaction will, ultimately, lead to greater commitment to the organisation and a better willingness and openness of new challenges and goals. Conversely, if the rewards we receive do not satisfy our need, we will experience feelings of dissatisfaction, low organisational commitment and a negative attitude towards new job challenges and goals. From this explanation, you can clearly see the cyclical nature of this high performance model.


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Further ReadingThis story is about an old man and some young children who played football in front of the old manÊs house every afternoon after school. He did not like the joyful noises the young children made as they played football each day. Since he was quite a sage, he thought of a way to reduce their motivation to play in front of his house. One Monday, he called the children over to the gate and asked them if they would like to earn a certain sum of money for each game they played. Naturally, the children thought that was a great idea. Then, for several weeks the old man paid the children for playing. The next Monday, following their usual excitement, fun and joy of playing football, the children noticed that the old man was not at the gate with the, now usual and expected „loot.‰ So they entered the gate and knocked on the old manÊs door. When he answered the door, they inquired why he had not been at the gate to give them their money. His response surprised them. He said that he no longer intended to pay them for playing in front of his house. They responded that if he would not pay, they would not play! Source: T. C. Mawhinney (in Berry, 1998:234)

Based on the story you have just read, how did the old man change the childrenÊs behaviour? Why is it important for us to identify peopleÊs motives for accomplishing a task? Can you relate a similar incident in your workplace where money functioned as an extrinsic motivation? Post your reflections online and share with your coursemates and tutor. Respond to their experiences.

ACTIVITY 6.6

Based on what you have learned about the different categories of work motivation theories and the examples contained in each category, generate a suitable mindmap showing the primary characteristics and features of each theory.

SELF-CHECK 6.5


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CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

The discussion in the earlier section has focused on what motivates us to work from various theoretical perspectives. In this section, we will examine three processes involved in the career development that encompasses the following:

(a) Choosing a career;

(b) Planning a career; and

(c) Obtaining employment.

6.2.1 Choosing a Career

To start off the discussion, read the following scenario.

At age 25, Li-Sen graduated with a postgraduate teaching diploma from a local teacher training institute. She was posted as a mathematics teacher to a rural school in the interior of Sarawak. At age 26, Dinesh graduated as a medical doctor and took on a job as an intern at a government hospital in the capital city. At age 20, Borhan finished his building construction course in a college and started his first job in a multinational construction company. Within six months, he was asked to go to Dubai and work on a building project there.

What is your reaction to the scenario you have just read? Each of them, namely Li-Sen, Dinesh and Borhan took up a course in various educational institutions, graduated from their course, chose an occupation that was directly related to their studies and embarked on their career. How did each of them achieve this? How did they select their career? Did they adhere to their childhood ambition, or did they change their minds as they were growing up? Fortunately, for some of us, we already knew from an early age what we wanted to be when we grow up. So, we just followed a direct route towards achieving our career goal. Some of us, however, preferred to keep our options open for a considerable amount of time before settling down to a particular profession. Sadly, this privilege to explore before making a career decision is not accorded to the economically disadvantaged amongst us.

6.2


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Theorists like Super assert that most of us, typically, go through various phases of vocational development at different stages of our lives as shown in Table 6.4. As you read about these phases, note how they relate to your own personal experience.

Table 6.4: Vocational Development from Early Childhood to Early Adulthood

Developmental Stages

Vocational Developmental

Phases Characteristic

Early and middle childhood

Fantasy Period � Insights are gained through fantasising about them;

� Preferences are guided by familiarity and glamour;

� Bears little or no relation to eventual career decisions.

� For example: Aspire to be Batman, movie star.

Early and middle adolescence

Tentative Period � Evaluate vocational options based on interests;

� Become aware of personal and educational requirements for each vocation;

� Make considerations for their abilities and values.

Late adolescence and early adulthood

Realistic Period � Narrow down options by engaging in further exploration;

� Gather additional information about possibilities consistent with personal attributes;

� Focus on a general occupational category (Crystallisation);

� Engage in experimentation before deciding on a particular job.


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It is important for you to be aware that your career choice is largely influenced by certain factors. The factors are as follows which will be discussed in greater detail.

� Personality types;

� Family influences; and

� Access to vocational information. (a) PPersonality Types Holland (in Santrock, 2002) conceived that when we choose a career that

matches our personality type, there is a greater likelihood that we will be happy at the job, derive job satisfaction and remain in it longer when compared with one that clashes with our personality.

For this purpose, Holland has classified career-related personality types

into six categories as summarised in Table 6.5.

Table 6.5: HollandÊs Career-related Personality Types

Personality Type Characteristic Suggested Job Fields

Realistic � Prefer real-world problems

� Tends to select a mechanical job

� Plumbing

� Construction

� Engineering

Investigative � Enjoys working with ideas

� Likely to select a scientific occupation.

� Physicist

� Anthropology

� Biologist

Artistic � Creative

� Emotional

� Prefers an artistic field

� Visual Arts

� Writing

� Music

Social � Loves interacting with people

� Tends towards human services

� Teaching

� Counselling

� Social work

Enterprising � Adventurous

� Persuasive

� Sales

� Politics

� Management

Conventional � Likes well-structured tasks

� Prefers material possessions

� Accounting

� Banking


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Based on Table 6.5, can you identify your personality type? Does it match with your present occupation? If so, good. If otherwise, what do you propose to do?

(b) FFamily Influences Research findings reveal that our young peopleÊs vocational aspirations

have a positive strong correlation with their parentsÊ jobs. In simple terms, this means that children from high socio-economic backgrounds tend to select white-collar jobs with high status and wages, such as doctors, engineers, lawyers and so on. In comparison, children from lower income families are highly likely to choose blue-collar jobs with low status, such as plumbers, construction workers and other types of manual jobs.

Can you say if your present career bears any resemblance to your parentÊs

profession? Did either one or both of them ever exert any influence with respect to your career choice earlier?

(c) AAccess to Vocational Information Based on your experience, I am sure you will agree that access to vocational

information is a critical factor in career choice. Recollect the effort you made to seek information from your parents and other family members, school teachers and counselling teacher about a particular profession that you were interested in. Perhaps you even went to the extent of talking to people holding that same job. Over and above, you would have also searched the Internet for additional information about appropriate tertiary courses to enrol for, job prospects, salary, perks and other fringe benefits.

Research findings reveal that if our young people have high ambitions but

low knowledge of their selected vocation, they end up being „drifting dreamers‰ who are unable to make wise choices about signing up for relevant courses, enrolling in established and recognised tertiary institutions and so on. In contrast, the high ambition/high knowledge youths are better able to make wise occupational choices that meet the requirements of the current job market.

In view of this, it is of utmost importance for teachers and school

counsellors at both the primary and secondary level to guide pupils and students and equip themselves with basic vocational knowledge in a wide variety of fields.

In addition, they can also organise various activities related to careers. For

example: inviting professionals in different fields to talk about their line of work, encouraging student involvement in relevant co-curricular activities,


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and arranging for practical training in various work settings, such as industries, hospitals, retirement homes, nurseries and preschools, music schools, welfare homes, hotels and restaurants in order to provide firsthand on-the-job experiences for interested and potential employees in a particular profession.

We cannot deny the fact that thinking about our career starts from

childhood, but we also know that the critical stages of our lives for embarking into a career are during late adolescence and early adulthood. Hence, it is of utmost importance for our youths to be well-prepared for a rewarding work life later on. In this respect, the family, school, community and organisations have an equally important role to play.

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Further Reading

Ten Myths about Choosing a Career Myth 1: Choosing a career is simple. Fact: Far from it. Choosing a career actually takes a lot of time, as you

learn about yourself and the occupations you are interested in order to make a wise decision.

Myth 2: A career counsellor can tell me what occupation to pick. Fact: No. He can only guide you � the final decision is yours. Myth 3: I canÊt make a living from my hobby. Fact: ot true. It is perfectly alright to choose a career that is closely related

to what you enjoy doing in your free time. Myth 4: I should choose a career from a „Best Careers‰ list. Fact: You may use this list as a form of reference, as things may change

with time. More importantly, you need to consider your interests, values and skills related to a particular career.

Myth 5: Making a lot of money will make me happy. Fact: Money does not equate with job satisfaction, although salary is an

important consideration in vocational choice. Source: Adapted from http://careerplanning.about.com/od/careerchoicechan/a/mythschoice.htm


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6.2.2 Planning a Career

Now that you have learned about some of the factors that influence career choice, the next thing in the career development process is planning how to achieve it. In this respect, you have two options. Either you consult with a career development professional to help guide you through the process, or you work through it on your own. Whatever option you take, you need to consider three factors: self, options and match. (a) SSelf Do a self-assessment of your interests, values, skills/aptitudes, preferred

work environment, developmental needs and realities. Ideally, you should give serious consideration to all the important information you have thus gathered about yourself.

(b) OOptions Explore all the prospective job areas that you have a keen interest in.

Possibly, do some online or field research about the job specifications and environments in which you prefer to work in. Additionally, survey the job market to gain some insights into „hot jobs‰ or current „best careers‰.

It is also suggested that you try and obtain more specific information about

possible job options to help you do effective short listing using through job shadowing, part time or volunteer work and internship.

(c) MMatch Match (a) and (b) with possible jobs, evaluate what they can offer in terms

of remuneration, work prospects, career path and so on. Consequently, you can explore other alternatives.

Are you curious to find out about the remaining myths related to choosing a career? Visit the URL provided. With reference to „The Ten Myths About Choosing A Career‰, check the number of myths associated with you. Do a simple survey amongst your coursemates during your next tutorial to find out the myths they checked. How are they similar with or different from yours?

ACTIVITY 6.7


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6.2.3 Obtaining Employment

Having completed the career planning aspect in your career development process, you are now ready to embark on the third and last phase, that is obtaining employment. Have you ever given this phase any thought? What are some of the steps you need to take in order to secure employment and subsequently to accomplish your career goal? You need to do the following:

� Writing a cover letter;

� Writing your resume; and

� Prepare for job interviews. (a) WWriting a Cover Letter Do you have any experience writing a cover letter for a job application?

What are some important elements in a cover letter? A cover letter should be sent together with your resume, even if the organisation does not state that you are required to do so. What purpose does a cover letter serve? It is one way of demonstrating your writing and reporting skills. Read some of the DoÊs and DontÊs associated with a cover letter:

(i) Customise your cover letter to each prospective employer.

(ii) Refrain from mentioning salary. However, if the job advertisement calls for an expected salary, it is recommended that you state a range, for example between RM6000�RM8000 instead of RM7500.

(iii) Perhaps you may be interested to learn how a cover letter is written. Read the following sample format sourced from: http://jobsearch.about.com/od/coverlettersamples /a/covertemplate.htm.

Your Contact Information Your Name Your Address Your City, State, Post Code Your Phone Number Your Email Address Date


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Employer Contact Information Name Title Company Address City, State, Post Code Salutation Dear Mr/Ms Last Name: Body of Cover Letter The body of your cover letter allows the employer to be informed about position you are applying for, why you should be selected for an interview and what your follow-up action is. First Paragraph: Inform the employer the reason for the cover letter. Be clear, concise and precise in your writing. Enclose information of a mutual contact, if you have one. Try to convince the reader why you should be called for the interview or appointment. Middle Paragraphs: Describe what you have to offer the employer. Establish a strong connection between your abilities and the organisationÊs needs. Emphasise how your skills and experience correspond with the job you are applying for. A word of caution: Do not repeat your resume. Interpret your resume by supporting each statement with some strong evidence. It is recommended that you write in several shorter paragraphs or bullets, instead of one large block of text. Final Paragraph: Close your cover letter with a note of thanks to the employer for considering you for the position. Mention also what follow-up actions you will make and when (a duration of one week will suffice). Complimentary Close: Respectfully yours, Signature: Handwritten Signature (for a mailed letter) For further information about writing cover letters, you may visit useful websites such as About.com Guide.


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(b) WWriting your Resume If you recall, your resume is said to complement your cover letter and vice versa. What is a resume? How should it be written? To find out how, read the guidelines as follows.

How To Write Your Resume Your resume together with your cover letter provides the employer with the information to decide whether or not to select you for an interview. Your resume must be concise. This means that it should be 2�3 pages for a younger graduate, or 3�4 pages for a mature age graduate with work experience. Your resume should contain the following:

� Personal details � first and last name, residential address, postal address (if different from residential), home phone number, mobile phone number and e-mail address;

� Summary of skills � specific technical skills, fluency in languages other than English, research skills, management skills and so on;

� Education- tertiary and secondary qualifications (presented in reverse chronological order);

� Employment history � relevant positions (in reverse chronological order);

� Other Courses, Qualifications, Awards or Professional Development;

� Professional/Association affiliations � membership (associate or student membership) of professional bodies;

� Voluntary work/Other activities � participation in community work, clubs, sport or youth groups;

� Hobbies/Interests � personal interests that involve collective activities such as community, sporting, religious or cultural pursuits;

� Referees � Avoid using personal friends, family members and non-work associates.

Source: http://www.monash.edu.my/studentservices/index.php?authcrequest=/Student-services/images/stories/ECD/How20to20write20your20 resume.pdf


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If you are interested in reading about other formats for writing a resume, you may source the Internet:

http://www.monash.edu.my/studentservices/index.php?authcrequest=/Student-services/images/stories/ECD/How20to20write20your 20resume.pdf

(c) PPrepare for Job Interviews Based on your cover letter and resume, your potential employer notifies

you that you have been selected to attend a job interview. How do you feel? If it is a job that you are really interested in, then I am sure you will be very excited. How do you prepare yourself for the interview? Read the following 10 general interview tips explained in Table 6.6.

Table 6.6: Top Ten General Interview Tips

Tips Explanation

Plan Ahead

This means you need to be prepared for the interview. Spend some time to do a little homework before the interview. If possible, browse through your potential employerÊs website and gather some background information about the company, the position you are applying for and the people who will most likely be on the interview panel. Reassess your work history and be prepared to relate your past career achievements with the companyÊs needs. Get your facts straight.

Role Play As soon as you have completed your research of the company, rehearse your answers to questions that are most likely to be asked by employers: „Tell us something about yourself‰ or „Why should we employ you?‰ Do not beat around the bush, rather answer to the point. It is also recommended that you talk to the Human Resource personnel in order to get an idea of what your potential employers require.

First Impression Counts

Make sure your attire is suitable for the job you are applying for. Open-toes sandals, slippers, jeans and T-shirts are certainly not recommended.

Be on Time

If possible, you should check out the venue prior to the actual interview day just to have an idea how long it may take to reach it. Give yourself ample time if you are taking public transport. Remember bus schedules may not be reliable and traffic jams are likely to occur in a busy city. If you are late for an interview, you have already created a bad first impression of yourself. If you cannot help it, then you should try and contact your interviewers.

Be Positive Be sure you do not criticise your past employers, rather focus on positive achievements and views.


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Encourage Encourage the interviewer to share some information about the company. This shows you are interested to work there.

Eye Contact

During the interview, maintain eye contact with your interviewer. Convey the message that you are interested in the job.

Adapt and Relate

Adapt to the style of the interviewer and relate your answers to him and the company. Focus on achievements relevant to the position.

Be Honest Tell the truth about your background and skills. Even if you succeed in being employed, your employer is sure to discover the truth somehow. When that happens, you will also get fired.

DonÊt Give Up

Even if you fail to secure the job despite doing your best at the interview, you should not despair. Every job interview you attend adds to your experience and increases your self-confidence to face future interviews.

Source: http://www.jobsdb.com.ph/MY/EN/V6HTML/jobseeker/114_career.html

After reading through the tips given in Table 6.6, are you ready to face a job interview if you are called for one in the near future? In summary, career planning is not an insurmountable task and the process demands a huge amount of your time and effort to ensure that you achieve the career goal you have set. Surprisingly, this may not only happen once in your lifetime. As you define and redefine your career goals, you may engage in the career planning several times in your life.

Imagine you are applying for a new job. Prepare a resume and a cover letter for your prospective employer using the guidelines you have learned. You may also access other relevant URLs to obtain further information. Post your ideas on myVLE and share with your coursemates. During the next tutorial, role-play a job interview. Share your experiences in class and ask for comments from your tutor about how the interviewees can further improve their performance.

ACTIVITY 6.8


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CAREER ADJUSTMENT

To begin with, read the following scenario.

After a full 8.30 am to 5.30 pm day at the office, Lily picks up her two-year old daughter Mei from the nursery, goes home and cooks dinner. Some nights she has to fetch Guan, her ten year old son to and from his night tuition class. Other nights, she has to sit with him while he does his homework, while attending to MeiÊs demand for attention as well. Like most women in dual career marriages, she has to juggle her time between child care and household chores with work that she often takes home to finish up.

Is the above scenario familiar? Does it describe what you or your spouse are currently experiencing? Dual-earner marriages, where both husband and wife are working, are a common phenomenon in most families today. Undoubtedly, there is a lot of satisfaction to be gained in a dual-career marriage. The financial rewards certainly help enhance the material comforts enjoyed by the entire household as compared to a sole breadwinner family. Besides, most women want to have a career in addition to a family to satisfy their need for achievement, recognition and self-expression. However, are you aware that in many of these families, moderate to severe conflicts occur as women strive to meet both work and family responsibilities? Can you explain what contributes to these conflicts? Amongst them is a sense of work overload. Recall how Lily has to shoulder most of the household and child care tasks. She is also probably trying to divide her time at home between completing unfinished office tasks and spending time with her children. At the end of the day, she will have no time for recreation or visit friends and relatives.

6.3

1. Describe the processes involved in the career development. 2. Design a career planning plan for an occupation of your choice.

SELF-CHECK 6.6


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Given this, what are some career adjustments that dual-earner couples have to make? Jot down some of your suggestions and then compare with the ones briefly outlined as follows. The bottom line is to set priorities both at home and at the office. In the context of this subtopic, we will focus our attention on the workplace. Often times, we bring work home to complete. Before the children came along, perhaps there was time to spare. However, now with added child care responsibilities, accomplishing unfinished office tasks at home may be a source of strain to the family and marriage. Besides this, some of our jobs require that we travel. Perhaps it is also time to see if possible arrangements can be made to cut down on the number of out-of-town overnight trips and turn them into half-day meetings that allow you to commute to and fro using public transport. Another aspect to consider is task delegation. It is important to bear in mind that we are not indispensable. Also, we have just so much mental and physical energy before our body systems break down and we need to seek medical and emotional treatment. If we look hard enough amongst our colleagues, I am sure you will be able to assign some parts of a work project to them, instead of shouldering the entire project on your shoulders. Nevertheless, there are some aspects of our careers that may be difficult to make adjustments; for example: a job promotion or a new job that requires a geographical relocation. While the extra earnings are welcome, it may require the family having to live apart during the weekdays. The strain of separation and the extra family responsibilities shouldered by the spouse staying behind for the sake of the childrenÊs schooling is one aspect to consider.

Have you seen the movie Baby Boom? The character, played by Diane Keaton, was unable to make the necessary adjustments in her career and family. Consequently, she got fired from her job. What is your opinion of women having to juggle between career and family roles? Post your opinions on myVLE.

ACTIVITY 6.9


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OCCUPATIONAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES IN MIDLIFE

Read the article below about Burnout and see if it relates to you at this stage of your career. �

Burnout is a term that describes the condition of a person emotionally and physically exhausted from too much job pressure. It can occur at any stage of adult life, but middle-aged people seem particularly prone. Job pressures often combine with personal and family circumstances to create an overload. Added together, family tensions and conflicts and problems with children or other family members can create stress. Poor health habits over a period of time can cause havoc (Rice, 1998: 589).�

�Well, some of the occupational and economic changes that occur in our middle adulthood have been briefly mentioned in the article. How is this reflected in your workplace? How many of your colleagues in their midlife are experiencing burnout? Ideally, middle adulthood signifies the pinnacle of our career. This is the time when we are holding some positions of authority and responsibility. It marks the culmination of years of hard work up the rungs of the career ladder. Our work productivity is said to be at its maximum in the middle years of the 40s and 50s. Job satisfaction is said to increase with age. Hence, it is not surprising that with higher incomes, more occupational status and prestige and greater skill, we experience higher job satisfaction and better job security. Additionally, we also take our jobs more seriously, show more work commitment and have a lower rate of job absenteeism.

6.4

1. Explain the term „career adjustment‰.�2. Describe some situations in the workplace when career

adjustments need to be made?�

SELF-CHECK 6.7


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However, in some societies, the middle wage-earner is currently facing some important challenges in this 21st century. Amongst them include globalisation of work, rising development of information and communication technology, downsizing of the workforce and early retirement. As you are aware, the influx of foreign workers in the professional and non-professional sectors can create an occupational and economic threat to local workers. When the former are willing to settle for lower wages for the same job, it has resulted in retrenchment amongst the latter. The current widespread use of computer technology in both the public and private sectors has created computer anxiety and phobia amongst some of the middle-aged adult workers. They either attend computer classes and become computer literate, or pack up and leave the job they have been holding upon graduation. Sometimes companies are forced to take in new employees who have the necessary technological skills. When they get laid off or fired, they suffer the impact of both economic loss and emotional stress. With the present economic situation worldwide, many companies are merging or restructuring resulting in the inevitable downsizing of the workforce. One negative outcome of this policy is to offer incentives or compensation to middle-aged employees to encourage them to opt for early retirement. Do you know that forced retirement has been ranked among the top 10 crisis in terms of the emotional crisis? Whilst the discussed occupational changes are caused by certain policies in place, some midlife occupational changes are self-motivated. Have you heard of friends or family members who quit a job they have been holding for 20 years for the simple reason that they are bored; they do not want to do the same work they have been doing any longer. Another reason could be that their present job is becoming increasingly stressful, and they are not able to withstand the stress any longer. Sometimes, middle-aged adults find themselves side-lined for a promotion for some unknown reason. Out of frustration, they quit for greener pastures. As you can see, midlife can be regarded as a time of vocational fruition for some middle-aged, while others lose their jobs because they do not keep abreast with the latest developments in their fields.


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� Work refers to an activity where one exerts strength or faculties to do or

perform something.

� Work motivation refers to the arousal, direction and persistence of an individualÊs behaviour.

� Need Theories of work motivation focus on four elements related to work: importance of work, work challenges, career growth opportunities and work responsibilities of employees.

� Cognitive Theories of work motivation emphasise the cognitive processes involved when we make particular work choices and decisions.

� MaslowÊs Needs-Hierarchy Theory maintain that motivation is influenced by the gratification of lower order deprived needs progressing to higher order deprived needs in a hierarchy.

� HerzbergÊs Two-Factor Theory believes that hygiene and motivator factors are outcomes that influence motivation.

Browse the Internet and look for additional references about the effects of forced retirement on middle-aged earners. Hold a forum during the next tutorial to discuss this issue. Support your opinions with cited sources.

ACTIVITY 6.10

1. Describe some occupational and economic changes that take place in middle adulthood.�

�2. How can some of these changes be avoided or resolved?�

SELF-CHECK 6.8


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� Hygiene factors include extrinsic job outcomes such as salary and job security. Motivator needs are intrinsic job outcomes that contribute to our personal growth and professional development such as recognition and responsibility.

� McClellandÊs Achievement Theory maintains that the need for achievement produces motivating effects.

� High achievers like a work environment where they can take personal responsibility for problem-solving; take calculated risks and set moderately difficult achievement goals; and need early, and continuing feedback on their work progress.

� VroomÊs Expectancy Theory proposes that cognitive elements like expectancy, instrumentality and valence motivates a person to perform a given task.

� In order to obtain a motivational force greater than zero, one must believe that he can achieve success (E > 0); success will lead to a positive outcome (I > 0); and you really want the outcome (V > 0).

� AdamÊs Equity Theory asserts that work motivation is determined by the results obtained through the comparison of a personÊs job input and outcomes with that of their colleagues or other people doing the same task.

� There are three types of exchanges: fair exchange (O = I); overpayment (O > I) and underpayment (O < I).

� The High Performance Cycle postulates that external and internal rewards that satisfy our needs lead to high job performance and high employee job satisfaction.

� External rewards include a pay rise or a job promotion, whilst internal or self-administered rewards include feelings of achievement, pride or self-efficacy.

� The career development encompasses processes such as: choosing a career, planning a career and obtaining employment.

� Super asserts that we go through various phases of vocational development (Fantasy, Tentative and Realistic) at different stages of our lives (early and middle childhood, early and middle adolescence and late adolescence and early adulthood).

� Career choice is influenced by personality types, family influences and access to vocational information.


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� HollandÊs career-related personality types are divided into six categories, namely Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional.

� Four factors that need to be considered in planning a career include: self, options, match and obtaining employment.

� While there are gains and satisfactions associated with dual-career marriages, moderate to severe conflicts occur as women juggle time between career and family responsibilities.

� Middle adulthood marks the fruition of years of hard work up the career ladder, increased job satisfaction, higher incomes, more occupational status and prestige.

� Some occupational changes in midlife are self-motivated as a result of boredom, increased job stress and greener pastures.

AdamÊs Equity Theory

Career adjustment

Career planning

Cognitive theories

Consonance

Dissonance

Economic changes in midlife

Expectancy

External rewards

Fair exchange

Family influences

HerzbergÊs Two-Factor Theory

Higher order needs

Hygiene needs

Instrumentality

Internal rewards

Lower order needs

MaslowÊs Needs � Hierarchy Theory

McClellandÊs Achievement Theory

Motivator needs

Need for achievement

Need theories

Occupational changes in midlife

Overpayment

Personality types

The high performance cycle

Underpayment

Valence

Vocational development

Vocational information

VroomÊs Expectancy Theory

Work motivation


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Books and Journal Articles: Berk, L. E. (2001). Development through the lifespan (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and

Bacon.

Berry, L. M. (1998). Psychology at work: An introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.

Rice, F. P. (1998). Human development: A life-span approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Santrock, J. W. (2002). Life-span development (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.

Schultz, D., & Schultz, S. E. (1998). Psychology and work today (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Websites Cover letter template: Template to use when writing a cover letter. Retrieved

October 29, 2010 from http://jobsearch.about.com/od/coverlettersamples/a/covertemplate.htm

Job application cover letter. Retrieved October 29, 2010 from http://www.cvtips.com/cover-letter/job-application-cover-letter.html

Work. Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved October 4, 2010 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/work

Ten myths about choosing a career. Retrieved October 4, 2010 from http://careerplanning.about.com/od/careerchoicechan/a/myths_choice. htm

Top 10: General interview tips. RetrievedOctober 29, 2010 from http://www.jobsdb.com.ph/MY/EN/V6HTML/jobseeker/114_career. html

08160332 topic 6 the world of work

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