Energy is the key input for socio-economic development of any
nation. The fast industrialization and rapid urbanization besides
mechanized farming have generated a high demand of energy in all forms
i.e., Thermal, Mechanical and Electrical. To meet this over increasing
demand, fossil fuel such as coal, oil and natural gas have been over
exploited in an unsustainable manner. The over exploitation of fossil fuel
have been posing serious environmental problems such as global warming
and climate change. But we have shortage of energy and more dependent
on imports in the case of petroleum, we are fortunate enough to be blessed
with plenty of natural resources of energy (non conventional energy
sources) such as solar, wind, bio mass and hydro electric power. These
sources are environmentally good and plenty available from nature in most
part of the country throughout the year.
Continued dependence on bio mass fuels has resulted in serious
environmental problems of resource degradation and pollution with local
as well as global manifestations. Also, quality of life remains poor
particularly that of women who are the primary collectors, processors, and
users of bio mass. The increase in demand for energy, stemming from
both population and income growth, coupled with the limited impact so
far of demand reduction and efficiency enhancing interventions such as
2
improved cooks stoves and bio gas, continues to intensify the changes of
rural energy.
Lack of an organized supply of energy to the rural areas also has a
hidden cost. Energy is a prime mover in economic development. Per
capita energy consumption is directly correlated to the overall quality of
life of the person. Lack of energy is among the key retarding forces
preventing economic development and consequently slowing down
poverty alleviation and growth of the rural sector. The severity of the
problem continues to rise and calls for a re-look, to learn from previous
experience and develop a fresh attempt to accelerate the process of
providing reliable energy to the rural areas of India.
Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) have long been
recognized for their potential as environment friendly, versatile and
sustainable energy alternatives for rural masses of India. However, despite
efforts by the Ministry of Non Conventional Energy, RETs have not yet
succeeded as a major alternative source of energy in rural India. The
programmes of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources (MNRE)
and Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) designed
to support small scale distributing systems have relied on heavily
subsidized credit, technology training and consumer awareness activities
to substitute the market for end-user finance for renewable energy
systems (Solar and Bio gas) for domestic use and a tiered set of capital
and interest rate subsidies for water pumping in the agricultural sector,
while end users in some rural areas now have access to solar, powered
lanterns or lights and bio gas systems for their home and agricultural
operators are taking advantage of remarkable capital subsidies for solar
3
energy to use for water pumping, the control of the credit and resources
by an agent in the centre with limited reach in rural areas, the use of
heavy capital and interest rate subsidies, and the focus on domestic use
rather than on marketing renewable energy technology applications with
income enhancement opportunities have tied the success of these
programmes to government budgets and political cycle limiting both the
breadth and depth of development penetration of projects that harness
renewable energy sources.
The Indian economy has experienced tremendous growth over the
past several years. Energy in all its forms, underpins both past and future
growth. For the Indian economy to continue its trajectory, needs to address
its energy challenges, which cross all sectors and impact all citizens.
Electricity – both in terms of quantity and access – is a key challenge. To
meet this challenge an alternative source namely, non conventional energy
sources need to be developed and put to use.
The State of Kerala is also facing an important issue relating to the
availability and the use of power. In majority of the case we are using the
conventional sources of energy from the sources available now are not
enough for meeting the increased demands of the population and hence we
are purchasing electricity (energy) from the neighboring States. This
phenomenon has become one of the acute issues of the Government today
and can be tied over to a greater extent by means of the use of alternative
sources of energy called non conventional energy sources. This fact was
realized by the Government and an agency was formed called Agency for
Non conventional Energy and Rural Technology (ANERT). This is an
autonomous body of the Government which acts as a nodal agency for the
4
development of non conventional energy sources in Kerala. In addition,
there are nongovernmental organizations in the organized sector. In the
Unorganized sector there are independent Trained Workers actively
engaged in the process of development and use of non conventional
energy sources in Kerala.
1.1 Background of the Study
Energy has been recognized as the core power conductor of any
development process. It is required for all sectors right from every day
need, facilities and entertainments. The availability of conventional
energy sources like oil, natural gas and coal are depleting at an alarming
rate worldwide. It is our duty to sensitize people to save our future
generations from the impending energy crisis. For this, a multi–pronged
strategy – (i) energy conservation; and (ii) Encouragement of non
conventional energy sources – is imperative.
Energy is needed for the people and the society in their every walk
of life. Industrial and other development is possible only if there is
availability of sufficiency of energy. The changes world over in general
and the state in particular in respect of availability and the use of energy
changed from time to time. This is more so in the case of conventional
sources of energy. The conventional energy sources are being exhausted
gradually due to high density of population. So in future we cannot
depend purely on the conventional sources of energy. In this scenario
alternative energy sources viz., non-conventional energy sources like solar
lantern, solar light system, bio-gas and solar water heater need to be used
exhaustively.
5
1.2 Importance of the Study
Power sector in Kerala plays a vital role in all developmental
activities of the well-being and for economic development. Obviously,
power crisis is the prime obstacle to start new initiatives in the industrial
field. The need for power is increasing. Similarly the production of
power should also increase correspondingly. The need of the hour is the
availability of sufficiency of power for meeting the industrial and other
consumption needs. So to find an alternative way to solve it is an urgent
necessity which calls for the development and full utilization of non
conventional energy sources. The development and its use depends
mainly on the agencies involved like Governmental and Non-
Governmental organizations under organized sector and other private
trained personnel under unorganized sector.
1.3 Review of Literature
Large population and low per capita income make the energy
planning in India different from those of developed economies. A number
of task force/ committees have been set up in the past to study and review
India’s energy policy and related issues. The prominent among them are
the Energy Survey Committee Report (1964), Fuel Policy Committee
Report (1974), Working Group on Energy Policy (1979), Planning
Commission Study Report on Energy Demand Modeling (1981), Advisory
Board on Energy (1985), Energy Demand Screening Group(1986),
Renewable Power Purchase Guidelines(1993), Committee on Integrated
6
Coal Policy (1996), Common Minimum National Action Plan for Power
(1996), New Exploration and Licensing Policy (1997), Energy
Conservation Action (2001), Electricity Act (2003), National Electricity
Policy (2005), National Tariff Policy (2006), Rural Electrification Policy
(2006), Integrated Energy Policy Report (Planning Commission) (2006),
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) (2008), and Central
Electricity Regulations on renewable energy (2009). These reports have
made number of recommendations pertaining the conventional and non-
conventional forms of energy, energy conservation, energy planning and
future policy options.
The entire world is grappling with the problem of acute shortage of
energy which is so vital for all developmental activities. To meet the ever-
increasing demand, fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas have been
overexploited in an unsustainable manner. In this critical situation, new
and renewable sources of energy are most viable options for the future,
which is free from pollution and locally available in abundance. A
number of regional, national and international level studies were carried
out in the field of non conventional energy.
The earlier studies pertaining to scientific and technical in nature
are excluded from literature review. The forgoing paragraphs list out the
various studies made in the past:
Laurie (1950) 1 recorded the use of methane gas for vehicles in
Germany. About 22,000 vehicles were converted to operate on methane
gas. Two pressure bottles were mounted in each side of the vehicle and
each bottle was holding about 1700 cft. of gas (equivalent to 10 gallons of
7
petrol). The biogas plant in Germany produced 1.5 million cft.gas per year
(equivalent to about 6600 gallons of petrol). This gas was used for
domestic heating and cooking and for operating a 28 HP tractor.
Daniel (1950) 2 forecasted the demand of solar energy. He opined
that solar energy is inexhaustible and pollution free energy. It is best and
ready alternative to domestic fuel which alone constitutes more than 55per
cent of the total energy consumed in India.
Parikh’s (1963) 3 analysis reminded the most thorough study
available on the demands of biogas. In that study he suggested that where
dung was burnt, the prospects of biogas were best and therefore that
within India, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Kerala should
develop biogas programs. He compared biogas with wood, petrol and
diesel, as the cheapest alternatives at 1963 prices, and also argued that
other fuel possibilities, such as electricity, Kerosene and coal were too
expensive.
What once was considered a scientific theory and was limited only
to academic discussions, is today a grave concern facing mankind. Energy
crisis is a reality and there is a need for immediate, effective and
responsible actions. Action is needed from all parts of the society across
the globe. The local governments have a crucial role to play, as a tier of
government closest to the citizens and with the ability to implement
climate smart actions locally. Silverberg (1964) 4 emphasized the
importance of after sales services of solar cookers. He evaluated the
performance of parabolic type cooker used in rural areas of Mexico. It
was reported that 80 per cent of the cookers’ had became inoperative
8
within a year. The success of solar cooker projects largely depends on the
service support extended by implementing agencies.
Indiravathi (1968) 5 studied on the benefits accruing from the use of
cow dung gas plant slurry as manure in vegetable production as compared
with compost and farm yard manure. Three types of selected manures
were applied to all the plots on equal nitrogen basis. The results showed
that obtaining the slurry as manure from the cow dung gas plant was a
much easier process than preparing farm yard manure or compost. It was
revealed that the growth of the plants was quicker and yield as greatest in
the plots treated with gas plant slurry.
Rekib et al. (1968)6 conducted a comparative study on advantages
of gobar gas and dung cakes. It was found that burning of dung cakes
resulted in extensive trachoma among the house wives due to obnoxious
smoke. It also led to wastage of manurial value of dung. Gobar gas, being
non-poisonous and an ideal fuel without smoke, increased quantity of
manure and also better sanitary conditions.
NCST (1974) 7 put forth three major approaches for utilizing solar
energy which include absorbing solar energy directly or by using
concentrators and then converting into thermal energy for needed
applications, converting solar energy into electric power using
photovoltaic or thermo electric devices, utilizing solar energy indirectly.
Paul (1974) 8 estimated the demand factor of community biogas
plant (285 cm 3 ) for Bombay suburbs. It was found that the use of biogas
9
would save foreign exchange worth Rs. 93,705 annually by reducing
kerosene consumption.
Sreenivasan (1974) 9 explained the demand for gobar gas due to the
change brought about by gobar gas in families of Uttar Pradesh. He
observed that the use of gobar gas had taken away much of labour from
the women folk in making cattle dung cakes. It was found easier to clean
the utensils used in cooking on gobar gas. Tears no longer rolled from the
eyes of women while cooking on gobar gas. The use of gobar gas had
improved the economic conditions by providing more leisure for part-time
job, saving doctor’s bill, and also increasing the life of utensils and
clothes. In addition to this, it had also added to the aesthetic appearance of
the house and the surroundings with brighter walls and neat and clean
yards.
conducted a performance evaluation of gobar gas
plants of 100 families in Gujarat. The main advantages claimed were the
saving of dung for better quality manure which would otherwise burnt in
the form of cow dung cakes, and availability of free gas for cooking
meals. Intangible benefits were found to be reduction in time of cooking,
comfort in cooking, reduction in white washing expenses, no damage to
eye of ladies who cook meals, enhanced life of cooking utensils etc.
Mendoza’s (1975) 11
experiment in solar drier revealed that a
specially designed solar tent drier can reduce the drying time by 25 to 40
per cent and produce more hygienic products with appetizing colour and
texture. Solar tent dryers were also effective in drying marine products.
10
biogas increased alarmingly due to worldwide concern over the
environmental protection. Realizing its potential, large number of
community and family sized biogas plants have been setup in countries
like China, India, Nepal and Philippines. He also analyzed that the
scarcity of fuel during Second World War was the major reason for
increasing demand for biogas. During that period, biogas was used as a
fuel for vehicles and farm tractors. Following the war, several nations such
as UK, USA, Canada, Russia, Japan, China, Kenya, Uganda, South Africa
and India showed interest in production of biogas. But during next three
decades, the demand of biogas decreased due to the availability of fossil
fuel at cheaper rate.
correlated between demand and awareness
programme. The study took place in states of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh. Total 173 biogas plant owners
were interviewed. He attempted to find out the time taken by the
respondents to arrive at a decision to install a plant. Surprisingly 60
percent of the plant owners installed it in the same year. The rest took
time to make up their minds more than five years. For 2/3 of the
respondents, the year of decision and year of adoption was the same, while
for another 30 percent of them the gap was of one year.
Micheal’s (1975) 14
study revealed that the demand of biogas plant
in China increased due to high quality manure obtained from biogas
slurry. The agricultural output was stimulated by the usage of biogas
manure. It was found that the manure obtained from biogas plant was
11
applied to field. The result was 28 percent, 10 percent and 12.5 percent
increase in the yield of maize, rice and cotton respectively.
John Maddox (1975) 15
stated that the oil crisis in 1973 has given
rise to the long-term strategy for the development of Non Conventional
Energy. Maddox predicted that Non Conventional Energy will get global
acceptance in the future. The author has projected the importance of
agencies of Non Conventional Energy due to the potential opportunities
available.
reported that biogas is used for cooking, for
lighting and for improving sanitary conditions of the society. He also
reported the operation of community size biogas plant attached with 16
latrines. It revealed that sufficient gas was produced and used for cooking
and lighting. This plant helped in achieving a fly proof sanitary
arrangement, free from foul smell along with an income of Rs. 2500/- per
year.
worked out the
fuel value of biogas that may be produced by the utilization of all animal
and human wastes in India. According to the commission’s report about
16,900 million cubic feet and 550 million cubic feet of gas could be
available from the digestion of animal and human waste respectively. This
amount of gas (17,450 million cft.) could save 620 million tons of coal or
65 million gallon of petrol per year.
Mukherjee (1975) 18
explained the benefits derived from the gobar
gas plants. He interviewed 56 families and observed that disappearance of
12
eye troubles was considered as one of the best benefits of the gobar gas
plant. Saving the women’s time in cooking and washing utensils was
another advantage of the plant. They were now free from hazardous way
of cooking and were able to devote more time to the development and
welfare of their families.
revealed that energy consumption has a positive
relationship with the development and income level of a region. In 1975
the per capita energy consumption differential between the United States
of America and the rest of the world stood at 8:1 and it narrowed down to
a differential of 6.5:1 in 2000. Approximately 80 per cent of the world
energy is consumed by the three regions of North America, Europe and
USSR while 14 per cent consumed by Asia and the balance by others.
Disney (1976) 20
biogas plants with more conventional processes for the production of
chemical nitrogen. The outcome was that current biogas plants used
between 2.5 and 8 times more capital per unit of nitrogen output than
conventional plants.
environmental protection. He suggested that bio-conversion of organic
waste helps in pollution control and removal of environmental hazards.
Sirohi (1977) 22
indicated that the climatic conditions of South
India are better for production of bio gas than in North India. The cost
benefit ratio is also higher in South India than North India (2.719 and
2.593, respectively for 280 cft. plant). The number of animal units
13
required for the fuller utilization of plant capacity is 1½ times more in
North India than in south India (33 animal units and 22 animal units
respectively for 280 cft plant).
Paul (1977) 23
estimated the supply of gobar gas for Punjab. It was
found that from the total population of cows and buffaloes (7.184 million)
in Punjab, total dung produced per year was 39.338 million tones and from
this dung total biogas potential was 1652 million cubic meters per year.
This much of gas was found to save 1054.30 million litres of kerosene per
year or 1186 million litres of petrol per year. In addition to this, organic
manure available was found to be 7.98 million tons per year.
Parikh et al., (1978)24 analysed the factors affecting the time
duration for solar cooking. It was found that the season, ambient
temperature and type of food material will affect the time taken for solar
cooking.
Singh (1978)25 conducted an experimental study on the economic
viability of biogas plants in Ludhiana. He found that from the social point
of view all the three sizes of biogas plants, i.e. 100cft, 150cft, and 250cft.,
were found to be economically viable whereas from the private point of
view 100cft. biogas plant was not viable. It was found that if the farmers
had perceived the value of biogas as an alternative to kerosene, then all the
plants were found to be viable. Intangible benefits ranked by farmers were
smokeless fuel, readily available fire, and better sanitary conditions.
Parikin and Kabalia (1978) 26
emphasised the utilization of garbage
and cow dung for production of gas. It was estimated that garbage
14
available in cities was 700gms per head per day and in villages 300gms
per head per day. It was found that one tone of garbage produced about
50-70 cubic meters of biogas, whereas one tone of cow dung produced
about 37 cubic meters of biogas. From the garbage gas plant also, good
manure could be obtained. At the same time, sanitation and health could
also be ensured.
Singh and Singh (1978)27 has conducted a comparative study on
technology used in India and China for biogas plant design. In that study,
they concluded that the Chinese design (KVIC Model) was superior on
economic grounds. The chief disadvantage of the Indian design (Janata
Model) was its high cost and the shorter life of the gasholder.
Prasith et al. (1979) 28
in their empirical study of Indian design
biogas plants found that household plants on an average had a pay back
period of five years. No other estimates of economic worth were
calculated. No benefits were claimed for the slurry, as this was not used
by plant owners. The main reason given by 94.5 percent of the current
non-users were high cost of plant, lack of technical know-how, availability
of other fuels, and shortage of dung. They also opined that they did not
want a plant.
Sirohi (1980)29 indicated that biogas plants were financially
feasible when farmers used the gas for productive purposes i.e. as a fuel
for engine, used for pumping irrigation water.
15
suggested that the biogas slurry
is an ideal feed for pisiculture. Thus in addition to energy recovery, bio
manure is also a good byproduct of biogas production.
Joglekar (1980) 31
identified certain reasons for low pace of growth
in spite of vigorous efforts made to popularize the gas plants which
include the high capital cost of the plant, structural failure of the digester
wall and corrosion of the gas holder, scarcity of construction materials
such as burnt bricks, quarry stones, cement and steel and non-availability
of skilled workmen like mason for constructing the digester, good
workshop facilities for fabrication of gas holder and painter for painting it.
Duggal (1980)32 conducted a study on the role of community type
biogas plant for the development of Pratap Singh Wala Village in
Ludhiana. In this village, total number of cows and buffaloes were 852,
total numbers of houses were 103 and total population was 673. Total gas
available from animal and human waste was estimated to be about
12937.5-cft/per day. Average requirement of gas for cooking was 10095
cft per day and 2842.5 cft gas was surplus. This surplus gas could be used
to generate power. The average expenses per house per month came out to
be Rs.37/-. This amount also included electricity charges because the
surplus energy was used to produce electricity. The cost of other sources
of energy was equal to Rs. 40 to 45 per house, per month, excluding
electricity charges.
reported the demand for biogas plant.
Kerosene is said to be the common man’s fuel for a family of 5-6
members. About 25 litres of Kerosene is required each month. For the
16
same size of family, 100 Cft. gas per day should be sufficient, (i.e. 100’
30=3,000 Cft. of gas per month for cooking alone). This means that 3000
cft. Gas =25 litres of kerosene. The cost of 25 litres of kerosene is Rs.
42.50, the cost of 3,000 cft. Gas would be equivalent to Rs.42.50/. This is
a reasonable norm one can accept while computing the price of gas.
Mazumdar and Gopalakrishnan (1982) 34
suggested that biogas
plants in a region can also be set up by forming a co-operative society.
They proposed modus operandi of a biogas co-operative. Co-operatives
could be formed at village; block and district level and there can be a
national level organization to co-ordinate and monitor their activities. For
individuals to become members of a cooperative, it was necessary that
they live within the area of operation of society and they should be
competent to contact.
Parikh (1982) 35
suggested that installation of biogas plants on
turnkey basis is one of the important approaches in implementing biogas
programme. In India, nearly 2 lakhs plants a year were installed on
turnkey basis.
suggested that biogas programme could be
pursued by linking with diary and milk operatives already in existence.
The National Diary Development Board (NDDB), which helps to establish
village diary cooperatives, could also work towards bio methanation.
Diary cooperatives could be particularly helpful in popularizing biogas
plants among milk producers. The integrated diary-cum biogas
cooperative ensures that every milk shed should have at least one
17
community plant and one demonstration family unit. Visit of farmers to
demonstration unit could help to promote bio methanation.
Myles (1985) 37
by providing training and extension facilities, to advance in consultation
with central and state governments, grants, subsidies and loans directly to
the public corporate bodies like State Renewable Agencies, KVIC, KVIB,
State-Agro Industries Corporations, Diary Development Corporations,
Tribal Development Corporations etc.; and to secure voluntary agencies
support for implementation of programme.
Odum and Odum (1985) 38
pointed out that Energy is the basic
natural resource which is indispensable for mankind.
Prakash (1986) 39
viewed that in Kerala, the wind energy potential
is estimated to be 3.237 x 10 9
KWH and is a highly promising source. As
Kerala has a vast coastal line and is comparatively cyclone free, wind
energy can be exploited on a large scale.
Jain (1986) 40
forecasted the demand for non-conventional energy.
His estimates indicated that every fifteen years the demands for energy
will nearly double the present rate of consumption.
Leach (1987) 41
recommended that implementing agencies should
have requisite facilities at its disposal such as a small workshop to
manufacture steel components like gasholders, class room facilities to
impart necessary training to the concerned staff, infrastructure support for
plant maintenance, adequate space for storing cement and steel and
18
and financial activities.
experimented that the biogas can be used as
fuel for boilers to produce both electricity and hot water. He also
suggested that animal wastes on a farm can be used as input in biogas
plant for producing electricity. He described a large sized plant in Italy
which produces biogas with 35000 animal wastes on a farm with 35000
Hens and 1000 Pigs. Before fermentation, waste is purified by aerated
lagooning.
All India Coordinated Research Project on renewable sources of
energy for agriculture and Agro-based Industries (ICARS)’s (1988)
revealed the effect of biogas manure on the yield of agricultural crops.
Biogas manure can replace up to 50-70 per cent of recommended N-
fertilizer for paddy, wheat, and maize. Raghavan B.S. (1988) 43
reported
that amount of fertilizer obtained from a 2m 3 bio gas plant in an year is
equivalent to 109 kg of urea, 275 kg of super phosphate and 50 kg of
potash. This can meet the fertilizer needs of 1 acres of land for two crops
in a year.
Devadas (1988) 44
found out that In India, abundant sunshine is
available for at least 8 months during the year; India gets 3000 hours of
sunshine a year. So India has an ample opportunity to produce solar
energy.
19
suggested the dimensions of biogas usage. In his
opinion biogas can be used for preparing food and for performing various
agricultural tasks.
reported the importance of taking maximum
effort to popularize biogas programme. Based on that report, reliance on
biogas as a fuel requires neither any import nor dependence on
diminishing supply of indigenous energy resources. Whereas fuel wood,
charcoal, kerosene, petroleum and coal resources may not last forever;
biogas shall be available as long as cattle play a major role in the country’s
agriculture and milk production.
Puri (1990)47 revealed that one solar cooker capable of cooking 4
items at one time for 3-4 persons can save about six cylinders of Liquid
Petroleum Gas (LPG) or 500-600 Kg of wood per annum.
IGNOU (1990) 48
revealed that cooking is indispensible even if
there is no sunshine on a particular day. Hence utilization of solar cookers
can only be considered as second mode of cooking.
Shah’s (1990) 49
consumed in the rural domestic sector is for cooking meals.
Devadas et al. (1990) 50
cautioned about the increase in demand for
energy. In order to meet the crucial energy demand, usage of non-
conventional sources of energy like solar energy in the household sector is
inevitable.
20
, a district wise review of the state showed
that Palghat topped with around 17 per cent of the total number of biogas
plants followed by Kottayam with 13.6 per cent, Ernakulam with 12.4 per
cent and Trivandrum with 12.1 per cent. Thus, these four districts together
accounts for more than half (about 57 per cent) of the total plants installed
in the state. Rests of the plants were distributed thinly in other districts
with Kozhikode at the bottom accounting for about 3 per cent.
Chaudhary (1990) 52
’s experimental study on impact of biogas on
women in Bhopal district tends to know the impact of adoption of biogas
technology for cooking purpose on life and culture of women. It explores
relevance of such indigenous technology in relation to saving of time and
money. The findings of this study revealed that by and large there was
slight reduction of time in the preparation of breakfast. This was because
some new items were incorporated in it.
Shah (1990) 53
opined that the solar cooker did not get good
response in rural areas because the main diet in the village was roti and
subji, which only require roasting. Procedure to cook part of the meal on
the terrace or open ground and part of it in the kitchen looked non-
traditional and it would take time to accept this habit. The educated mass
accepted the concept of solar cooker easily, when it was explained with
facts and figures.
revealed the technological development in
India in the field of alternative energy sources such as solar, ocean,
thermal, gobar gas and wind energy etc along with development all over
the world.
opined that photovoltaic systems are ideally
suited for sites, which are not connected with electric grids located across
deserts, thick jungles and mountains.
Manu (1992) 56
has conducted a study on the supply of solar
energy. The study revealed that solar energy, which is readily available for
almost 250 to 300 days per year at free of cost, has been identified as one
of the most significant non-conventional source of energy.
Manu (1992) 57
opined that a solar cooker does not work on cloudy
and rainy days and at night. According to him, Chappathi cannot be
cooked in it, and frying cannot be done.
Bhide’s (1992) 58
study in Hariyana state showed that there was a
high positive correlation between income level and domestic fuel used for
consumption in rural as well as urban areas.
Joshi et al, (1992) 59
studied about the importance of repairing and
maintenance of biogas plants. Damage to the civil structure is a common
reason for failure in fixed dome plants; the cost of repairing a cracked or
damaged dome is as high as 30per cent of the full cost of a biogas plant
and repairing the inlet and outlet tank costs 5-10 per cent. Thus even if
repair services are available, the cost is so high that the owner of biogas
plant will hesitate to get it repaired.
22
According to Dayal (1992) 60
solar energy provides clean energy
and helps to preserve the environment and ecology. It is free and available
in adequate quantities in almost all parts of the world where people live.
The Economic Times (1992) 61
reported that wind energy is fast
emerging as the most cost effective source of power. It is a clean and
replenishable source of energy and although intermitted in its availability,
it is nevertheless a practically untapped energy source. The growing
interest in wind power technology can be attributed not only to its cost
effectiveness but also to other attractive features like short project
gestation and the non-polluting nature of the technology. Moreover wind
systems once installed do not require any energy inputs like diesel,
kerosene etc.
analyzed the supply of wind energy for
irrigation through water lifting in Kerala. They identified Palghat,
Alappuzha and Kozhikode was best suited for wind pump installation.
(Mean monthly wind speeds greater than 8 km ph for 10-12 months). In
some districts, the wind is seasonal. In general the wind velocity is high
during Dec. to April. This matched the peak irrigation requirement periods
of the state. They have also noted that although some wind pumps have
been installed by research agencies, most are not in working condition due
to selection of wrong sites and lack of maintenance.
Garcha and Sharma (1993) 63
conducted an experiment on the use
of biogas manure for preparing composite to grow mushrooms with a view
to reduce the cost of production. The experiment indicated that 67.2 kg
mushroom were produced in wheat straw and biogas manure mixture
23
compared to yield of 80.8 kg in standard composite. However, the cost of
production per kg of mushroom was less in wheat straw and biogas
manure mixture than standard composite due to low cost of inputs.
Johnson et al. (1993) 64
emphasized the role of renewable energy in
future. One of his studies reveal that by 2025 renewable energy could
contribute nearly 30 per cent of direct fuel use and 60 per cent of global
electricity supply. Further projections for 2050 shows that much of the
world’s growing energy needs could be met by renewable resources at
price lower than those forecast for conventional energy.
TERI (1994) 65
described the advantages of solar cooking than
other modes of cooking. It suggested that solar cooking is eco-friendly,
does not cause green house effect, poses no hazard and reduce fuel wood
consumption.
in their case study on
solar photovoltaic power plants for rural electrification at a tribal village-
Pakkom in Wayanadu District observed that the solar power plants are
technically feasible in remote locations where conventional power is
difficult to reach. Systems with more than two KW capacities may not be
feasible due to its scattered pattern of households in remote areas. In such
locations independent domestic lighting system for each household will be
more suitable.
Liebenthat et al., (1994) 67
found that many solar photovoltaic
systems failed after installation and it was only when supporting services
were introduced, the programme began to succeed in the Pacific Ocean.
24
David Elliott (1994) stated that “Energy Crisis” is the basic reason for
searching of new technologies. This search will lead to more exploitation
of renewable energy resources such as solar energy, wind energy etc.
Stibravy, R. (1994) 68
revealed that solar cooker only supplements
existing household fuels and is not a complete cooking system. It is
effective only in hot sunny days and it cannot do all kinds of cooking such
as frying.
reported that the cost of
renewable energy technology is likely to decline in the coming years due
to research and development, commercialization and increased scale of
production capacity.
analysed the fuel consumption pattern in the
urban and rural areas of Trivandrum District. He observed that in the rural
areas 94 percent of the households used firewood as a major fuel and
44.68 per cent collect wood from their own yards, while in urban areas 90
per cent of the households used LPG as a major fuel. Thus there is great
difference between rural and urban areas in the fuel consumption pattern.
The study concluded that no single fuel is used predominantly by any
socio-economic group. A mix of fuels such as fire wood, agricultural
waste, kerosene and LPG were generally used. The rural area itself there
are variation in fuel mix among various socio-economic groups. i.e. well
off sections of society use commercial sources of energy, while worse-off
sections depend on non-conventional sources. Solar street lights, solar TV
sets, solar pump sets etc are becoming a part and parcel of un-electrified
tribal and backward hamlets in Kerala.
25
Transmission and distribution loss of electricity in Kerala. Delphi study
has also been carried out to formulate suitable measures for reducing
transmission and distribution losses in Kerala.
Kanduala Subramaniom (1996) 72
in her study on Performance of
the state Electricity Boards, analysed the present structure and growth of
the electricity sector in India and the performance of the power sector
specially with respect to the technical and financial performance of State
Electricity Boards .
Indu. C. B (1999)73 in her study on System Dynamic Model for
Forecasting Power Requirements in Palakkad circle, Kerala made an
attempt to see the energy planning of the Palakkad Circle of Kerala State
Electricity Board by establishing relationships among various factors
causing the energy consumption and distributions.
Report From darkness to light, A Survey of Solar Lanterns in India
(2008) 74
stated that it is worth noting that despite being in the market for
the past 18 years and witnessing a steady growth, many manufacturers did
not find the product successful enough to take forward. The product is not
reliable, said a manufacturer, no longer in business, after incurring losses.
No doubt, MNRE has done a remarkable job. But the potential of the
market is much greater and still remains largely untapped with 76 million
rural households still awaiting access to electricity. The need of the hour
is for some concerted efforts both on the part of the government and
market players to not only disseminate solar lanterns but also spread
26
awareness among the masses about the benefits. The focus needs to be
shifted from mere subsidy support to proper information dissemination
support.
in his article on Solar Evangelist pointed out
that the renewable energy sector to have great potential and wide usage.
India is blessed with its availability of sunshine and has the power to
leverage this natural resource. The government and the academia cannot
alone bring in the change required. Private players have to come in a big
way and bring in innovative technologies, as well as increase volumes so
cost of generating electricity using solar energy is brought down.
In a study on non conventional energy sources- wind power in
Kerala, Shina. D (2009) 76
highlighted that the sole source of energy for
the earth is the sun. 3 per cent of solar energy received is converted into
wind energy, which if trappable would be more than sufficient to meet the
worldwide energy demand. It is no wonder that wind power has emerged
as a major non conventional option for power.
R.V.G. Menon (2009) 77
in his article on Energy won’t be easy
pointed out that electricity generation is, of course, the major energy
sector. Here the importance of Renewable Energy Sources has been well
recognized and given ample lip sympathy. We are still hiding behind the
excuse of high costs thereby allowing the market to dictate policy.
Kavya Michael (2010) 78
in his article on Rural Energy Security
and Climate Injustice in India Stated that economic growth doesn’t
become a reality when it happens at the expense of the marginalized
27
sections of the society. In this context the need for rural energy security to
prevent the hazards of climate injustice becomes important. Economic
growth in the country has to be de carbonized and at the same time the
energy policy of the country should be redrafted.
The review of literature made it clear that no studies were made in
the area of implementing agencies and their role in development and use
of non conventional energy sources in Kerala. To fill up this gap the
present study.
1.4 Statement of the Problem
The energy sector has become a matter of major concern over the
years due to the fast rising demand for petrol and diesel over the globe.
Heavy reliance upon the conventional fossil fuel has given birth to
indefinite headaches for the economies worldwide. So the need of the
hour is to rely more upon the non-conventional or renewable energy
sources like solar, wind and bio-mass.
India is a global hub for renewable energy technologies and their
implementation with a large availability of solar irradiations, vast wind
energy sources and a large amount of agricultural land, we can adopt an
integrated energy and a systematic approach to bring about a total solution
which takes into account the vital renewable energy sources namely, wind,
solar and bio fuels.
In Kerala the density of population is very high and the energy
needed for meeting their immediate necessities of life is also very high on
28
the one hand and the depletion of conventional energy sources on the
other. For the sustainable development in the field of energy is urgently
needed. In order to conserve the conventional energy sources, we have to
develop and use non-conventional energy sources. For its development
and use by all people, it needs creation of awareness to the people about
its sources, manner in which it is used and from where it is available. In
this respect a great help is given by the agencies. No research studies yet
made on the role of implementing agencies in the development and use of
non-conventional energy sources in Kerala and hence the present study.
1.5 Objectives of the Study
The major objectives set for the present study are shown below:
1. To review the present state of affairs as to the role of different
implementing agencies in the development of non conventional
energy sources.
2. To measure the extent of the role in developing and extending non
conventional energy schemes by agencies under organized and
unorganized sector.
3. To develop a multiple regression model through the construction
of predictor equations on different exogenous factors.
4. To assess the role variability in developing and implementing non
conventional energy schemes across different regions and among
different implementing agencies.
The present study is focused on the following broad hypotheses:
1. There is no significant difference in the role of implementing
agencies of non conventional energy schemes across different
strata’s -Seven Hypotheses
2. There is no significant variation in the role of implementing
agencies of different Strata’s - Seven Hypotheses.
1.7 Methodology
Empirical research method is adopted in the study which tests the
feasibility of solution using empirical evidence and is based on opinion
survey method. Based on various research studies conducted in the area,
tentative sub-components (items) are identified. The items are grouped
based on similarities of their characteristic features under independent
variables. The details of the main and sub-variables are elaborated in
Chapter III.
(ANERT) and BIOTECH under the organised sector and people trained
from these organisations under unorganised sector have been contributing
significantly in the development and exploitation of new and non-
conventional energy sources of the state and hence the present study is
confined to these agencies. A sample of 45 beneficiaries from each of the
organisations under organised sector (90) and 30 beneficiaries from
30
unorganised sector was selected through proportionate sampling procedure
to make 120 beneficiary respondents for the study. From the functional
area of each organisation, a sample of 30 non-beneficiaries each was
selected as respondents through purposive random sampling procedure to
make 60 non-beneficiary respondents. Thirty worker respondents selected
at random from the two organisations and 10 worker respondents selected
at random from the unorganised sector to make 40 worker respondents
which also forms part of the total sample. Thus, the size of the sample
works out to 220 (120+60+40).
1.8.1.1 Sampling Technique
A sample of 220 respondents from the Agency for Non-
Conventional Energy and Rural Technology (ANERT) and BIOTECH
under the organised sector and people trained from these organisations
under unorganised sector. The sampling procedure is detailed below:
1.8.1.2 Selection of Beneficiaries
A sample of 45 beneficiaries from each of the organisations under
organised sector was selected through proportionate sampling procedure to
make 90 beneficiary respondents for the study. A sample of 30
beneficiaries is also selected from unorganised sector through
proportionate sampling procedure. Thus the total sample beneficiary for
the study is 120.
1.8.1.3 Selection of Non-Beneficiary
From the functional area of each organisation, a sample of 30 non-
beneficiaries was selected as respondents through purposive random
sampling procedure. No list of non-beneficiaries was maintained in any of
the agencies under unorganised sector, non-beneficiaries from unorganised
sector were omitted from the sample.
1.8.1.4 Selection of Workers
Thirty (30) worker respondents selected at random from the two
organisations and 10 worker respondents selected at random from the
unorganised sector also forms part of the total sample.
1.8.2 Collection of Data
On the basis of various research studies conducted in the area,
various tentative sub-components or items are identified. Pertinent reports
of research studies by the Universities, Government Departments, State
Planning Board, Planning Commission and Non Governmental
Organisations were reviewed and utilised as secondary data. Primary data
on the variables identified and personal profile were collected through
Interview schedule specifically designed for this purpose. The model of
Interview Schedule is shown in Appendix 1. A seven point rating scale
was developed to indicate the scores of opinion of the respondents. A
pilot survey has also been conducted for modification of the interview
schedule. The details of distribution of Interview Schedules to different
groups of respondents are explained in Chapter III.
32
Statistical tools used for analysis are the Percentage, Mean, Standard
Deviation, co-efficient of variation, Multiple Correlations and Multiple
Regression using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). An item
wise analysis for all the sub-components (items) of entire main variables
was made using the average opinion scores. Multiple Regression analysis
is made for framing predictor equations of role play model of
implementing agencies of non-conventional energy schemes in Kerala by
taking the dependent variable and independent variables. For the purpose
of testing the hypotheses, Correlation co-efficient, one sample t test,
Analysis of Variance – one way (ANOVA) were used as tools.
1.9 Scope of the Study
The study has been envisaged as a first level approach to the
problem under investigation. Consequently, the study has been designed
to identify independent (predictor) variables which can be used for
predicting the role play potential of the implementing agencies in Kerala.
The scope of the study extends to the whole of Kerala state scaled down to
the sample. The sample of the study is drawn from the implementing
agencies under organized and unorganized sectors.
1.10 Period of the Study
As the study focused on the role play of implementing agencies of
non-conventional energy schemes under organised (both governmental
33
and non-governmental) and unorganised sectors as well. The period of
this study was taken as five years from 2006.
1.11 Limitations of the study
There are several implementing agencies of non-conventional
energy schemes in the state with diverge role in implementation of wide
variety of schemes. But due to time and cost constraints, the researcher
could address only the role played by the major implementing agencies in
the state.
1.12 Chapterisation Scheme
The scheme of chapters in the study is arranged in the following
manner:
chapterisation schemes.
INDIA AND KERALA –AN OVERVIEW : This chapter
describes present status of non-conventional energy sources
in India and Kerala an overview including the major
implementing networks under organized and unorganized
sectors in Kerala.
elucidates the theoretical framework showing the scaffold
of entire research design. It also shows the linkages of
various components systematically structured therein so as
to have an overall picture of research process.
Chapter IV: ROLE OF IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES IN NON
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOSURCES – AN
scores of respondents and interpret the result using
statistical tools. It also attempts to fit regression equations
on the role play by implementing agencies in the
development of non conventional energy sources in Kerala.
Chapter V: DIFFERENTIAL PATTERNS OF SCHEME
IMPLEMENTATION: The sixth chapter tests validity of
the various null hypotheses with the help of Correlation co-
efficient, one sample t test and ANOVA.
Chapter VI: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
SUGGESTIONS: This chapter gives a summary on major
findings. The chapter concludes with major
recommendations and suggestions of the study.
35
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