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Prepared by :State Council of EducationalResearch and Training (SCERT)Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram - 12, Kerala.Website www.scertkerala.gov.ine-mail [email protected]

© Government of Kerala • Department of Education • 2009

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GLOBES AND MAPSGLOBES AND MAPS

Standard - EightSocial Science

112

The students of Government Moyan’sModel Girls Higher Secondary School,Palakkad walked through the roads inthe nearby surroundings with theirteacher and made an outline map of thearea. Their aim was to learn how thegeographical features of a particulararea could be represented on a sheet ofpaper.

They selected a road which was almoststraight. Observe how they havemarked the houses and establish-mentson both sides of the road in the outlinemap.

• Which are the establishments markedin the outline map?

• In which direction of the school canyou find the homeo clinic?

Find out the directions with a magneticcompass while you are walkingthrough the road and note them downin the outline map you are preparing.Also show the direction when you markthe buildings, water pipes etc. using amagnetic compass.

Measure the distance by foot as youproceed through the road. For example,

N

S

EW

Prepare a similar outline map walkingalong a road near your school with thehelp of your teacher.

Symbols

Tuition Centre

Music School

Homeo ClinicHouse

School

Temple

Arts Society

Water pipe

Hindi School

Chapter - EightGlobes and Maps

113you can measure the distance to thewaterpipe in the road by foot. Notedown such details on a piece of paper.

Modify the outline map when youreturn to the classroom. Make use ofyour own symbols.

Things to be noted

• Buildings on both sides of theroad.

• The proportionate size of buildingsand the distance in between.

• Other roads

• Direction

Display the outline map you haveprepared in the class.

The map prepared by incorporating thegeographical features on both sides ofa road or a path is known as a transitmap.

• Prepare a transit map of the area inwhich your house is located.

Modern Maps

Given below is the map of Ceylon (thepresent Srilanka) made in 1650. Thiswas made on a copper plate. Observethe map. Is the direction marked in it?

• Compare the given map with that ofSrilanka in your atlas and mark thedirections in it accordingly.

The widely accepted method is to markthe North direction on the top of the map.

History of Maps

After the industrial revolution theEuropean countries established coloniesall over the world. They began theirexplorations in search of raw materialsand markets for their industrialproduces. Most of their journeys wereby road and as a result, moderntechniques of map making weredeveloped. Countries such as Englandand France regarded maps as their

The Map of Ceylon (1650)


114secret documents. During the warperiod maps were used extensively.

Some international standards becomemandatory as maps began to be madeand used largely. Today, all the mapshave the north direction marked on topof it. Similary, the symbols and coloursused in the maps have also beeninternationally standardized.

Treasure hunt

The Social Science Club of the schoolconducted a ‘Treasure HuntProgramme.’ Geethu and Gokul werethe members of the first group. Theteacher took them to the pillar near thenorthern side of the gate and gave themhints regarding the treasure hunt. Atape and magnetic compass also weregiven to them. The hints given were asfollows.

45 metres from here to the North, then 40meters to the West; again 40 metres to theNorth and 80 mtrs. to the West. Next 150metres to the South then 120 metres. to theEast and finally 60 metres to the North.

The children who moved accordinglyfound the ‘treasure’ placed under a tree.

• Can you prepare the outline map ofthe area that Gokul and Geethuwalked around?

You can use any suitable scale such as1 cm to 10 mtrs. Include the followingdetails in the outline map alreadyprepared by you and convert it into anoutline map of the school compound.

• Towards north a lab-cum-librarycomplex of 50 metres long and 6metres wide.

• A school building in the west, 80metres long and 6 metres wide.

• Another school building in theSouth, 80 metres long and 6 metreswide.

• An office building in the East 40metres long and 6 metres wide.

• Two urinals-one in the North Westand one in the South West, 7 metreslong and 2 metres wide.

• A garden and a flag-post in frontof the office.

• A road in front of the school inthe North-South direction.

Maps speak

We can get information regarding thephysical as well as man-made featuresof an area by reading maps. After all, amap is a collection of all suchinformation.


115Study the map and answer the followingquestions.

• How can you identify thesettlements given in the map?

• Which is the major river flowingthrough the given area?

• Are there any forests marked inthe map?

• How are the agricultural landsidentified?

Let us measure the distance

You might have attempted to use theratio of distance between variousobjects while preparing a transit mapand the outline map of your schoolcompound. The actual distancebetween two points on the map and itscorresponding distance on the actualground exists in a ratio.

The scale of the given toposheet is1: 50,000. One unit in the map isequivalent to 50,000 units on the actualground. For example, one centimetre inthe map represents an actual distanceof 50,000 centimetres or half akilometre. Apart from 1:50000 scale,toposheets with 1:25000, 1 :250000,1:1000000 scales are also prepared bySurvey of India. Toposheets were madeearlier in the scales 1: 63360 and1: 12,5000.

Measure the length of the river using atwine from the map.................................. cmsNow, find out the actual length of theriver using the scale.................................. Kms

Toposheet

A toposheet is a map in which the man-made and natural features of a smallarea are represented using suitablesymbols and colours.

The history of toposheets has close linkswith military activities. Hence they wereknown in England as Ordnance Surveymaps.

The use and possession of toposheetscontaining information regardingstrategically important areas such asadministrative offices, atomic powerstations, dam sites and internationalboundaries are restricted. They areprepared after conducting elaboratesurveys. In India this work is carriedover by the ‘Survey of India'. Theheadquarters of Survey of India is inDehradun, the capital of Uttar khand.

A portion of a toposheet is given in thenext page. Observe it and fill up thetable given below.

Sheet No.

Scale

Year in which itwas published

Prepare a table of the natural and manmade features given in the map. Youcan make use of the index given in thenext page for filling up the gaps.

Man made Natural• Road • River• .......................... • ..........................• .......................... • ..........................• .......................... • ..........................• .......................... • ..........................


116Toposheet

(A Part of Sheet No. B958 )

76° 32'E 76° 36'E

10°45'

10°50'


117Index

58 B / 9 SECOND EDITION

In toposheets, farmlands are yellow in colour, forests are givenin green colour and water bodies are shown in blue colour.


118Details of selected items from the index

Index Colour Objects Represented

Brown

Blue

Black

Green

Green

Red

Red

Red

Red

Yellow

White

Green

BlueBlue

Black

Sandy surfaces andsand dunes

Perennial river

Non-Perennialriver

Dense forest

Open forest

Settlements

MetalledRoads

UnmetalledRoads

Tracks

Agricultural Lands

Fallow Land

Plantations

Perennial wells

Non-Perennialwells


119Let us measure the height

There are three methods by which theheight of an area can be represented.

1. A black spot, along with thenumber indicative of the height.

2. The symbol followed by anumber.

3. The letters, BM and the numberwhich shows the height.

A

These lines represent places of equalheights above the mean sea-level. Theselines are called contours.

Now, look at the picture given below.

Picture B gives details regarding theheight and extent of the hill shown inPicture A using contours.

• What is the maximum height of thehill?

• Find out the highest points in PictureA and Picture B.

Given below is a method to understandthe shape of an area using contor lines.

100 m 100 m

220 m

B

• The intervals of contours are less atcertain places whereas it is more atsome other places. What does thisindicate?

The intervals between contours are lesswhile representing steep regions andare more for representing regions withgentle slope.

• You would have understood howtoposheets are different from othermaps. Based on your understandingprepare a note on toposheets.

Atlas

An Atlas is a collection of maps ofregions with different physical andcultural features. Important rivers, cities,roads, hills, mountains, climate, forestsetc. can be understood from the Atlases.

Observe the atlas in your school. Atlasmaps depict the details of larger regionsin contrary to toposheets.

100120140160180200220

Hei

ght

in m

etre

s

Contour Interval

100

200 220


120

Preparations for a study tour

It was decided to conduct a study tourfrom the school. Where to go? Studentssuggested the names of various places.The final list after the discussions aregiven below.

Mahe Bengaluru

Bhopal Cochin

Chennai Mumbai

Madurai Visakhapatanam

Goa

• Locate the places with the help of anatlas.

You may be able to find out the placesgiven above even without the help ofthe index given in the atlas. But an indexis necessary when you have to find outplaces which are less familiar to you.The place index is given in the lastpages of the atlas.

If you want to find out whereVisakhapatanam is, go to the index andsearch through the entries starting withthe letter, ‘V’ (just like in dictionaries).Some numerical values and alphabetswill also be added to the place namessuch as 11 17° 42’ N 83° 18’ E.

• The numerical value, 11, indicates thepage number in which the map isgiven.

• 17° 42’N indicates the latitude.

• 83° 18’E shows the longitude.

• Visakhapattanam can be found inpage number 11 of the atlas, wherethe latitude, 17° 42’N and thelongitude, 83° 18’E meet.

There are other types of indexes givenin atlases too. Examine the atlas in yourschool.

• Is the atlas useful to find out thetourist spots in Kochi? Why?

• Can you find out the route fromKochi to Visakhapatanam andChennai from atlas? Why?

Colour maps

Notice the physical map of India givenin the atlas. Different colours are usedto indicate the varying heights of places.Find out the difference of height withtheir corresponding colours given in theindex.

Given below are the names of somecapital cities in India. Find out theirheight from the sea-level as given in theatlas and coplete the table.

City Height in Meters

Thiruvananthapuram Between- -- mtrs and- mtrs

Bengaluru

Bhopal

Srinagar

Kohima

• Which are the cities lying closer tothe sea level?

Ww


121• Which city is located at a maximum

altitude from the sea-level?

Thematic Maps

You have learned about various typesof maps in this unit. For example,toposheets contain more informationwhereas the maps in an atlas focus oncertain particular themes only. Suchmaps are known as thematic maps.Look at the atlas and make a list ofvarious themes represented in them.

11 Jharkhand 338

12 Karnataka 275

13 Kerala 819

14 Madhya Pradesh 196

15 Maharashtra 314

16 Manipur 107

17 Meghalaya 103

18 Mizoram 42

19 Nagaland 120

20 Orissa 236

21 Punjab 482

22 Rajasthan 165

23 Sikkim 76

24 Tamilnadu 478

25 Tripura 304

26 Uttarkhand 159

27 Uttar Pradesh 689

28 West Bengal 904

Source: Census Highlights: Methodology andIndia Coverage - Ashish Bose

• Colour the boxes according to theindex given below.

• Colour the states according to thedensity of population as shown inthe boxes.

Index

Density of Population (Population persquare kilometre).

0 ˛ 250

251 ˛ 500

501 ˛ 750

751 ˛ 1000

Prepare a thematic map of India byincluding the following details in it.

Sl. State DensityNo. of

Population1 Andhra Pradesh 275

2 Arunachal Pradesh 13

3 Assam 340

4 Bihar 880

5 Chattisgarh 154

6 Goa 363

7 Gujarat 258

8 Harayana 477

9 Himachal Pradesh 109

10 Jammu & Kashmir 99

PhysicalMap

Physiography Places ofvarying heights,rivers, heightsof mountainpeaks, hills etc.

Map Theme Elaboration

PoliticalMap


122India - Density of population

International boundary

National boundary

State boundary

Paki

stan

Nepal Bhutan

Bangladesh

Bay o

f Ben

galA

rabian Sea

Srilanka


123Globes and maps

Observe the pictures given below


124

• Are globes and maps used for thesame purpose?

• Stretch a thread from Lisbon, thecapital of Portugal, situated at the

western side of Europe on the globe,to New Delhi.

• Find out the names of the countriesthrough which the thread passes.


125• Stretch a thread between Lisbon and

New Delhi in the world map givenin the Atlas.

Note down the countries through whichthe thread passes.

• Are the countries identified from theglobe and the map the same? If not,what may be the reason? Discuss inthe class and make a note.

• Compare the globe and map, basedon the hints given below.

The difference in the size of thelatitudes from the equator to thepoles.

The difference in shape anddistances between the longitudes.

The size of the continents situatedin the equatorial and polarregions.

Shapes of the arctic and theantarctic regions.

The distance between the easternend of Russia, and the western endof North America (Alaska).

Though globes are a replica of ourplanet, maps are used more widely thanglobes. Why?

• Which is more suitable -the map orthe globe- to find out informationregarding the following?

1. Your Panchayat

2. Taluk

3. State

4. The features of India.

Based on the activities mentionedabove make a comparisonbetween the globe and the mapand prepare a note.

• Now you are familiar with differenttypes of maps. Try to fill up thefollowing table.

Map Large Area /Small Area

Transit mapToposheetAtlas mapWall mapPanchayat map

The atlas and wall maps contain onlythe important information regardinglarge areas and therefore, they areknown as the small scale maps. Thetransit maps, toposheets, and panchayatmaps contain all the detailedinformation regarding smaller areas.Hence, they are known as large scalemaps.

•


126

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONINDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Chapter - NineIndustrial Revolution

127

You have already studied aboutvarious industries in the previousclasses. Which are the major industriesin your locality? What are the productsbeing manufactured there? How manyworkers are employed there? Whattype of energy is used to run themachines? What are the differentquestions that come up in your mindwhen you think of industries?

We all know that even before theinvention of machines men hadproduced the necessary things requiredfor their living. There were many socialclasses in our country with their owncrafts and craftsmanship. For example,the blacksmith's work is a traditionalskill handed down throughgenerations. In olden days, only skilledlabourers worked as blacksmiths. Butgradually such jobs came to be donewith the help of machines. With theadvent of machines, the manufacture ofthings using iron has attained the statusof a large scale industry.

• Many handicraft products are nowmanufactured in large factories. Findout examples of such items andmake a list of them.

• Agricultural tools.

•

•

• Home appliances.

•

•

We will be discussing the origin oflarge scale industries in this unit.

Advent of Large scale IndustriesDuring the 18th century, inventions inthe field of science and technologyhappened in and around Europe. Mostof these inventions were made use ofin industries. This increased the rate ofproduction. The resultant changes in thesociety are now known as IndustrialRevolution. Large scale industriesemerged all over Europe as a result ofthe industrial revolution.

As the mode of production changedfrom manual labour to mechanicalproduction, the factories began to becentres of large scale manufacturingand industrial towns sprang up aroundsuch factories.

Let us examine the circumstances whichultimately led to the industrialrevolution.

Growth of TradeEuropean countries had traderelationships with many foreigncountries such as India. We havealready learned how the English EastIndia Company was formed and whattactics they used to earn great profit.

European countries had trade relationswith many other foreign countriesbesides India.

England dominated the field of foreigntrade when compared to otherEuropean countries.


128The English East India Company wasestablished in 1600 for conductingtrade with India. Captain Hawkins,the representative of the companysought the consent of the Mughalemperor Jehangir for trading withIndia. The company established tradecentres in places such as Surat, Agra,Ahmedabad, Massulipattanam andBroach. Later, they started suchcentres in Madras, Bengal andBombay. The British had got Madrasfrom the rulers of Chandragiri. WhenPrince Charles of England married aPortugese princess, he got Bombay asdowry which, later, he handed overto the company. The companybought villages in Bengal namelySatnadi, Govindapuram and Kalighatto build the city of Calcutta.

The British first attempted to capturethe political power over Bengal whichwas a rich and fertile region of India.The company’s representatives beganto misuse the right for trade whichthey had got from the Mughalemperor. They began to involve inprivate trade without even paying thetax which ultimately led to the Battleof Plassey.

The English East India Companyhad tough competition with theFrench East India Company and theDutch East India Company. But theirwealth, naval power and efficientleadership gave them an upper handand they began to flourish in the fieldof trade.

Not only did England enjoy theforemost position in the field of foreigntrade, they also enjoyed limitlessfreedom in buying and selling goodsin their own country and in Europe.Goods imported from foreign countrieswere strictly prohibited in England.Those who used foreign goods weremade to pay penalty. The English grewrich because of external as well asinternal trade. This led to a rise in theirstandard of living too.

The products manufactured in Englandfetched markets both inside andoutside the country. This led to greatincrease in production.

Population Growth

The Population of Europe had beenincreasing tremendously since the 17thcentury. Look at the table given below.

Year Population(in millions)

1650 103

1750 144

1800 193

1850 274

1900 423

Source : Warter.F.Wilkoks, InternationalMigration

• How can we connect the populationgrowth in Europe with the industrialrevolution? Discuss it in class.

• Increased need for products

•


129

Thread being spinned as a part of domesticproduction system

Inadequacy of the DomesticProduction System

The British merchants depended uponthe domestic production system to meetthe demand for goods. It was the ruralfarmers, who produced these goods byworking at their homes. They werebasically farmers. During intervals intheir agrarian work, they engagedthemselves in the production of certainother goods too. Textiles were the chiefitems thus made. The capitalist, knownas the ‘manager’ bought cotton anddistributed it among the workers. Theworkers made clothes using handloomand ratt. The manager sold these in themarket and made profits out of them.

In 1712, the steam engine whichcould pump water from theNewcomin Mines was invented. Butit couldn't be made use of in otherindustrial enterprises. It was JamesWatt who, in 1769, came forward witha steam engine that worked withsteam power by moving a pistonwithin it forward and backward. Healso later invented the technology tooperate the weaving machine usingsteam engine.

James Watt in his laboratory

production, made spinning easier. Asthe process of spinning became fast, theneed for sufficient supply of threadsalso increased. This paved the way forthe search of machines which couldmake strong threads at a faster rate.Thus, James Hargreaves invented theSpinning Jenny which could make tenthreads at a time. The search for bettermachines continued and newinventions were made. Most of theseinventions were made by the commoncraftsmen who were engaged in the fieldof textile production.

As the demand for textiles increased,the domestic production system provedto be insufficient. As a result, to increaseproduction small workshops werestarted. This marked the beginning ofthe search for methods for making moregoods in less time and using less labour.

The Invention of Machines

Flying shuttle, the first machineinvented in the field of textile


130

The manufacturing of machinesincreased the demand for iron. Thus,iron metallurgy became an industry.The production and export of ironincreased tremendously. Textile dyeingpaved way for developments in the fieldof chemical industry.

• The growth of a particular industryinfluences other industrial sectorsalso. For example, industral sectorsare influenced by the growth of theconstruction sector. Can you find outsimilar examples?

Spinning Jenny

• Find out how the inventions madeduring the industrial revolution inEurope proved helpful to the cottonindustry.

The early machines were all manuallyoperated. Later they began to beoperated with hydraulic power. Buthydraulic power could not operateheavy machines. The invention ofsteam engine helped to overcome thislimitation.

Use of machines led to great increase intextile production. Moreover, thesecould be sold at much cheaper rates thanthe hand-made ones. In the year 1760,England exported cotton goods worth2.5 million pounds. (British currency)By 1800, this rose to 5 million pounds.The import rate of raw cotton alsoincreased. It was 2.5 million pounds in1760 which rose to 22 million in 1787and 366 million in 1837.

• What were the reasons for the suddenincrease in the export of cotton goodsin the 1800s?

The Great Trade Fair of 1851

Queen Victoria of Englandorganised a grand industrialexhibition in London in 1851. All thenewly invented machines such as theSpinning Jenny, Powerloom,Locomotives, Telegraph, Telephoneand the Printing Press wereexhibited in the trade fair. Thousandsof people, including foreigners, wereattracted towards the exhibition.Soon the technologies andtechnicians of England were in greatdemand all over the world. As aresult, the achievements of theindustrial revolution spread all overthe world.


131The Agrarian Revolution

The increasing demand for foodproducts and raw materials such ascotton, necessitated progress in thefield of agriculture. In the beginning ofthe 18th century itself acts were pasedin England for the distribution of landto individuals. With this, even wastelands began to be fenced and cultivated.Small pieces of land were joinedtogether to form larger farm lands andmachines began to be used foragricultural purposes. Wetlands wereconverted into farmlands after dryingthem up. New seeds and fertilizersbegan to be used. Better breeds of cattleincreased meat production. Jute andcotton began to be cultivated in largeplots of land.

• How is the growth in industry andagriculture interrelated? Discuss.

Mechanisation and scientific methodsled to great increase in agriculturalproduction; and the farmers whoaccepted these grew richer. As smallfarms were converted into larger ones,the petty farmers who had worked therewere all evicted. This brought inchanges in the social relations. Some ofthe former tenants turned intoagricultural labourers and manybecame industrial labourers.

Is it possible for small farmers andagricultural labourers to cultivate largeplots of lands with machines? Why?

• How could the use of machines fortilling and harvesting affect theagricultural labourers? Discuss.

• Find out and write down how thechanges in the field of production

affected small farmers andagricultural labourers.

Industrial Capitalism

You have already studied in previousclasses about the requirements forstarting an industry.

A mode of production, where there is acapitalist and labourers is calledcapitalism. The capitalist investsmoney required for production and heowns the capital in the form of machines,buildings and land. He buys the rawmaterials needed for production. Thechief feature of capitalism is that in itlabourers are employed on wages andthey are made to work.

The labourer sells his labour power tothe capitalist. In return he gets his wagesand he lives on that.

With the advent of machines,production was shifted from houses tofactories. The rich people of Englandstarted investing huge sums of moneyin big industries. Among them therewere many who had made profit frombusiness and others who had becomerich through agriculture. The situationin England at that time was favourablefor investing money in industries andmaking big profit.

Now, let us examine the factors whichhave favoured the progress ofindustries in England.

The Changing Outlook

The upperclass of England activelypromoted those who made money fromprofitable enterprises. They believedthat making profit from trade andindustries was a blessed task.


132

A female mine worker

England was rich with raw materials forthe industry such as iron and coal whichwere essential for industries. Easyavailability of raw materials motivatedpeople to invest money in theindustries. The factors that motivatedthe wealthy men of England to investin big industries are explained above.Such wealthy investors turned to be theindustrial capitalists. The very samepolicy was followed in the field ofagriculture and it gave rise toagricultural capitalism also.

• How did industrial capitalism differfrom agricultural capitalism? Makenotes on it.

Interference of the GovernmentThere was a stable government inEngland. Most of the members of theBritish Parliament were industrialists.The general policy of the BritishParliament was that encouragement toindustrial progress would lead thenation to progress. Legal documentsregarding the possession of land alsocame into existence which added to theconfidence of the industrialists andtradesmen. Transportation facilitieswere expanded; banks wereestablished to give financial aid toindustrialists. Export of goods tocountries like India and South Americawas greatly encouraged. Corn laws werepassed to promote easy import andexport of food grains.

• How did the governmentalinterference help industrial progressin England? Discuss.

• Policies in favour ofindustrialisation

• Transportation facilities.

•

The Plight of LabourersThe advent of large industries gave riseto a class called industrial labourers.Artisans who lost labour with thecoming of machines and petty farmerswho were evicted from land,flocked tothe factories in search of work. Besidesmany who came to England from theunderdeveloped regions such asIreland and Scotland in search of jobalso became industrial labourers.

The working conditions in the factorieswere quite dangerous. The machines inthe factories lacked adequate safetyarrangements. The buildings werenarrow and not properly ventilated.Women and children were made towork for very low wages. Children wereput to work as chimney sweepers.Often, very poor parents sold theirchildren as temporary factory workersto the industrialists on a weekly basis.Weekly markets were held for the saleand purchase of such children. Childrenfrom the orphanages also wereabducted and sold as factory workers.

The women and children working in thefactories lost their health. Even feedingmothers had to work at distant placeswhere there were no facilities to look

after their babies. Thus, the babies losttheir health; the rate of infant mortalityamong the working class families ofEngland was very high in those days.


133• We have seen the working

conditions of the labourers in Britishfactories in the 18th century. Howdifferent is it when compared to theworking conditions of the workers inour country today? Prepare a note onit.

Division of Labour and the ShiftSystemThe artisans and craftsmen of earliertimes had followed a system where eachcomplete product was made by a singleindividual. The factory system changedit completely. Different labourers wereappointed for doing various worksrelated to the production of a singleproduct. For example, the manufactureof a wrist watch today requires thecombined effort of many workers tomake different parts of it, such as thedial, main spring, gem studded holes,diamond lever, screw etc. This createdtwo categories among the workers - theskilled labourers and the unskilledlabourers.Such work as keeping thefactory clean and shifting goods fromone place to another etc, were done byunskilled workers.

• Visit an industry in your locality andmake a list of the skilled and unskilledlabourers working there.

• How does a factory labourer differfrom a craftsman? Make a list of thedifferences.

With long hours of continuous hardlabour in the factories, diseases likearthritis and physical deformitiesbecame common among workers.

Looking at the picture given above, canyou understand about the inhumanmiseries suffered by the mine workers?

• What were the hardships undergoneby the workers of England?

• Insecure working conditions

• Child labour

• Forced labour

• Unhealthy working atmosphere

•

Conduct a discussion in the class on thepoints mentioned above.

ExploitationThe capitalist made maximum profit byreducing the wages and by extendingthe duration of work up to eighteenhours a day. Keeping apart genderdifferences, all the workers were madeto work from early morning uptomidnight for weeks together. The wagesgiven to them were meagre and theyeven had to pay penalty for the mistakescommitted while working. The workersstarted to unite themselves against suchexploitations.

Handicraft Industrial labour

• Ownership of means ofproduction

• Has involvement in all thestages of production

•

• Labour alone is the asset

• Has to do only the speci-fied work

•


134As the large factories had to work dayand night, shift system was introduced.By ensuring the frequent availability oflabourers thus, the work in the factorywas never stopped.

As a result of shift system hugemachines were operated for 24 hours toincrease production and as a result,more production with less investmentbecame possible. For this the capitalistsemployed more labourers and madethem work day and night.

• Prepare a list of the advantages anddisadvantages of the shift system.

Joint VenturesSome industries such as the railway andshipping needed huge investmentswhich could not be met by a singleindividual. Besides, a person could notmanage such large enterprisesindividually. This situation gave rise tojoint ventures where more than oneperson invested the capital. EnglishEast India Company was such a jointventure emerged under suchcircumstances.

• We can see such joint ventures in ourstate too. Prepare a list of the jointventures in our state.

Bitter Competitions and theEmergence of MonopolyCompetition is a characteristic featureof capitalism. One of the major tacticsto destroy the opponent was to reducethe price of the product. But this causedgreat loss of profit to capitalists. In orderto avoid this, those who manufacturedthe same product formed a solidarity.These came to be known as trusts,cartels or syndicates. They further triedto destroy those who were not membersof their group using several tactics such

as blocking the availability of rawmaterials, using trade unions to blocksupply of labourers, blocking the traderoutes, freezing of loans and boycottingthe opponent companies. Thusdestroying those companies, who didnot join their group, great monopoliesarose.

• We can see such competitions in theindustrial set up in our society too.For example, the emergence of manycompanies in the field of televisionmanufacturing has brought in heavycompetition in this field. Shall wehave a discussion on the merits anddemerits of competition among theindustries?

Growth of Telecommunication andTransportationBetter transportation facilities wereessential for the development ofindustries. John Mecadam made roads

It was George Stevenson whoinvented the first train using steamengine. The first ever train journeystarted operating in Englandbetween Liverpool and Manchestercarrying passengers and luggages in1830.

The train invented by George Stevenson


135with firm surface at the beginning ofthe nineteenth century. Cobble stonesand mud were used earlier in roadmaking. This was later replaced withtar. The newly invented steam ships andthe newly made canals provided betterwater transportation facilities. Iron railsand steam locomotives made a giantleap in the field of transportation.

Samuel Morse invented the telegraphin 1837. This invention was a milestonein the history of telecommunications asit ushered in a new era in this field.Moreover, it paved the way forcommunication between trade centres allover the world.• How the development in the fields

of transpor on and telecommunicationhelped in the growth of industries?

Growth of Industrial CitiesThe growth of the factory systemattracted more and more people to the industrial centres. The population of

industrial centres in England, such asManchester, Leeds, Sheffield,Birmingham and Lancashire increasedmany fold within a short span of time.These areas that existed as underdeveloped villages before the IndustrialRevolution, gradully developed in tobig cities. As the cities began to bedensely populated it created certainhealth problems and environmentalproblems of which the poor factoryworkers were the chief sufferers. Mostof them lived in shacks in the nearbyslums of the factories where wastematerials were dumped. Dirty waterformed stagnant pools and drinkingwater was scarcely available. Theworkers lived in an environment madedirty with domestic waste and humanexcreta. Contagious diseases such as

A slum area

Sheffield

Burmingham

London

England

ManchesterLeadsLancashire

Scotland

France

The industrial centres in England


136

Adam Smith

cholera, typhoid and tuberculosis werecommon among the inhabitants of theslums.

At the same time, rich upper classpeople such as the industrialists, moneylenders, higher officials and merchantswere all unaffected by the polluted airand water as they lived in big mansionsfar away from the industrial centres.Feasts, and leisure trips on holidayswere their chief means of enjoyment.They lived a life full of luxury andmerry making, as the hotels and theatreswere all built for them.

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru wrotethus about the inequality whichexisted in the Post IndustrialRevolution society in his ‘Glimpses ofWorld History’ -

"...From its earliest days capitalismemphasized the difference between therich and the poor. The mechanizationof industry resulted in much greaterproduction, and therefore it producedgreater wealth. But this new wealthwent to a small group only - theowners of the new industries. Theworkers remained poor. Very slowlythe workers' standards improved inEngland, largely because of theexploitation of India and other places.But the worker's share in the profits ofindustry was very small....

• Based on the points stated in thetextbook, discuss the irreparable gapthat the industrial revolution created

between the haves and have nots andprepare a note of it.

New thoughts

The philosophers who lived in thisperiod had strong faith in the completefreedom of the individual. Individualsare all free and therefore, thegovernment has no right to interfere intheir affairs. To involve in trade andindustry is a matter of free choice forthe individual. The government is

solely entrusted with duties such asprotecting the country from foreignattacks and safeguarding internal peace.This theory was known as ‘laissezfaire’.(let alone) They also believed thatin a world of competition, it was theprivilege of the able and the powerfulto succeed. Only the profitable andrewarding activities will survive, andall the others will naturally die out.Thinkers such as Adam Smith, DavidRecardo, Malthuse, J.B. Say and J.S. Millshared such ideas.


137• How did the new thoughts

prove helpful for the growth ofcapitalism?

By justifying the capitalistmethod.

There have been many findingsthat have influenced human life allacross the world. Conduct an

exhibition in disposition withsocial science club after collectingpictures and informationregarding great inventions andtheir consequent developments.

• Conduct a seminar on the topic - 'Theimpact of industries on the society'.

$


138

LABOUR MOVEMENTSLABOUR MOVEMENTS

Chapter - TenLabour movements

139

You have already seen how the workingclass movements emerged as a resultof the Industrial Revolution in England.We have also discussed the patheticcondition of the factory workers inthose days and how they were subjectedto capitalist exploitation. There will befactory workers in your place also.Other than factory workers what othertype of labourers are there in yourlocality? List them.

• Conduct a survey with the help ofyour teachers regarding the nature oftheir work, their working conditionsand wages.

• What are the changes we can noticein the lives of the workers of todaywhen compared with those of theworkers in England during the 18thcentury? Discuss it in the class andanalyse the data collected.

The factory workers had been subjectedto severe oppression and exploitationby the factory owners. Very risky andunhygienic working conditions existedin the factories. Trade unions emergedwhen the workers started to voice theirprotest against this. It was England,where the Industrial Revolution started,that became the birth place of tradeunion movements.

With the formation of trade unions thevarious unorganised protests raised bythe workers turned into an organised

movement. However the initial protestswere all suppressed by the governmentwhich passed laws and regulationsharmful to the labourers.

Against the machines

The initial protests of the labourerswere against the machines becausethey were considered as the symbolof the owners of the factories. Fromthe 17th century onwards a series ofriots were carried out in differentparts of Europe. The agitatorsdestroyed the machineries. In orderto prevent the same, the Governmentpassed legislation with provisions

including death penalty. The firstorganised movement against themachines was the Ludite movementin England. The British governmentsuppressed the movement usingarmed force.

A picture of Ludite protest


140Peterloo massacre

In 1800, Government of England passedthe Combination Act. This Act intendedto ban the labourers from organisingthemselves. A mass protest of about80000 labourers against this law washeld at St.Peter's field, Manchester,England in August 1819. Police openedfire on this peaceful gathering and thisresulted in the death of eleven workers.This incident, known as the 'PeterlooMassacre' turned out to be a significantevent in the history of trade unionmovements.

Various social organizations of Englandcontinued to demand the withdrawalof the 'Combination Act'. A section ofthe rulers also supported their demandand, as a result, the Act was withdrawn.Subsequently, several worker groupswho had been working secretly cameto the forefront and continued theiragitation for improving the conditions

of labourers. Their aim was to get theirdemands conceded. Still thegovernment and the factory ownerswere adamant against these demands.

Chartist movement

The workers of England finally realizedthat they could achieve their goal onlyby strengthening the democraticsystem. In England the right to vote wasnot given to all. Only wealthy peoplecould become Members of theParliament. The Parliament did notmeet regularly. 'The London WorkingMen's Association' was formed in 1836,by William Lovette. The associationsubmitted a mass petition, known as theCharter, which consisted of sixdemands. This was signed by 30 lakhmen and women. It contained demandsuch as right to vote for all those whohave attained 21 years of age, theintroduction of the secret ballot system,annual meetings of the Parliament and

A meeting of the Chartists


141abolition of property criterion tobecome members of Parliament. Thispetition was rejected by the Parliament.Agitations including strike werestarted. This is chartist movement. Allthe opposition was brutally suppressedby the government.

• Are there any such movements todaywhich focus on social issues? Findout.

By 19th century the trade unionmovements had spread out to otherparts of Europe and America .

All are brothers

The workers of Paris in France formedan association called the 'League of Just',whose slogan was 'Fraternity of all'.Later on, this organization came to beknown as the 'Communist League'. Asper the request of Communist LeagueKarl Marx and Frederick Engels wrotethe 'Communist Manifesto'. TheManifesto called upon the workers ofall countries to unite. At the meetingheld at London in 1864, theInternational Working Men'sAssociation was formed. This meetinglater come to be known as TheFirst International. The FirstInternational was inaugurated by KarlMarx. It declared that only by deliberateefforts on the part of the workers couldfree themselves from the exploitation ofcapitalists and abolish exploitation forever.

Socialism

Socialism visualises a societywithout any inequality andexploitation. Saint Simon, RobertOwen, Karl Marx and FrederickEngels were the propounders of this

Karl Marx Frederick Engels

doctrine. Marx and Engels envisagedthat if inequality is to be wiped outpolitical power should come into thehand of the labourers, privateproperty should be abolished andproduction should be under publicownership. The followers of thisideology were known as theCommunists. Communist partieswere formed all over the world.

After the First International socialistmovements began to grow up all overAmerica and Europe.

The workers' day

A strike held by the workers of Chicagoin America in May 1886 is a landmarkin world history. The heavy burden ofwork and inadequate wages, as well asthe long hours of work without any restled to the discontentment of the


142labourer. Workers who were made towork for more than half of the daysuffered a lot. Therefore, the workers inChicago began to think about the needfor getting ample time for rest andrecreation. ''Eight hours work, eighthours rest and eight hours recreation"was the slogan raised by them. But thefactory owners were so adamant thatthey decided to suppress the strike withthe help of the police. As the agitatorsmarched through the streets of Chicago,the police opened fire on them. Somewere killed and many injured. Thismade the agitation more severe. Thestrike was put down and the leaderswere sentenced for capital punishmentunder charges of illegal conspiracy.

But later the demands raised by theworkers of Chicago were conceded and,as a result, the workers of all countriesbegan to enjoy eight hours labour, eighthours rest and eight hours recreation.In order to commemorate the legendarystrike held by the workers in Chicago,

The statue commemorating the labourersstrike in Chicago

we now observe May 1 as the 'WorldWorkers Day'.

The Second International was held inParis in 1889 with a view to unite thetrade unions all over the world. Thedelegates who participated in theSecond International reaffirmed thedemands of eight hours work and theadult's right to vote. May 1 wasdeclared as the World Worker's Day inthe Second International. DadabhaiNaoroji, one of the leaders of the IndianNational Congress, participated in theSecond International.

The beginning of trade unionmovement in India

It was during the British rule thatindustries began to be established inIndia. Railways, telegraph andplantations also were started in thisperiod. The farmers and artisans wholost their jobs due to the policies of theBritish government soughtemployment in factories andplantations. The hardships faced intheir life ultimately led to the beginningof trade union movements in India. Aswe have already seen in the chaptertitled "Different Faces of Resistance",such labour movements took place inIndia as part of the freedom movement.

The workers of the Howrah railwaystation, in Calcutta staged a strike in1862 demanding reduction in work toeight hours a day. It was the firstindustrial workers' strike in India. TheBengali daily 'Somprakash' reportedabout it as: ''Recently, 1200 railwayworkers at the Howrah Railway Station


143went on a strike. Though it is said thatthe workers in the locomotivedepartment have only eight hours workdaily, their working time extends uptoten hours. They are out on strike formany days. The railway company mustconcede to their demands otherwisethey will not get workers."

• We have learned about the strikestaged by the workers in Chicago.When compared to the Chicagostrike what is the significance of thestrike of the railway workers ofHowrah?

The textile workers of Ahmedabadstarted a strike in 1918 with a demandfor increasing their wages. It was led bythe Ahmedabad Textile LabourAssociation which was founded by

Mahatma Gandhi . The hike in theprices of essential commoditiescompelled the workers to demand for50 per cent increase in their wages. Asthe mill owners opposed their demandsMahatma Gandhi started a hungerstrike and, as a result, the strike wassettled. According to the settlement , thewages of the workers were increased by35 percent.

The great Indian leader of the strugglefor independence Bal Gangadhar Tilakwho declared 'Freedom is my birthright' was arrested by the British Policeon 24 July 1908 and sentenced for 6years' imprisonment. Tilak's arrestresulted in worldwide protest. "It wasa detestable punishment given to the

great Indian democrat" was the remark

made by Lenin, the world famous

leader of workers. Workers all over


144India staged strikes and hartals to

protest against Tilak's arrest.

The strike staged by the workers in

Bombay is worth mentioning among

these. It was for the first time that

workers in India began to strike for

releasing a political leader. The foreign

dailies reported that this strike was a

sequel to the workers' awakening in

Europe. Almost all the factory workers

in Bombay participated in the strike.

Not only factory workers but mill

workers, shop workers and port

labourers also took part in it. About one

lakh workers participated in the

agitation. Many from the cities joined

the agitation. The police fired on them.

• Compare and discuss the strike in

Bombay with those in Howrah and

Ahmedabad.

All India Trade Union Congress

The formation of the All India Trade

Union Congress was a milestone in the

history of Indian Trade Union

Movement. It was the first national

trade union in India. The first meeting

of All India Trade Union Congress was

held in Bombay in 1920 in which

representatives of trade unions from all

over the country took part. In his

presidential address, Lala Lajpat Rai

summered up the organisation's

objectives thus:

"... Indian labourers should lose no timeto organise itself on a national scale...For the present, our greatest need in thiscountry is to organise, agitate andeducate. We must organise our workers,make them class-conscious."

All India Trade Union Congress called

for the workers to unite as well as to

partake in the nationalist movement.

It is quite evident as to how the

government had tackled the rise of the

trade union movements. There were

some legislative moves which favoured

the workers. These included reducing

the working hours, restricting child

labour, special amenities for women

labourers, increasing the safety

measures at work places and giving

legal sanction for the formation of trade

unions. The Trade Union Act of 1926

legally permitted the working of trade

unions in India. As per the Industrial

Dispute Act 1929, the labourers could

approach the court if there were

disputes regarding matters such as their

wages. However this led to great

protests.

• What might have prompted the

government to make laws in favour

of the workers? Discuss.


145

InternationalLabour Organisation (ILO)

The International Labour

Organisation was formed in 1919. Its

prime objective was to discuss the

problems faced by the labourers and

to find out legal solutions for them.

The organization has tried to improve

the living standards of the labourers,

to ensure job security, to abolish

child-labour and to conduct

awareness programme among the

labourers on their rights. As a result

of the activities of International

Labour Organisation (ILO) the

demand of eight hours labour was

established by law.

The Indian factory act of 1881

It was the first law for factory workersin India. This law abolished childlabour below the age of 7. It is illegalto engage children aged between nineand twelve to work for more thantwelve hours. It also directed thatmachines should be properly fencedaround to avoid casualities.

• Collect news items regarding labourstrikes in our country and find outtheir demands.

• Increasing the wages

• Improving the workingconditions.

•

Conduct a debate on the contemporaryrelevance of trade unions.

•


146

GREEN INDIAGREEN INDIA

Chapter - ElevenGreen India

147

Traditionally India has been an agrariancountry. Agriculture is thebackbone of the Indian economy. Morethan 50% of the population still live byagriculture. A major share of ournational income is from agriculture andits allied activities. Our climate, soiland topography etc. are factors whichinfluence agriculture.

The agricultural scenario - beforeindependence

The Indian farmers have beencultivating crops such as wheat andrice, before the coming of the British.They also cultivated cotton, jute,groundnut and sugarcane to serve theneeds of the villagers. The Britishencouraged our farmers to reduce theproduction of food grains and toincrease that of commercial cropsespecially cotton, indigo and jute.• Why did the British encourage the

Indian farmers to enhanceproduction of commercial crops?Discuss on the basis of the lessons inHistory.

It was during the British period thatcommercialisation of agriculturebecame widespread in India. This wasmade possible by encouraging farmersto replace food crops by commercialcrops.

• What are the major factors behind thecommercialisation of agriculture inBritish India?

• Development of transportationfacilities

• The spread of markets

• Growth of industries

• Increased demand for rawmaterials

• Export

Commercialisation of agriculture

What might have been the impacts ofcommercialisation of agriculture?Scarcity of food was the major outcome.This was the result of the spread ofcommercial crops at the expense of foodcrops.In the previous units we have studiedhow severe and widespread was thefamine in India and how the Britishtackled it.

A poverty- stricken labourer


148

The agricultural sector-afterindependence

Now, let us examine the steps taken bythe Government to stengthen theagricultural sector after independence.‘I am Amrindar Singh from theJalandhar district of Punjab.Traditionally we are farmers who toilin this fertile soil to earn a living. Wheatis our principal crop. We also cultivaterice, mustard and sunflower.

development of which sectors in ourcountry would have helped the farmersto achieve this?

Irrigation facilities

Mechanisation of agriculture

Use of pesticides and chemicalfertilizers.

• Find out how such developmentshelped to increase the production offood crops such as wheat and ricewith the help of the tables given inthe next page. Present yourinferences in the class.

Agriculture through five year plans

The Five year plans introduced by theNehru Government after independenceaimed at the overall development of thecountry.

The thrust area of the First Five Year Plan(1951-56) was the agricultural sector.Eradication of famine and poverty wasits goals.

Our agricultural activities are greatlydependent on the South-West Monsoon(June-September) and the North-East Monsoon (October-November).Variations in rainfall adversely affectthe yield. Irrigation projects, big andsmall, helped us to overcome suchdifficulties. They also helped to makedry lands suitable for cultivation.

All my family members work togetherin the field. We get water to irrigate theland from canals. Though it is a littlebit expensive, we make better yield byusing good seeds and quality fertilizers.Besides, I am also using my own tractorto till the field'.

We have read the experience ofAmrindar Singh from Punjab. Similarachievements have been made byfarmers all over the country. The


149

Rice production (1980 - 2004)

Year Farm land Production Productivity Irrigation facility(million (million (kilogram/ (percentage)

hectares) tonnes) hectare)

1980 - 81 40.15 53.63 1136 40.7

1985 - 86 41.14 63.83 1552 42.9

1989 - 90 42.17 73.57 1745 46.1

1990 - 91 42.69 74.29 1740 45.5

1999 - 2000 45.16 89.68 1986 53.9

2003 - 2004 42.50 88.28 2077 Not availableSource: Economic Survey 2003 - 2004 Government of India (GOI)

Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, Directorate of Economics and Statistics (DES)

Wheat production (1980 - 2004)

Year Farm land Production Productivity Irrigation facility(million (million (kilogram/ (percentage)

hectares) tonnes) hectare)

1980 - 81 22.28 36.31 1630 76.5

1985 - 86 23.00 47.45 2046 74.6

1989 - 90 23.50 49.85 2121 80.3

1990 - 91 24.17 55.14 2281 81.1

1999 - 2000 27.49 76.37 2778 87.2

2003 - 2004 26.58 72.11 2713 Not availableSource: Economic Survey 2003 - 2004 Government of India (GOI)

Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, Directorate of Economics and Statistics (DES)


150• Discuss how irrigation projects

help the agricultural sector. Are thereany such irrigation projects in yourarea?

The feudal system which existed inIndia at the time of independence wascomplicated. There were economic,social and legal problems behind thebackwardness of our agriculturalsector. Economic backwardness, socialinjustice and ignorance of laws werestangling the Indian farmers.

• How were the Indian farmersexploited during the Britishperiod? Find out the answer fromthe previous chapters.

Land reforms were executed throughthe five year plans. Regulating rent,giving land ownership to the farmersand redistributing the excess landpossessed by the landlords were someof the objectives of the land reforms.Discuss how land reforms introducedby the Government of Keralainfluenced the agricultural sector of thestate.

Objectives of the first five year plan

• To initiate rapid economic growth

• To resolve the economicimbalance.

• To give high priority toagriculture, irrigation andgeneration of energy.

• To give special emphasis on areassuch as transportation,telecommunication and socialservice.

• To increase the use of chemicalfertilizers

• To bring about mechanisation ofagriculture

• To increase the use of highyielding seeds

• To expand credit facilities• To practise modern methods of

plant protection.• To increase the use of pesticides

• To fix support prices for crops.

Though the agricultural sector wasstrengthened by this, the shortage offood grains and raw materials remainedunresolved. Following this, variousprogrammes to strengthen theagricultural sector were implemented.One among them was the IntensiveAgricultural District Programme. It wasstarted in 1960 and extended upto 1965.This, along with the IntensiveAgricultural Zone Programme, was oflittle help in resolving shortage of foodgrains.

The Intensive Agricultural ZoneProgramme

A group of agricultural experts fromAmerica was invited to India in 1960with the objective of increasingagricultural production. The IntensiveAgricultural District Programme wasimplemented in selected districtsaccording to the suggestions putforward by them. In 1965, it wasextended to 114 districts in the country


151

and was known as the IntensiveAgricultural Zone Programme.

The Green revolution

Green Revolution was a modernagricultural strategy introduced by theGovernment of India during 1966-67 inorder to increase agriculturalproduction.High yielding seeds of Mexican Kuriawheat and rice seeds developed at theManila Rice Institute (Philippines)were used. They required more waterand pesticides. The farmers began touse chemical fertilizers and pesticidesin large quantities for better yield. Newcanals were made in villages. It wasduring this period that borewells weredug extensively. Soil testing centres andagricultural education programmesimparted knowledge of newagricultural methods. The use oftractors and motor-pumps alsoincreased and the banks began to make

agricultural loans available to thefarmers.

The new methods in agricultureincreased the yield of rice and wheatand this made the country attain foodself sufficiency.

The changes brought about inagriculture by the use of high yieldingvariety seeds, chemical fertilizers andmachines are known as the GreenRevolution.

Information regarding the productionof food grains before and after theGreen Revolution in India is listed inthe table given in the next page.

Analyse the table and findout therelation between the area of farmlandand agricultural production.

• From the table you can understandthe growth in agriculturalproduction from 1965 - 66 to

White revolution

Just like the increase in foodproduction, the production of milkand milk products in India hadincreased significantly during theseventies. This is known as the WhiteRevolution. The milk co-operativesocieties played a major role in it.The growth of milk production hasprovided job opportunities and apermanent source of income for thevillagers. The Central Governmentstarted a programme called the‘Operation Flood’ in 1970. OperationFlood aimed at increasing milkproduction nationwide and therebyincrease the income of the milk-

producing village farmers. Anothermajor objective was to make milkand milk products available toconsumers at fair prices. As part ofthe project, milk co-operativesocieties were formed all over thecountry which helped in processingand marketing milk and milkproducts. Milk production increasedalso because of the scientific rearingand cross breeding of cattle.The increase in milk-productionin India during the last threedecades has invited worldwideacclaim. Milk production hasincreased five times in post-independent India.


152

1970 - 71. Compare this with thegrowth in production from 2000 -01 to 2005 - 06.

Problems faced by the Greenrevolution

The Green Revolution resulted inincreased agricultural production. Butit generated problems as well .

Use of pesticides and chemicalfertilizers changed the chemicalstructure of the soil and destroyed themicrobes in it. It adversely affected thenatural enemies of pests and destroyedthe earthworms. The use of chemicalfertilizers and pesticides becameindispensable for increasing foodproduction.

The existing traditional seed varietiesbecame extinct and agriculture beganto concentrate on certain crops only.For example, traditional paddyvarieties of Kerala such as Kuttalan,Vattan, Thekkan and Cheruthoni. whichwere grown earlier have now becomeextinct. We have also dispensed withthe traditional practices followed earlierin agriculture.

Farmers began to fall in debt becauseof the use of expensive modern methodsof agriculture like new agriculturaltools, high yielding varities of seeds,chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Jobopportunities were reduced due tomechanisation. Such changes widened

Production of food grains, the area offarmlands (Over different periods)

Year Area Production(million hectares) (million tonnes)

1950 - 51 97.32 50.82

1955 - 56 110.56 66.85

1960 - 61 115.58 82.02

1965 - 66 115.10 72.35

1970 - 71 124.32 108.42

1975 - 76 128.18 121.03

1980 - 81 126.67 129.59

1985 - 86 128.02 150.44

1990 - 91 127.84 176.39

1995 - 96 121.01 180.42

2000 - 01 121.05 196.81

2005 - 06 121.60 208.60


153the gap between states and differentsections of the society.

• How did the Green Revolution affectthe socio-economic conditions of thefarmers? Make a regional enquiryand prepare a note.

• Find out the changes brought in byGreen Revolution in the field ofagriculture in your locality.

Diverse methods of agriculture

Excessive use of chemical fertilizerschanged the natural structure of soil.Farmers all over the world began tosearch for new methods of agronomywhich resulted in the use of organicmanures and green manures. Bio-pesticides like tobacco emulsion andneem emulsion began to be used andthe natural enemies of the pests wereprotected and encouraged.

The practice of cultivating differentcrops in the same land at alternatingintervals is known as ‘Crop Rotation’.There are other natural methods alsowhich are practised deliberatly by tohelp increasing the natural fertility ofthe soil.

Increasing food production to ensurefood security is the ultimate objectiveof the agriculture sector. It can beachieved either through extension ofcultivable area or through increase inproductivity. Green revolution aimedat achieving the latter. This led to searchfor new alternatives.

• Collect details of organic farmingfrom the farmers in your area andprepare a note.

Agriculture and Globalisation

The World Trade Organisation (WTO)came into existence on 1 January, 1995with the intention of promoting freetrade. India started accepting thepolicies of globalisation from the early1990s. After becoming a member ofWTO, India accepted its bylaws andaccordingly opened up our market toother countries. As a result, productsfrom various foreign countries began tobe imported to India. This brought infinancial benefits for many, but causedserious set backs to the agriculturesector of the country. Let us examinehow globalisation has affected theagricultural scenario.

We know that the major crops of Keralaare coconut, pepper and cardamom. Aspart of globalisation, palm oil fromMalaysia, cardamom from Gautemala,pepper from Vietnam and coconut fromSri Lanka were imported. Though thisled to the strengthening of traderelationships with these countries itdiminished the market of our products,both externally and internally. Thus,agricultural producers could not fetchadequate prices in the market.

• Find out how globalisation hasaffected the agriculture sector and theagricultural labourers. The pointslisted below will help you.

• Price of agricultural products

• Job opportunities.

• Technology.


154• Conduct a seminar on 'The impact of

Green Revolution on the Indianeconomy'.

Sub-topics

• Food self sufficiency and greenrevolution.

• Problems created by the GreenRevolution.

• New initiatives and theirchallenges.

• What suggestions do you have forovercoming food deficit in Kerala?Discuss the topic on the basis ofGreen Revolution.

•

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN

KERALA

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN

KERALA


156

The state of Kerala came into existenceon 1 November 1956. After theformation we could make a variety ofunique achievements in the socio-cultural scenario. The steps taken by thestate government, from time to time forthe betterment of the educational andsocial set up, accentuated thedevelopment of Kerala. All thesemeasures have won global attention.Among these, the achievements in thefield of land reforms, education, healthcare and social justice could behighlighted.

The high rate of literacy in Keralaformed the foundation of the social andcultural development in the state.

Built under the People's PlanningProgramme

Built under the Kerala DevelopmentProgramme

You might have come across suchboards while travelling. They stand astestimonies to the process ofdecentralization of power in Kerala.

As per the 73rd and 74thAmendments of the Constitution ofIndia, the Panchayati Raj and NagaraPalika laws were implemented inIndia. As a result, instead ofcentralized planning, power andresource required for localdevelopment was thus handed over

to the three-tier Panchayats andNagara Sabhas. This was aremarkable intervention in thehistory of development. As part ofdecentralisation opportunity wasgiven to the people to makesuggestions on the kind ofdevelopmental programmes theywant and the modes of theirimplementation. Achievements madein the following areas are noteworthy.

• efficient public distributionsystem

• universal and free education

• basic facilities for healthcareKerala serves as a model for other statesin the areas of literacy anddecentralization of power.

Kerala, which is a comparatively smallstate in India, was scattered as princelystates during the British rule. Still, itcould make a significant advancementin the fields of public health andeducation in a short span of time duringthe post-independent period. But interms of economic development, thestate could not make similar progress.

Though the state was economicallybackward, it could make a significantprogress in the social scenario which isa peculiar developmental experience ofKerala. This has received muchattention in discussions related to thedevelopment of nations, and Kerala isviewed as a model for development.

Chapter- TwelveHuman Development in Kerala

157

Institution/ Service/Facilities Benefits

• Tarred Roads • Makes Transportation easier

• •• •• •• •

Institution/ Service/Facilities Benefits

• Hospitals • Makes healthcare possible

• •• •• •• •

Development - Man and Wealth

Have you noticed the news headlines given above?

We have already got acquainted with the word 'development'. What does itsignify? Take a look at Table-1.

Table-1.Part A Part B

• Metalled roads • Hospitals• Tarred roads • Primary Health Centres• Street lights • Educational institutions• Industrial units • Libraries• Agricultural fields • Anganavadis•Trade units • Public distribution centres• Railway tracks• Dams

Economic Crisis -

stagnation of DevelopmentLack of funds-HospitalDevelopment Halfway

Indifferent Bureaucracy -Developmental Funds Lapsed

• Which of these institutions andfacilities are available in yourlocality?

• Did they get implemented in thesame period?

• What was the condition of yourvillage with regard to those facilities

twenty five years back? Find outfrom your elders.

¦ Prepare a note on the topic 'MyVillage - Then and Now' and presentit.

¦ From Table 1 identify the services/benefits provided by theseinstitutions/facilities, and fill inTable 2.

Table- 2 Part A Part B


158On analyzing the facts in the table thatyou filled in, what are your findingsregarding the following?

• Is there any difference between theservices in Part A and Part B inTable 2?

• Which is more useful those in- PartA or Part B? Why?

• Is it the growth of items in Part A orPart B that indicate development?

• Discuss the topic 'Development inmy view' in groups. Prepare a noteand present it.

• From the factors discussed above,identify the ones that indicate thedevelopment of a locality.

• Based on this, list out the services andfacilities that are not available in yourlocality. Consolidate them andsubmit in the form of a memorandumbefore the Panchayat authorities.

Various perspectives ofdevelopment

Currently, there are various approachesto development. The concept that thedevelopment of a nation is the increasein its material wealth and facilities hasbeen traditionally acknowledged.Based on this, nations are generallydivided as developed, developing andunder-developed.

The method of assessing developmentusing the indicator, rate of growth ofincome has now undergone change.The view that development could beassessed only with more than oneindicator has gained strength. By the

1970s the traditional concepts ofdevelopment started changing. It wasgenerally accepted that theachievements of a nation in areas likehealth and education could beconsidered as the basic indicators ofdevelopment. The United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP) gavethis idea due recognition. By 1990s thesteps taken by a nation to identify anddevelop human resources were widelyapproved of. The resultant achievementof that country in developing humanresources was considered to form thebasic indicators of development.

Based on this, the rate of developmentof a nation is analysed according to birthrate, death rate, infant mortality rate, lifeexpectancy, literacy and per capitaincome.

Literacy

Literacy is the ability to read andwrite at least a short passage inmother tongue.

Life expectancy

Life expectancy is the averageexpected life of an infant.

Birth rate

Birth rate is the number of livebirths per thousand people in ayear.

Death rateDeath rate is the number of deathstaking place per thousand peoplein a year.


159Infant Mortality Rate

Infant mortality is the number ofdeaths of infants before thecompletion of one year after birthper 1000 live births.

Per Capita Income

Per capita income is the totalincome of a nation during a yeardivided by the total population ofthat year.

Development - The ChangingPerspective

Development is the progress in thestandard of living of the people in acountry. The progress in factors such asliteracy rate, birth rate, death rate, infantmortality rate, life expectancy and percapita income is termed as 'humandevelopment. The above factors arecalled 'human development indicators'.Among these indicators, it is desirableto have a low birth rate, low death rate,low infant mortality rate and a high ofliteracy rate, high life expectancy andhigh per capita income. When this viewwas generally agreed upon, the conceptof developed, developing and under-developed nation became irrelevant.

The UNDP ranks the nations of theworld based on the humandevelopment and publish HumanDevelopment Report every year.According to the Human DevelopmentReport-2007, India occupies 128thposition in the world.

Human Development - Kerala andthe National Average

Compare the status of Kerala in humandevelopment indicators and thenational average based on the census2001.

Look at Table - 3

• What are the indicators in whichKerala is better than the nationalaverage?

• Which indicator shows a greaterdegree of variation?

We have noticed that Kerala has ahigher rate of advancement than thenational average in terms of humandevelopment indicators.

• What might be the factors that helpedKerala in making such advancement?

• Do you think that factors like socialreforms, public distribution system andland reforms discussed in previousclasses had a key-role in it?

Discuss and present your conclusions.Table - 3

Human Development Indicator - Kerala, India

Indicator Kerala IndiaBirth rate 15 23.8Death rate 6.4 7.6Infant mortality rate 14 58

Female Male Average Female Male AverageLiteracy 87.76 94.2 90.92 54.16 75.85 65.38Life expectancy 76 70.9 73.45 63.50 61.80 62.70

Source: Economic Review 2005


160Let's collect data

Isn't it thrilling to find informationregarding the literacy rate andlongevity of the family members of yourclassmates? Now, try doing it.

What data should be collected?

How should the survey format beprepared?

Note down your suggestionsindividually. Hold a discussion to takedecisions.

Consolidate the data that is collected inthe class. What are the findings?

Does it conform to the generalsituation?

Kerala and the Panchayat

Find out the status of humandevelopment indicators of the GramaPanchayat/Municipality where yourschool is situated and compare it withthe state average.

What are the factors to be taken intoconsideration?

• Which are the indicators that arehigher than the ones in the stateaverage?

• Which are the indicators that arelower than the ones in the stateaverage?

Now hold a discussion to find a solutionto upgrade the field that requiresprogress and make a list of suggestions.

The Development Model of Kerala

Make a comparison of the humandevelopment indicators of Kerala andthose of developed countries such asUnited Stats of America, Switzerlandand Japan. The details of Sri Lanka,which is our neighbouring country, arealso given here.Have you noticed the degree ofdifference between Japan and Kerala interms of per capita income?• Does the condition of Sri Lanka bear

more similarity to Kerala? Do youthink there are points of similaritybetween Sri Lanka and thedeveloped countries that are listedhere?

• What are your findings regarding thehuman development indicators ofKerala compared to that of the restof the world?

Though the per capita income of Keralais comparatively low, the state hasmade considerable growth in terms ofother human development indicatorswhich is at par with that of thedeveloped countries. These are the

Table - 4Human Development Indicators- Kerala & Developed countries

Country Per Capita Income Longevity Literacy Infant Mortality RateIn Dollars Below 5 years

America 23760 76 99 9Switzerland 22520 78 99 6Japan 20520 79.5 99 5Sri Lanka 540 71.9 89.3 18Kerala 300 72 93 15

Source: Kerala's Development experiences, ed.M.A.Oommen, Vol.1.


161factors that attract global attention onKerala. It is because of the humandevelopment policies implemented byKerala in spite of the economicbackwardness.

This is termed as the KeralaDevelopment Model or Kerala Model.

We have understood the reasons forincluding Kerala in global discussionsrelated to development.

• List out the special features of theKerala Development Model

• What could be the factors that helpedKerala in achieving what the otherstates in India could not achieve?

Development in Kerala- Ahistorical overview

In spite of the lower economic growth,Kerala could improve peoples welfareand the socio-political environmentthrough public intervention. The Keralaexperience tells us that policies ofdevelopment have a crucial role indeciding the direction of developmentinstead of the amount of wealth. Thefoundation of these achievements waslaid by the activities of various massorganizations and the steps taken by thegovernment to promote literacy,education and healthcare.

• Which were the agitations in Keralathat were organized for social justiceand against exploitation of thedowntrodden?

• What were the changes broughtabout by these agitations in thesociety.

Land Reforms Act and acomprehensive public distribution

system were the major governmentinterventions in Kerala to ensure socialjustice. Discuss the range of impactmade by these in the different layers ofour society. Discuss in the class, preparenotes and present them.

Literate Kerala

Historically Kerala was well ahead ofother states in literacy. The literacy rateof Kerala as per Census 1901 is givenbelow.

Travancore 12.4

Cochin 13.4

Indian Average 5.4

The determination and policiesimplemented by the rulers ofTravancore and Kochi and the effortsmade by the social reform movementsand the Christian missionariesstrengthened the foundation of socialdevelopment.

Rani Parvathy Bhai who ruled overTravancore issued a proclamation in1817 to ensure educational facilities forher subjects. Its content said that thegovernment would bear all educationalexpenses and thereby help to eradicatethe backwardness of the people andprovide them knowledge.

This proclamation that takes upuniversal education as theresponsibility of the state is of historicalimportance.

The activities of Christian missionariesand reform movements brought thebackward and the underprivileged tothe mainstream.

These organizations realized the role ofeducation in social reform andlaunched educational institutions in


162several regions of the state. The servicesoffered by Christian missionaryorganisations such as LondonMissionary Society (LMS) and ChurchMissionary Society (CMS) andorganisations like the Sree NarayanaDharma Paripalana sangham (SNDP),Nair Service Society (NSS) and theMuslim Educational Society (MES) arecommendable. They laid a strongfoundation for the high literacy inKerala.

There was a unification of the activitiesin the field of education after theformation of the state. As a result, theregional disparity was considerablyreduced and a common status could beachieved all over the state. Thisachievement is a special feature of thedevelopment of Kerala.

Literacy Rate - Kerala- India

Year Kerala India1951 47.18% 18.33%1961 55.08% 28.03%1971 69.75% 34.45%1981 78.85% 43.57%1991 81.81% 52.21%2001 90.92% 64.84%

Source: Census ReportThe development of Kerala in terms ofliteracy could be understood from thetable given above.

All the children who have completedfive years of age reach school in ourstate. Except for forest areas, there areschools in almost all localities in thestate which helped for this. Socialawareness about the importance ofeducation helped in making all thechildren reach schools and reducing thenumber of dropouts. Free education is

available upto the secondary level.

• Is there any child above 5 years of agein your locality, who does not go toschool?

• Have you identified any child whostopped schooling after takingadmission along with you in the firststandard?

Healthcare in Kerala

Indigenous system of treatmentprevailed in different regions of Kerala.By 1850s the western mode of medicalpractice was implemented inTravancore. Gradually, this systembecame popular in Kochi and Malabar.After the formation of Kerala state, theactivities in the health sector wereunified sustaining the various healthpractices. The progressive steps takenin the field helped the health sector ingeneral and the public health sector inparticular, in making significantachievements.The Primary Health Centres in ruralareas and Medical Colleges and HealthResearch Institutes that providespecialized healthcare offered freetreatment. As in allopathic stream, freetreatment is available in theHomoeopathic and Ayurvedic streamsas well.Hospitals, Medical Colleges andResearch Institutes function in theprivate and cooperative sectors alongwith the ones in the public sector. Allthese conjointly sustain a healthcaresystem in the state. With nodiscrimination among the urban andrural areas free and excellent treatmentis provided.


163You have analysed the facts that areprovided above, haven't you? How didthese circumstances come intoexistence?• Low death rate• Low rate of infant mortality• High rate of life expectancy

Life expectancy

Data regarding population and lifeexpectancy right from the beginning of

that were available from differentprovinces before that year is givenunder the title 'Life expectancy - India -Kerala'. The first census in independentIndia was in 1951.

• What is the degree of differencebetween the condition in Kerala andthe national average from 1911 to1930?

• From which year onwards did amarked change take place in the rate

22 .6 23 .326 .9 26 .6

35 .5 35 .7

43 .2 43 .5

49 .8 49 .354 .5 54 .9 59 59 .4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1911-20 1921-30 1951-61 1961-71 1971-81 1981-85 1990-92

M a le Fem a le

25.5 27.4 29.5 32.7

44.3 45.3

54.157.4

60.6 62.665.271.568.8 74.4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1911-20 1921-30 1951-61 1961-71 1971-81 1981-85 1990-92

Male Female

the twentieth century is available. Makea comparison of the life expectancy ofthe people of Kerala and the nationalaverage with the help of the graphsgiven. Though the first official censusof the state was taken in 1961, the details

of life expectancy the people ofKerala?

• What could be the reason behindthis? Hold a discussion.

• What change have you observed by1980s?

Life expectancy - IndiaSource: Indian Development Selected Regional Perspectives. Editors- Jean Draze, Amartya Sen

Life expectancy - KeralaSource: Indian Development Selected Regional Perspectives. Editors- Jean Draze, Amartya Sen


164Prepare an analysis report and presentit in the class.

• The longevity of women in Kerala ishigher than that in the nationalaverage. What could be the reason?• Higher rate of female literacy• Child and maternal care

programmes•

Present your findings in the class andarrive at conclusions.

• How about your friends' families?

• What is the average number offamily members when youconsolidated these details in class?

Which one do you prefer - a jointfamily, or a nuclear family? Shall wehave a debate on this?

Rate of population growth - India-Kerala

Earlier joint family system prevailed inKerala. The rise in educationalstandards and female literacy and theconsiderable reduction in poverty ratesmade the concept of nuclear family areality. Joint family system gave way tothe nuclear family system. Land reformsand enhancement in wages helpedfamilies earn better. Thus children wereprovided with better educationalfacilities and health services.

Try to know more about the features ofjoint family system from your parents.

• How many members are there inyour family?

What have you understood about thetrend of population growth in India byanalyzing the graph given?

We can identify certain features of thetwo stages of population growth inKerala.

Stage I 1941 - 1971

Stage II 1981 - 2001

• What are the points of differencebetween these stages?

Till the year 1971, Kerala had a higherrate of population growth than that ofIndia. By 1981, this situation reversed.What might be the factors helped forthis?

-0.31

11

16.0413.31

21.6424.8 24.66 23.86

21.34

9.16

14.22

19.24

14.32

9.425.75

26.6924.76

22.82

11.75

21.85

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

India Kerala

1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

India Kerala


165The difference in birthrate in 1940s isnegligible.

From which year did the rate ofpopulation growth in Kerala deviatefrom that of the national average?

By 1980s the difference becamenoticeable. Didn't you notice the sametendency in the case of longevity? Is itpossible for you to arrive at aconclusion from this?

Sex ratio

Find the sex ratio of Kerala and Indiafrom the given graph.

The sex ratio in Kerala was high evenin the past.

reduction took place at a higher ratethan that of the national average. Theprogress in the health and servicesectors is the reason behind this.

Which one is more desirable -increasing the number of hospitals ormaking health services available to all?Why?

Discuss this and present notes.

The difference between the death rateof Kerala and India is given above.

What are the pieces of information thatare available in the graph?

Does the difference between India andKerala increase in the 1980s?

Infant mortality rate and KeralaObserve the graph given. Whilecomparing the data, we can arrive at theconclusion that Kerala has a lowerinfant mortality rate than the nationalaverage. This low rate of infantmortality helped in making Keralareach the human developmentindicator levels of developed countries.

946 941 930 934 927 933

1028 1022 10161032 1036

1058

850

900

950

1000

1050

1100

1 2 3 4 5 6

C¥y tIcfwIndia Kerala1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Sex Ratio

While considering the total populationof India, the number of male membersis higher whereas it is vice versa in thecase of Kerala.

Death rateFrom the beginning of the twentiethcentury, death rate has been gettingreduced in Kerala. The rate of this

23

18

13.512.1

9.57.8

16

118.6

6.8 6 6.4

0

5

10

15

20

25

1 2 3 4 5 6

C' y tIcfw

Death rate

India Kerala

1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Have you understood the status of Indiaand Kerala in terms of infant mortalityrate from the above graph?

• From which year onwards does thedifference in Infant mortality rate inIndia and Kerala get widened?

Kerala made remarkable progress in thespreading of healthcare facilities andpopulation education around the 1980s.

140120 114

66

134

58

110

37

80

16

58

14

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1 2 3 4 5 6

C¥y tIcfw

Infant mortality rate

1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001India Kerala


166Discuss and note down yourconclusions.Hold an interview with a health workerof your locality regarding the healthissues prevalent in the area and preparea report. What should be the content ofthe interview schedule?• Diseases of repeated occurrence• Causes• Solutions• Preventive measuresConsolidate your findings and preparea report.Organise a seminar on the topic ' Healthsector in Kerala - 'Current Issues'.Crises that Kerala facesWe have understood the crises faced byKerala in the areas of education andhealth. What are the other issues thatKerala faces now?• Unemployment• Economic inequalityDo they indicate the crises of humandevelopment in Kerala?• Can you suggest methods to

overcome them?Even though these issues prevail in thestate new avenues of employment havestarted growing in Kerala from 1990onwards. Among them Tourism,Biotechnology and InformationTechnology deserve special mention.Along with these, joint ventures inagriculture have boosted the prospectsof this sector. New investment inindustrial sector and growth ofindustries are positive signs.Construction and marketing fields arealso opening up new vistas in the state.All these help in utilizing the humanresources in Kerala.

•

Challenges of the Health SectorThough we have made a lot ofachievements in the field of health care,we cannot claim that all sections peoplein the state have benefited from thefacilities provided. It should be notedthat around fifteen percent of the peopledo not have access to them. The peoplewho live in the coastal areas and thosein the deep forests could not avail allthe benefits of these services. In the caseof infant mortality, there exists both interdistrict and intra district disparities.Health indicators are lower than thestate average among the backwardpeople. At the same time, it is higherthan the national average.Listen to the news headlines givenbelow which appeared in ournewspapers.

Lifestyle diseaseswidespread in Kerala

Demand for enhancedfacilities in government

hospitals

Number of mentallydepressed people

incresess

• Did the people of your locality getaffected by any epidemic in previousyears?

• If yes, what were the causativefactors?

THE STATUS OF WOMENTHE STATUS OF WOMEN

Class - 8Social Science

168

The primitive nomadic people soughtfood by wandering from place to place,gathering fruits and nuts. There was nodivision of labour among them. But thisunderwent changes with the inventionof weapons. Hunting animals withweapons needed more physicalexertions as they have to travel todistant places as well. This naturallyresulted in excluding women andchildren from such tasks. Thus, huntingbecame the sole responsibility of menand women were entrusted withdomestic duties such as looking aftertheir children and gathering food fromthe neighbouring places. This markedthe beginning of division of labouramong men and women which latertook an unhealthy practice and becamemore and more oppressive for women.

"Don't lecture to us about your culture.Just show us the women, children andthe natives of your country. I will assesyour culture after observing how youtreat them..."

The given opinion of Victor Hugotestify to the discrimination againstwomen which prevailed during theperiod. What was the condition ofwomen in our country then?

Women as house makers

The woman who wakes up early, cleansthe house and does all the household

work by herself is still regarded as anideal of perfect womanhood. Much ofthe domestic chores are still reservedfor women. What are the works doneby women in their houses? Do youthink that it is their sole responsibilityto do such works? Will it not be moreconvenient if men and women togetherdo the house work?• Conduct a discussion on the merits

and demerits of household workbeing shared among all the membersof the family.

Women to the mainstream

As a member of the society what are thevarious fields in which women areworking today? We can find womenworking with men in almost all fieldstoday. The number of women who

work as drivers, pilots and captains ofships has increased remarkably. Now-a-days, the precence of women in

Chapter - ThirteenvThe Status of Women

169

Indian women have proved their mettlein fields such as journalism, research,law and order, information technology,bio-technology, defence, politics andsocial work. It is a very good signthat the number of women working inthe army has increased considerably.

hazardous fields such as astronauticsand space travel is appreciated.

Women and freedom struggle

Many brave women activelyparticipated in the freedom struggle.Many patriotic women had participated

in the Salt Satyagraha and the Non-coperation movement during thefreedom struggle. Their involvement in

It is evident from all these that womenare turning to new careers and newvocations. There may be such womenin your place also. Make a list of them.

Captain LakshmySarojini Naidu

Women in Tribal Society

Among primitive tribal communities,men and women worked togetherand gathered food for their daily lifewhereas in agrarian societies womenparticipated in the agriculturallabour intensively. They participatedalong with men in hunting as well asin war. Women among 'malaveda'tribes of Kerala even performsreligious rituals. Among the illinovtribes of America, women were evengiven the power to imposepunishments on men who violatedcustoms and traditions related tomarriage.

Illinov Tribes in America


170Protest movements

Kerala has witnessed many struggles to

protect the rights of women as a part of

the socio-cultural renaissance in our

state. Women secured the right to use

public roads and public wells through

a series of struggles about which you

have already studied.

• 'Kallumala Agitation'

• 'Tholviraku Agitation'

Such movements gave women the

freedom and confidence to takepart in

the national movement. Akkamma

Cherian, Ammu Swaminadhan, A.V.

Kuttimalu Amma etc. are some of the

proud daughters of Kerala who have

taken part in the freedom struggle.

• Prepare notes on women in your

place who have gained public

respect through social work and

other such activities. What are the

fields in which they have made their

valuable contribution?

Social work Science

Teaching Art

Literature

Quit India movement, boycotting

foreign clothes, picketting liquor shops

etc. are worth-mentioning. When

Gandhiji was arrested as part of the Salt

Satyagraha, women leaders like Sarojini

Naidu came to the forefront and courted

arrest. Leadership of Aruna Asaf Ali in

Quit India Movement is highly

appreciable.

When Subhash Chandra Bose founded

the I.N.A, Captain Lakshmi, joined it

and shouldered the heavy

responsibility of leading the army

against the British. She was the captain

of the Jhansi regiment of INA .

• Prepare biographical sketches of

patriotic Indian women and paste

them in your photo album.

Women who were imprisoned during thefreedom struggle


171Women and Power

Whose opinion in the following affairsis regarded as final in your home?

• Selecting the news paper

• The items of food

• Construction of house

• Handling of income

• Marriage of family members

• Buying and selling of properties.

Now, you might have understood howlimited the role of women is even inmatters of domestic affairs. How can weensure the active role of women in suchmatters? Discuss in the class.

The legislative assembly has a key rolein policy making and decision making.This has far reaching results too. Hencethe due representation of women in theassembly is necessary for properfunctioning of the democratic system.

Source : Kerala Facts & Fingures, State Resource Centre, Kerala

Women reservation in different Local Self Government Institutions

Sl. Institution No. of No. of No. of womenNo. Institution Wards reservation

wards

1 Grama Panchayat 991 13255 4800

2 Block Panchayat 152 1638 629

3 District Panchayat 14 307 105

4 Muncipality 53 1597 550

5 MuncipalCorporation 5 298 100

Total 1215 17095 6184

• Find out women's representation inthe Kerala Assembly and localbodies from the tables given below.Is there representation of women inthe Assembly as in the Local SelfGovernment Institutions?

MLA's of Kerala Assembly

Year Men Women Total

1957-60 121 6 127

1960-65 120 7 127

1965-67 130 3 133

1967-70 132 1 133

1970-77 131 2 133

1977-80 139 1 140

1980-82 135 5 140

1982-87 136 4 140

1987-91 132 8 140

1991-96 132 8 140

1996-2001 127 13 140


172

Women and the Panchayathi Raj

According to the 73rd and 74thamendments of the Indianconstitution, 33 percent of the seatsin the district, block and gramapanchayaths are reserved for women.As a result of the Panchayathi Raj-Nagara palika act, the representationof women in the local bodies also hasincreased. A similar amendment ofthe constitution to ensure 33 percentof women's representation in theassemblies and parliament has notyet been legalised.

• Collect and analyse the dataregarding the representation ofwomen in the Lok Sabha and RajyaSabha.

The representation of women is verylow not only in the legislative assemblybut also in all powerful positions ofpolitical parties.

• Conduct a debate on 'The need forincreasing women's representation inthe legislative assembly, politicalparties and higher educationinstitutions.

Un accounted work

Any activity which includes physical ormental effort is known as work.Housewives who are 'unemployed' areengaged fully in household works. Butthe value of all these efforts is neverrecognised.

• For how many hours do the membersof your family work each day?

Collect data using the following format.

What are your findings? Who, amongthe family members, works for thelongest duration of time?

If housework is paid

A world women's conference washeld in Nairobi on 1st July, 1985.Delegates from 150 countriesparticipated in it. The conferencedemanded for considering theeconomic value of household work.It was calculated that if thehousehold work is paid it wouldmake half of the national income.

• Discuss the contribution made bywomen doing household works tothe progress of the nation.

Family members Wake up Bed Time spend Leisure timetime time on work


173• Physical problems due to excessive

hard work.

Prepare a report based on the data thuscollected.

Women in the work places

Now let us examine the presence ofwomen in various fields of employmentin Kerala.

• 98% of the paramedical staff in Keralaare women.

• 60% of school teachers are women.

• 40 % workers of the registeredfactories are women.

• 30% of the employees in the publicsector are women.

• 40% of the employees in the privatesector are women.

But the percentage of the workingwomen in Kerala is 13.3 % only. This isless than the national average.

Majority of the women are involved inless remunerative jobs and the numberof women in highly remunerative jobsis very few.

Discrimination in work place

The Equal Wage Laws of 1936 ensuredequal wages for equal work. But in ourcountry, women were not paid equalwages for equal work. In theagricultural sector, men are given betterpayment for works such as ploughing,tilling and sowing seeds whereas

We know that women toil incessantlyin their houses. Their condition is worseif they are employed outside. Thewomen teachers of your school alsomay have a similar condition. Collectinformation from them through aninterview. The indicators for theinterview schedule are given below.

• The time taken by them for doing thehousehold work. Work done beforeand after their work in school.

• Is there anybody to help them in thehouse work?

• The duration of the working hours

• Their difficulties in reaching to schoolon time.

• Time for recreation

Watching television

Reading

• Time for rest

Inside and outside the house


174women who reap and plant theseedlings are given less payment.Similar discrimination can be seenamong the construction workers also.According to the National SampleSurvey, rural women get an average ofRs. 62.2 whereas men get Rs. 94.1 asdaily wages. An unskilled womanworker in the non-agricultural sectorgets Rs. 94.1 whereas man gets Rs. 131.9.

But the National EmploymentGuarantee Scheme ensures same wagerate of Rs. 125/- per day for both menand women in Kerala.

• Conduct a survey and find out thefields in which equal wages aregiven for equal work and those fieldsin which it is not done so.

There are no ample facilities such astoilets, dressing rooms etc. for womenin the work places. Transportationfacilities for those who work for latehours is not provided. In addition tothese, there are instances of harassmentof women both mentally and physicallyin the work places.

Now, note the table given below.

Category 1993-94 2004-05

Rural Men 53.7 % 55.9 %

Rural Women 23.8 % 25.6 %

Urban Men 55.9 % 54.7 %

Urban Men 20.3 % 20.0 %

Analyse the table and identify thechanges occurring in women'semployment

Women in the field of education

"Not only men but women also have theright to get educated. Women shouldnot be left as backward in such fields".These are the words of Sri NarayanaGuru.

As women realized the need foreducation, they began to make attemptsfor acquiring it. The spread of Englisheducation among the women of Keralahad a positive impact. 51.4% of ourpopulation is women. They are moreadvanced in the fields of education andhealth than the women in the otherIndian states.

100

9080

7060

50403020

10

01951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Literacy rate - Men and Women 1951 - 2001

Women Men


175The graph shows the literacy rate of men

and women in Kerala

• What are the findings made from the

graph?

• What are the changes that have

occurred in women's literacy from

1951 to 2001?

What may be the reasons for lesserpercentage of literacy in women incomparison to that of men?

Even though the women of Kerala havea high level of participation in generaleducation and higher education, theirpresence in the field of technicaleducation and vocational training is tobe improved. Observe the table givenbelow.

Girl's Participation

Category Percentage ofGirls

LP 49.08

UP 48.17

High School 50.21

Higher Secondary 57.78

Voc. Higher Secondary 52.63

B.A 66.97

B.Sc 72.26

B.Com 53.16

M.A 72.20

M.Sc 78.86

M.Com 57.46

Women empowerment

The women of Kerala earn theirlivelihood through their own variousenterprises. Women's co-operativesocieties, small scale industries, MahilaSamajam, Ayalkoottam etc. are activitiesheaded by women. Lack of vocationaltraining, inadequate supply of rawmaterials, unscientific means ofproduction, lack of updated technicalskill and competition in the field ofmarketing are some of the challengesfaced by self employed women inKerala.

Women and the media

Media has a positive role in issuesrelated to women. They do their best toadmire the status of women in thesociety and to promote womenempowerment. They can prevent theatrocities against woman to a certainextent. At the same time, theadvertisements appearing in the mediacreate a negative image of woman andthereby adversely affect their status inthe society. Don't you think that suchadvertisements are to be discouraged?

• Conduct a seminar on role of mediain shaping the image of women in thesociety.


176The achievements of the women ofKerala are still beyond the reach of thetribal women and those living in thecoastal area. Illiteracy among them isstill not eradicated. Because ofunemployment, poverty and highmedical expenses, may of theachivements of women are denied .

Find out the major problems facedby the women in your area and makea note.

Illeteracy

Health problems

Issues in work places

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