03 thesis final ph.d chapter 1 to 6 -...

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2.1 INTRODUCTION

Mango is the most popular fruit in Tirunelveli district. It is considered to be the

king of tropical fruits. It is equally liked by both the rich and the poor. Mango grows

under varying soil and climatic conditions. Soil, moisture conditions, temperature and

humidity largely determine the adaptability and productivity of mango. In an area with

poorly distributed rainfall it is grown with supplemented irrigation. Various aspects of

Mango Cultivation Practices in the world and the study area with respect to the Location,

Soil Type, and Weather Condition, Cropping Pattern, Irrigation and Sources of Water

Supply are described below.

2.2 MANGO – SOME ASPECTS

The botanical name for the mango is Mangifera Indica L.80

Mangifera is derived

from the combination of two words, mango and fero. In Latin they mean bare mangoes

from Indica, meaning pertaining to India.81

Common names in different languages are

mango, mangga, mangot, mangue, mangou, Aam, Amb, Amba.

Mango a member of Anacharsdiacease family is an erect, broad specimen that can

reach 100 feet high and 1.25 feet wide. A tree of this size develops a deep tap root and

extensive root system. However pruning or containerizing can control the size. Mango is

the choicest fruit of Hindustan and one of the most delicious fruits of the world.82

��

��P.S. Hariharan, The Mango – A Handbook, Indian Council of Agricultural Research,

New Delhi, 1967, pp.3-8.

��Charles McCann, 100 Beautiful Trees of India, DB Taraporavala Sons & Co. Pvt. Ltd.,

Bombay, 1966, p.95

��Hayes W.B., “Fruit Growing in India”, Kitabistan, Allahabad, 1970, p.154

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The Mango is one of the best-known fruits of India. There are several varieties of

the fruit and each variety is known by a special name. The timber is rather soft, rough –

grained and not durable. It is only used for rough purpose.83

Summer in India comes with a tang and smell of the mango.84

The mango is

widely cultivated throughout the tropics but especially in India. It is also of considerable

economic importance in South America.85

A mango tree of age less than five years was

regarded as a young tree and that of five years or more as a tree of bearing age.86

Mango is the most popular fruit of the orient and has been called “King of the all

fruits”, but also ‘a ball tow soaked in turpentine’ or ‘fit to be eaten in the bathtub only’.

Ripe mangoes are eaten for dissert, are canned or used for making juice, jams and other

preserves, pickles and chutney are prepared from unripe fruits.87

2.2.1 History of Mango

The mango is one of the ancient fruits of India. It was established in India in the

Pre-Christian era. Its cultivation in India is estimated at more than 4000 to 6000 years

old. In the Ramayana and Mahabharata forest and gardens of mango have been

mentioned.88

Hindus have held it in high esteem. Its blossoms are used for the worship

of goddess Saraswathi and festoons (Toran) of mango leaves are strung over doorways on

auspicious occasions. The mango has been described as “Kalpakaviruksha” or wish –

��

��Charles McCann, Op.cit., p.95

��Bandaya Melko, “Mango Music”, The Economic Times, Chennai, March 1999, p.8

��New Custom Encyclopedia, The Coxton Publishing Company, London, Vol.12, p.384�

��Seth G.R., Sukhatme B.V. and Manwan A.M., Sample Surveys of Mango and Guava in

Uttar Pradesh, ICAR, 1959, p.8

��Samson J.A., Tropical Fruits, II Edition, Kitabiston, Allahabad, 1993, pp.216-233

�Ranjit Singh, Fruits, National Book Trust, New Delhi, India,1969, p.18

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giving – tree. It is not only common throughout India, but it is also the fruit of the

common man.89

Mango has a strong link with the cultural history of India. Its mention has been in

the sacred Sanskrit scriptures dating back at 2000 B.C. and also has been portrayed in the

paintings and sculptures.90

The Moghul Emperor Babar called it is the choicest fruit of Hindustan.91

It has

also created place for itself in the Indian art. Sculptures of the mango tree and its fruit are

found in the Buddhist stuba at Sanchi which dates back to about 150 B.C.92

The mango

had become established in India at a very early stage. The invading armies of Alexander,

the Great, found it established in the Indus Valley in 327 B.C.93

In the travel notes of the Buddhist pilgrims Fahien and Sung – Yun, a mango

grove is mentioned as have been presented by Amaradharika to Lord Buddha, so that the

Great Master might use it as a place of repose. This important fruit also finds mention in

the notes of the early foreign travelers to India, e.g., Hsiian – tsang (632-645), ibe-Haukul

(902-968), ibn-Batuta Hsiian foreign (1325-1349) and Ludovici de Varthama (1503-

1508). It appears, however, that Hsiian – tsang was the first person to bring the mango to

the notice of the people outside India.

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�Arun Arya, Op.cit., p.28

��Arul Chanda et al, Production and Post Harvest Technology of Fruits, NBS Publishers,

Bikaner, 1996, p.83

��Ranjit Singh, Op.cit., p.19

��Ibid., p.22

��Arun Arya, Op.cit., p.54

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The Turkoman Saint and poet, Ameer Khosru, was so much impressed by the

virtues of the mango that, as early as 1330 A.D., he immortalized the fruit in Persian

verse, a translation of which would be:

The choicest fruit of Hundustan,

For gardens pride the mango is sought;

Ere ripe, other fruits to cut we ban,

But mango serves us, ripe or not94

2.2.2 Origin of Mango

The mango, which combines utility with beauty, has the status of the national tree

of India and is very rightly considered ‘King’ among fruits grown in the country.95

The mango belongs to the family of Anacardiacease, genus Mangifera, and is

known to have originated in South East Asia. The natural spread of the genus is limited

to the Indo- Malaysian region.96

Evidence based on occurrence of numerous wild and

cultivated varieties, phyto –geographical distribution, phytogenetic –taxonomy,

philological and archaeological studies indicate that the Mango is indigenous to north east

India and north Burma, in the foot – hills of the Himalayas. It is said to have originated

in the Indo- Burma region (De Candolle 1904, Popenoe 1920, Mukherjee 1951). The

mango was found throughout South – East Asia and the Malay Archipelago in the early

��

��Krishnan Kumar, The Mango – A Hand Book, Indian Council for Agricultural

Research, New Delhi, 1967, p.1

��J.S. Pal, Fruit Growing, Kalyani Publishers, Ludiyana, 1997, p.155�

��R.K. Meena et al, Horticultural Marketing and Post Harvest Management, Post Harvest

Practices for quality Assurance of Mango, Pointers Publishers, Jaipur, India, 2001, p.254�

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days. The Chinese literature of the seventh century describes it as an important fruit crop

in the warmest part of China and Indo- China.97

2.2.3 Distribution of Mango

Presently, besides India, it is being cultivated in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Sri

Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Fiji Islands, Tropical

Australia, Egypt, Israel, Sudan, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa,

Nigeria, Zaire, Madagascar, Mauritius, the USA (Florida, Hawaii, Puerto and Rico),

Venezuela, Mexico, Brazil, Australia, West Indies Islands and Cambodia.98

The mango, which has been under cultivation in India for 4000 years or more,

forms now a commercial crop in many countries. The account of the introduction and

distribution of the mango in other countries of the world is interesting. Perhaps Malaya

was one of the earliest to obtain the material from India. The size of the seeds is too great

to allow carriage by birds or other animals and suggest dispersal by human agency.99

The dissemination of Mango throughout the world started with the

commencement of trade between Asia and Europe. The Portuguese were the first to

come to India, and they seized the opportunity of trading in spices and other vegetable

products of the East.100

It had become established in Somaliland on the eastern coast of

Africa before 1331. By the 16th

century, it had reached the Persian Gulf. By 1690, it was

growing under glass in England. It had also reached Yemen in the latter half of the 17th

century, the Azores in 1865 and Italy in 1905. It reached Hawaii islands in about 1865

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��R.N. Singh, Mango, ICAR, New Delhi, 1990, p.2�

�Ram Prakash Srinivastava, Mango Cultivation, International Book Distributing

Company, Lucknow, India, 1998, p.3

�Krishnan Kumar, Op.cit., p.4

��Ibid., p.32

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and Queens-land in Australia in about1870.101

Mango travelled to the west only after the

sea-route was discovered. Alexander saw the first mango tree in Indus valley, which

proves that it did not travel towards the Western countries before Alexander. Portuguese

people took mango fruit to South Africa and Brazil in about 1700 A.D. Spanish people

introduced it in Philippines. Mango was introduced in Jamaica around 1782. From

Mexico, it was introduced in Florida during 1833. In 1869 grafted mango trees were

taken to Florida from India. Mango was introduced in Israel in 1929.102

2.2.4 Varieties of Mango

For successful mango growing, it is necessary that the varieties planted in a

commercial orchard are productive, of good quality and adaptable to the climate of the

tract. Different varieties are suitable for growing in different climatic conditions.103

The number of varieties of mango found in India is great. In fact, there are far too

many varieties. The number of commercial varieties is estimated at over 1000104

each

differing in size, shape, colour, texture and taste.105

The popular varieties grown in Tamil

Nadu are Neelum, Bangalara, Banganapalli, Rumani and Mulgoa.106

Pickle varieties are

Butty, Natty and Gaddemar.107

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��Ranjit Singh, Op.cit., p.22�

��J.S. Pal, Op.cit., p.155�

��Sham Singh, Fruit Culture in India, ICAR, New Delhi, 1967, p.82

��Ranjit Singh, Op.cit., p.25

��Vikas Singhal, Op.cit., p.144

��N. Ramaswamy, Fruits – Spices and Plantation Crops, Tamilnadu Agricultural College,

Madurai, 1995, p.8�

��Ibid., p.17

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The name of the mango variety is varies from region to region. The same variety

may be known by a different name in a different location. For example, Himsagar of

South Bengal area is known as Khirsapati in Malda.108

There are nearly 1000 mango varieties in India. However, only the following

varieties are grown on a commercial scale in different States:

� Alponso

� Bangalora

� Banganapalli

� Bambai

� Bambay Green

� Dashehari

� Fajri

� Fernandiein

� Himsagar

� Kasar

� Kishenbhug

� Langra

� Mankurad

� Mulgao

� Neelum

� Sambarbehisht

� Chausa

� Rumani and Raspuri

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��Sammadar H.N., “Commercial Production of Horticultural Crops”, Naya Udyog,

Calcutta, 2001, p.16

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The details of Commercial Mango Varieties growing in different States are

presented in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1

COMMERCIAL MANGO VARIETIES GROWN IN DIFFERENT STATES

Sl.

No.

States Varieties

1. Andhra Pradesh Banganapalli, Survarnarekha, Neelum, Totapari

2. Bihar

Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari, Fazli, Langra,

Gulab Khas, kishenbhug, Himsagar and Zardalu

3. Gujarat

Kasar, Alphonso, Rajapuri, Jamadar, Neelum,

Dashehari and Langra

4. Haryana Chausa, Dashehari, Langra and Fazli

5. Himachal Pradesh Chausa, Dashehari and Lungra

6. Karnataka

Alphanso, Totapari, Neelum, Pairi, Banganapalli and

Mulgoa

7. Maharashtra Alphanso, Kesar and Pairi

8. Punjab Chausa, Dashehari and Malda

9. Rajasthan Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari and Lungra

10. Tamil Nadu Alphonsa, Bangalora, Banganapalli and Neelum

11. Uttar Pradesh Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari and Langra

12. West Bengal

Fazli, Gulabkhas, Himsagar, Kishenbhug, Langra and

Bombay Green

Source : Handbook of Horticulture, ICAR, New Delhi, 2010-2011.

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2.2.5 Medicinal Value

The medicinal property of mango has been known since long throughout the

world. Almost all the parts of the plant are used as medicine in one way or other.

Although, our knowledge on medicinal properties of mango is known since long.109

Parts used: Roots, bark, Leaves, flowers, fruits, seed kernel.110

A fully ripe mango is especially high in vitamin A (beta – Carotene), which is

considered a cancer-fighting agent. It is also high in vitamin C and is a good source fibre

too. Green mangoes have more vitamin C than vitamin A, but as the mango ripen its

vitamin A increases. Mangoes are good for the kidneys, aid digestion, relieve clogged

skin pores and reduce cysts, excess body heat and favour. All parts of the have medicinal

uses.111

The roots and bark are astringent, acrid, refrigerant, styptic, antisyphilitic,

vulnerary, antiemetic, anti-inflammatory and constipating. They are useful in vitiated

conditions of pitta, metrorrhagia, colonorrhagia, pnecumorrhagia, leucorrhoea, syphilis,

wounds, ulcers, vomiting, uterities, diarrhea, dysentery, diphtheria and rheumatism. The

leaves are astringent, refrigerant, styptic, vulnerary and constipating. They are useful in

vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta hiccough, hyperdipsia, burning sensation,

haemorrhages, haemoptysis, haemorrhoids, wounds, ulcers, diarrhea, dysentery,

pharyngopath and stomatopathy. The ash of the burnt leaves is useful in burn and scalds.

The flowers are astringent, refrigerant, styptic, vulnerary, constipating and haematinic.

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��Ram Prakash Srinivastava, Op.cit., p.7

��Prajapathi et al, A Hand Book of Medicinal Plants, Agrobios (India) Publishing India

Limited, 2003, p.332

��Kusam Budwar, Romance of Mango, Penguin Publications, 2002, p.216

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They are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, haemorrhages, haemoptysis, wounds,

ulcers, anorexia, and dyspepsia.112

2.2.6 Mango in Ayurvedic Medicine

Ayurveda describes the properties of mango as heating, sweet to lightly sour,

halancing all dosha or elements. Mangoes are unctuous, energising and satisfying. A

hybrid mango that has no fibre is heavy to digest, although it tastes better than one with

fibre. Natural mangoes are smaller and juicier than hybrids but both are a combination of

sweet and sour. As its acid content increases stomach acids, one should neither eat

mangoes on an empty stomach nor take plain water with them. The sweeter the mango

the more easily it is digested and the more energy it provides. A sour mango should

never be eaten except in the form of amchur, or dried mango slices.113

Mangoes are good for excess wind (vata) and mucus (Kapha). A sweet, juicy,

ripe mango helps the body generate blood. If a glass of lukewarm milk is taken after

eating a mango, it balances bile (pitta) and energizes the entire system, especially the

intestine. During the hot season, cold water can be added to the milk to reduce the effect

of the heat and give strength, vigour and vitality to the system. The fruit is beneficial in

liver disorders, loss of weight and some other physical disturbances. It stimulates and

energizes the nervous system and is weight producing. It is believed that this fruit helps

one stay youthful for a long time, cheeks premature aging and holds back decay.

Mangoes soaked in sugar syrup give energy, remove constipation and serve as a tonic for

the brain, stomach, lungs and blood.114

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��Prajapathi, Op.cit., p.332

��Kusam Budwar, Op.cit., p.94

��Ibid., p.101

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2.2.7 Nutritional Value

In terms of nutrition, fruits are very good source of several vitamins, minerals,

salts and dietary fibre, all of which are essential for good health. Fruits are health –

promoting as well as pleasure – giving. Because of their low energy density and

appreciable amounts of dietary fibre, fruits are good for health.115

Food value of fruits has been well recognized and fruits have become an essential

part in a complete or a balanced diet. Fruits are generally rich in carbohydrates and

proteins, which are essential for the maintenance of life and growth of body tissues. They

also contain essential mineral elements like potassium, phosphorus, iron, calcium and

sulphur in an easily assimilable form. Fruits are very rich in vitamins, which possess a

direct influence on the growth and development of body. Vitamins are said to give

immunity to the body against the attack of certain diseases. Fruits improve the digestion

and they act as a mild laxative also.116

Mango fruits contain amino acids, carbohydrates,

fatty acids, minerals, organic acids, proteins and vitamins. During the ripening process

the fruits are initially acidic, astringent and rich in ascorbic acid.117

Table 2.2 explains the

details of Nutritional Contents of Mango.

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��Raghuvanshi R.S and R.K. Sohane, Op.cit., p.3

��B.L. Choudri, Practical Hints on Fruits Garderning, The Western Book Depot, Nagpur,

India, 1954, p.3�

��M. Subhas Chander and V.K. Rao, Fruits in Nutritional Security, Indian Institute of

Horticultural Research, Bangalore, 2004, p.23�

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Table 2.2

Nutrition Value of Mango per 100 g

Sl. No. Principle Nutrient Value

Percentage of

RDA

1. Energy 70 Kcal 3.5 %

2. Carbohydrates 17 g 13 %

3. Protein 0.5 g 1 %

4. Total Fat 0.27 g 1 %

5. Cholesterol 0 mg 0 %

6. Dietary Fibre 1.80 g 4.5 %

Vitamins

7. Folates 14 µg 3.5 %�

8. Niacin 0.584 mg 3.5 %�

9. Pantothenic Acid 0.160 mg 1 %�

10. Pyridoxine (Vit B-6) 0.134 mg 10 %�

11. Riboflavin 0.057 mg 4 %�

12. Thiamin 0.058 mg 5 %�

13. Vitamin C 27.7 mg 46 %�

14. Vitamin A 765 IU 25.5 %�

15. Vitamin E 1.12 mg 7.5 %�

16. Vitamin K 4.2 µg 3.5 %�

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Electrolytes

17. Sodium 2 mg 0 %�

18. Potassium 156 mg 3 %�

Minerals

19. Calcium 10 mg 1 %�

20. Copper 0.110 mg 12 %�

21. Iron 0.13 mg 1.5 %�

22. Magnesium 9 mg 2 %�

23. Manganese 0.027 mg 1 %�

24. Zinc 0.04 mg 0 %�

Phyto-nutrients

25. Carotene-� 445 µg --�

26. Carotene-� 17 µg� --�

27. Crypto-xanthin-� 11 µg� --�

28. Lutein-zeaxanthin 0 µg� --�

29. Lycopene 0 µg� --�

Sources: USDA National Nutrient Database

It is clear from Table 2.2 that the Vitamin C and Vitamin A contents in mango are

much higher than other nutrients. It is also found from the Table that Mango Fruit is rich

in pre-biotic dietary fibre, Vitamins, Minerals, and Poly-phenolic Flavonoid Antioxidant

Compounds.

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2.2.8 General Uses of Mango

Every part of mango, from root to top, is used in a variety of ways. The fruit

itself, in the various stages of its development, is used in many ways. In its raw stage, the

fruit is used for extraction of tannin and other astringent products as well as for the

preparation of delightful chutneys, curries and pickles.118

Ripe fruits are eaten fresh, preserved and canned, mango stones and leaves are fed

to livestock.119

Leaves are therefore used to decorate houses on festive occasions. The

fruit is regarded as being the nectar of the gods.120

Dried branches and twigs make fuel

wood while the trunk has timber values (for furniture’s).121

2.2.9 Industrial Uses

No other fruit can be put to so many diversified uses in the form of processed

products as mango. It is used extensively by the food- processing industry to prepare

wide variety of products. Both ripe and unripe mangoes are utilized for this purpose.

The following mango products can be manufactured from ripe mango. Canned Mango

Slices in Syrup, Mango Pulp, Mango Jam, Mango Squash, Mango Juice, Mango Nectar,

Mango Cereals Flakes, Mango Custard Powder, Mango Toffee, Mango Leather, Mango

Juice Powder and the like can be prepared from ripe mango.

The following mango products can be manufactured from unripe mango. Mango

pickle, Mango chutney, Brined mango slices, Dried green mango slices and powder

��

��J.S. Pal, Op.cit., p.156�

��Gyan K. Shrestha, Commercial Fruits at a Glance, Technical Concern, Katmandu,

Nepal, 1996, p.110

��Pippa Mukherjee, Common Trees of India, India, 1998, p.37

��Gyan K. Shrestha, Op.cit., p.110

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(amchur) and mango wine. Various other products such as candy, jam, jelly, preserve,

squash and the like can be prepared from unripe mango.122

2.2.10 Nomenclature of Mango

Mango word comes from Malayalam, man-ka. In Kerala, people call the tree as

“Ma” or Mavu. The first mention of mango (Manga) appeared in English in 1582 A.D. in

Litchfield’s translation of Castenheda’s conq E.Indies (LXVI : 42). In India, the ripe and

green fruits are referred as Amkeri (Hindi), Mangai (Tamil), Mamidi kayi (Telugu),

Mavin kayi (Kannada), Kancha ambu (Oriya), Ambo (Marathi), Kanchcha am (Bengali),

Keri (Gujarat), Pacha manga (Malayalam), Mamidi Pandu (Telugu), Mavina hannu

(Kannada), Pachila Ambo (Oriya), Amba pikleta (Marathi), Puka Aam (Bengali) and

Amba (Kashmir).123

In Nepal, it is called as Ago; in Sri lanka – Amba, Ambi, Kaddum and Watamba;

in Burma – Taw, Tharat; in Siam – Mamong; in Vietnam – Cay Xoai; in Cambodia –

Soai, in Malaysia – Manga, Mangga, Mampalam and Pauch; in Indonesia- Ampalam,

Manga, Maplane, Mapoolane Booah Bibe, Manilja and Pager; in Philippines –

Mambalam, Magka and Pao; in Formosa – Jap; in China – Anlokuo and Mon-kwo; in

Persia – Amba and Ambeh; in Turkey - Manguag; in Arabia – Abning; in Africa –

Manoro, Mango, Mano, Mangga and Mangueira; in French – Mangier, Manguier and

Loubi; in German – Mangga, Muembe; in Brazil – Mangaiba; in Dutch – Manja and in

English – Mango.124

��

��R.N. Singh, Mango, Indian Council for Agricultural Research, Publication and

Information Division, New Delhi, 1990, pp.109-112�

��Ram Prakash Srinivastava, Op.cit., p.11�

��Ibid., p.19�

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2.3 CULTIVATION PRACTICES

In this part, the researcher has made an attempt to present the cultivation practices

of mango growers in the world.

2.3.1 Climate

Mango is a tropical fruit.125

It can be grown at a height of 1500 m above mean sea

level126

at a temperature as low as 00C and as high as 45

0C. The ideal temperature range

for mango is 24-300C during the growing season, along with high humidity.

Temperatures below 100C and above 43

0C discourage growth.

Temperature affects the flowering time of mango trees. A cool and dry period

generally is essential for inducing flowering during winter, which slows or stops mango

growth in regions of both heavy (2,540 mm) and Scant (254 mm) rainfall. Precipitation

of 890-1015mm in a year, if well distributed, is best. If prolonged rainless period occurs,

supplementary irrigation should be provided. Rainfall during the flowering period

adversely affects fruit setting, Fog, and cloudy weather at the time of flowering from

November to February results in poor setting of fruits and favours disease incidence.127

High velocity winds affect pollination also. Places, where occurrence of hailstorms is

frequent are not suitable for mango cultivation.128

�� 125

K. L. Chandha, Hand Book of Horticulture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research,

New Delhi, June 2002, p.239.�

126 Arul Chandra and Anju Chandra, “Production and Post Harvest Technology of Fruits”,

NBS Publishers, Bikaner, 1996, p.86.

127 M.K. Sadhu and P.K. Chattopadhyay, “Introductory Fruit Crops”, Naya Prakash

Publication, Calcutta, August 2001, pp.111-112.�

128 Ibid., p.117.

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2.3.2 Soil

Mango is found growing in several types of soils such as lateritic, alluvial sandy

loam and sandy soils. Although it grows very well in soils of high to medium fertility, its

cultivation can be successfully done in less fertile soils by providing good management

especially in the early stages. The loamy, alluvial, well-drained and deep soils with a

high percentage of humus are ideal for mango cultivation. Extremely sandy, shallow,

rocky, waterlogged and alkaline or calcareous soils are not suitable for mango

cultivation.129

2.3.3 Propagation

Mango is propagated on mango rootstock. For raising rootstock, the seeds of

mango are sown within 4-5 weeks after extraction. Otherwise they lose their viability for

sowing seeds. Raised beds are prepared with a mixture of farmyard manure, red soil and

sand. In some places, seeds are sown directly in polythene bags. After germination, the

leaves turn green in 2-4 weeks. These seedlings are transplanted to polythene covers

containing red soil, sand and farmyard manure. Addition of nitrogenous fertilizer to

polythene covers after the establishment of plants helps in quick growth of seedlings.

The seedlings thus raised should be used for grafting at different ages. Several methods

of grafting are practiced. They are as follows:

2.3.3.1 Inarching

It is one of the most widely practiced methods of grafting. One can get a big-

sized plant material for planting with over 95 percent success rate.

�� 129

A.K. Sacheti, Op.cit., p.24.

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2.3.3.2 Veneer and Side grafting

These can be utilised for preparing a grafted plant material or for in-situ grafting,

that is for the rootstock which are already planted.

2.3.3.3 Epicotyls / Stone Grafting

This method is widely practiced in the Konkan region of Maharashtra. The

germinated seedlings of 8-15 days old are used for grafting.130

2.3.4 Planting

Prior to planting, the field should be deeply ploughed and harrowed. Pits of

proper size should be dug at appropriate distance generally at 10 x 10 m and filled by

adding sufficient quantity of farmyard manure. The grafts should be procured from

reliable nurseries for planting.131

2.3.5 Time of Planting

There are two planting seasons for mango namely spring (February-March) and

Monsoon (August-September).132

The best time for planting in the plains is during the

monsoon when there is sufficient humidity in the atmosphere. However, in heavy rainfall

area the best time of planting mango is at end of the rainy season, whereas in tracts where

the rainfall is less, the planning can be done in the early part of the monsoon for better

establishment. The planting should be done in the cool hours of the evening. Otherwise

�� 130

K.L. Chandha, Book of Horticulture, Directorate of Information and Publication of

Agriculture, ICAR, New Delhi, June 2002, p.242.�131

A.K. Sacheti, Op.cit., p.26. 132

J.S. Bal, Op.cit., p.163.

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if the day turns out to be unusually hot or dry, the plants may wither due to excessive

transpiration.133

2.3.6 Planting System

The various systems in vogue are the, (i) Rectangular (ii) Square (iii) Quincunx

(iv) Hexagonal and (v) contour (Sing 1960), of these, the square system is the most

popular in mango.134

The planting distance may vary according to variety, fertility level

of the soils and general growth conditions in the area. However, as most of the grafted

fruit trees develop medium tree stature a spacing of 10*10 m will be enough for their

proper and development.135

The planting system adopted with the plant density is

presented in Table 2.3.

�� 133

A.K. Sacheti, Op.cit., pp.26-27.

134 T.K. Boss and S.K. Mitra, “Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical”, Volume II, Naya Udyog

Publication, Calcutta, January 2001, p.34.�

135 A.K. Sacheti, Op.cit., pp.26-27.

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Table 2.3

Planting System in Mango Cultivation

Sl. No.

Distance

between

Plants (ft.)

Number of Plants / ha.

Square System

Hexagonal

System

Quincunx

System

1. 10 435 870 500

2. 16 170 340 195

3. 20 109 218 125

4. 24 75 150 86

5. 28 56 112 64

6. 36 34 68 39

7. 40 27 54 31

Source : Crop Production Technique of Horticultural Crops, Tamil Nadu Agricultural

University, Coimbatore, 2004

It is clear from Table 2.3 that the maximum of plants registering (870 plants) are

planted per hectare under the hexagonal system with the distance between 10 feet,

whereas only 27 plants are planted under the system of square with the distance between

40 feet. The number of mango grafts planted depends on the system that the farmers have

followed.

2.3.7 Land Preparation

Land is ploughed, cross-ploughed and then leveled before preparatory tillage and

layout. The selected site should be thoroughly studied for its size, topography, slope,

fertility status, water table and drainage facilities. The land is then leveled, thoroughly

ploughed and divided with blocks by positioning main and subsidiary roads. The

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planting distance varies according to the vigour of the cultivators, fertility status of the

soil and general growth conditions in the area. Where excessive growth of the tree is

expected, a spacing of 12 x 12 m is suggested. But in the dry areas where luxuriant

growth is not expected, a spacing of 10 x 10 m is considered sufficient. After making the

places for the plants, pits are dug out during the summer months. In locations where the

soil is deep and loamy, a pit of 50 m3 is quite suitable for mango. However, for shallow

and rocky soils, pits measuring 100 cm3 are considered optimum.

136

2.3.8 Rejuvenation of Old Mango Trees

It is a well known fact that mango trees live for long years and grow to huge

dimensions. Old trees have a tendency to develop hollows in their trunks and in main

branches starting from crotch or the point of bifurcation. Rain water is deposited here and

this causes the bark and wood inside it to rot, and as the process continues year after year,

large cavities are formed. Similarly when a branch is broken by wind or by other means

the untrimmed stub left behind usually rots and dies. Gradually a cavity may be formed

at this point too. Old trees in neglected condition with unhealthy branches full of

Loranthus and stem bores need to be rejuvenated by removing all bores and Loranthus.

Addition of 10 kg of bone meal, 100 kg of well rotten F.Y.M. and 2.5 kg of oil cakes is

recommended for a plant.137

2.3.9 Irrigation

No watering is required during the monsoon except in the intervening spells of dry

weather. From the second year during the winter, water may be given to the young trees

�� 136

M.K. Sadhu and P.K. Chattopadhyay, Op.cit., p.117.

137 Amar Singh, “Fruit Physiology and Production”, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi,

1980, p.350.

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at intervals of a week and during the hot weather at intervals of four to six days or even at

shorter intervals depending upon the nature of the soil and severity of the weather. After

five years, the mango trees will grow and fruit satisfactorily without irrigation in most

parts of the country. But in comparatively drier zones they may have to be irrigated

throughout their life if satisfactory crops are desired.138

The amount and frequency of irrigation to be given to mango orchards depend on

the type of soil, climatic conditions especially rainfall and its distribution and age of the

tree.139

Irrigation should be stopped at least 2-3 months before flowering. Irrigation

during this period usually promotes vegetative growth and adversely affects flowering.140

2.3.10 Pruning

Pruning is the art of removing scientifically certain portion of a plant with a view

to producing superior quality of fruits. Pruning of any kind, according to its severity,

changes the nutritive condition within the tree.141

It has been reported that pruning can be helpful in overcoming the problem

irregular bearing in mango. This type of pruning is recommended for opening the centre

of the tree by topping off or tinning of branches. This is reported to have helped in

reducing irregular bearing.142

�� 138

Sham Singh, S. Krishnamurthi and S.I. Katyal, “Fruit Culture in India”, ICAR, New

Delhi, 1967, p.87.

139 M.K. Sadhu and P.K. Chattopadhyay, “Introductary Fruit Crops”, Naya Prakash

Publications, Calcutta, August 2001, p.119.�

140 Ibid., p.129.

141 Y.N. Kunte, “Introduction to Principles of Fruit Growing”, Agri-Horticultural

Publishing House, Nagpur, p.59.�

142 Bijendra Singh, Lakshmi Ram Singh and A.R. Singh, “A Text Book of Fruit

Production”, Aman Publishing House,Meerut, 1997, p.7�

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2.3.11 Manuring

The application of manure and fertilizers in mango depends upon factors such as

climatic conditions, varieties planted and above all, the nutrient status of the soil.

Nitrogen is the most important nutrient required. Regular applications of nitrogen

promote healthy growth flushes and flower production especially if potash and

phosphorus are present in sufficient quantities. The mango can withstand deficiency of

phosphorus but not of potassium. Chelated micro-nutrients, especially iron, are also

necessary. Organic fertilizers, that is, farmyard manure, bone meal, wood ash, castor

cake and ammonium sulphate performs best, since the trees are subject to fertilizer burn.

Young trees are particularly sensitive to over fertilizing but respond well to fish emulsion.

Sandy soils require more fertilizers than loamy or clayey soils do. The fertilizer doses in

mango cultivation are described in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4

Fertilizer Doses in Mango Cultivation

(Kg. Per tree)

Manure and

Fertilizers

1 Year Old Annual Increase 6th

year onwards

FYM 10.00 10.00 50.00

N 0.20 0.20 1.00

P 0.20 0.20 1.00

K 0.30 0.30 1.50

Source : Crop Production Techniques of Horticultural Crops, 2004, Directorate of

Horticulture and Plantation Crops, Chennai

From Table 2.4 it is clear that the fertilizer doses in mango cultivation are based

on the ages of mango grafts. It is also clear that the FYM 10 kg per tree in a year with

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annual increase the same figure doubles up to 5th

year. After the 6th

year 50 kg per tree

per year is applied. The N, P and K respectively 0.20 kg and 0.30 kg per tree is applied

with gradual increase up to 5th

year. From 6th

year onwards 1.00 kg and 1.50 kg

respectively regularly applied up to 15 years. In India, fertilizer is applied at an

increasing rate until the tree is fifteen years old, and then it is discontinued.143

2.3.12 Incidence of Pests and Diseases

The common pests affecting the mango were found to be mealy bug, mango-

hopper, shoot-borer, stem-borer and caterpillar. It was estimated that various pests

affected 51.3 per cent of the total number of trees. Short-borer was the most serious pest

accounting for 26.6 per cent of the total number of affected trees. The percentage number

of trees affected by stem-borer and mango hopper was estimated to be 15.8 and 8.3

respectively. A study conducted by Seth G.R. et al found that 40 per cent total of the

number of affected trees was attacked by two or more pests. The common diseases

affecting the mango trees were found to be malformation, dieback, gummosis and black-

tip. It was found that 41.3 per cent of the total number of trees was diseased. Gummosis

was found to be the most common disease accounting for 37.4 per cent of the total of

diseased trees.144

2.3.13 Irregular Bearing in Mango

This crop suffers from the problem of irregular bearing (Bakhshi and Singh,

1970). There are three categories of mangoes: (i) annual and regular bearers which bear

good crop of fruits almost every year, (ii) biennials or alternate bearers which show

�� 143

Kusum Budhwar, “Romance of the Mango”, Penguin Books, 2002, p.167.

144 G.R. Seth, B.V. Sukhame and A.H. Manwanim, “Sample Surveys of Mango and

Guava in Uttar Pradesh”, ICAR, New Delhi, 1961, p.47.�

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rhythmic habit of profuse reproductive growth and fruiting in the ‘on’ year and profuse

vegetative with little or no reproductive growth in the next ‘off’ year, and (iii) irregular

bearers in which there is one ‘on’ year for every 4-5 ‘off’ years. The problem is so severe

and the yield so unpredictable that mango is in danger of being replaced by other regular-

bearing fruit crops.145

2.3.14 Harvesting

The grafted trees start bearing at the age of five years (15-20 fruits) and the

optimum yield starts from the 9th

to 10th

year onward, when each tree would yield about

400 to 500 fruits, depending on the variety. The yield continues to increase up to the age

of 35 to 40 years (2,500 fruits) after which it starts declining. However, in certain grafted

varieties, like langra and chausa, the full bearing potential is realised much later (15-20

years) than in a variety like Dashiri (10 years). In a fully matured mango tree, depending

upon the age and spread of the tree, the total number of fruits harvested may range from

1,000 (250 kg.) to 2,500 (625 kg.). In India, the average production of mango is only 8.5

tonnes /ha. which is much below the potential. It needs to be improved through efficient

management.146

2.3.15 Post Harvesting

The harvested fruits should first be graded according to size and appearance,

although this is not the usual practice. Ripe fruits and damaged fruits of relatively poor

quality are usually retained for local markets and better types are packed for distant

places. Proper packaging is an essential pre-requisite for maintaining good appearance

�� 145

A.K. Srivastava, “Irregular Bearing in Mango Problem and Strategy”, Rajendra

Agriculture University, Bihar, 1991, p.47.�

146 A.A. Faroogi and A.K. Sacheti, Op.cit., p.35.

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and quality of the produce on reaching the marketing centres. The most common practice

in Western India is to pack the fruits in bamboo baskets of 50 to 100 fruits capacity.147

The mango is a climatic fruit and unless the fruits are stored properly, one cannot

be sure of the condition in with the fruits will reach the desired market. Proper storage is

absolutely essential during the year of the glut. Also, the processing units cannot utilize

the entire produce at a time and proper storage conditions become vital. In general green

but mature fruits store better than those harvested ripe from the trees. Studies have

shown that fruits of many cultivars can be stored successfully for about 4 to 7 weeks at a

temperature of 3.9 to 8.9C.148

2.4 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF TIRUNELVELI DISTRICT

Tirunelveli District is a district of Tamil Nadu state in Southern India. The

city of Tirunelveli is the district headquarters. A unique feature of this district is that it

encompasses all five geographical traditions of Tamil Literature; kurinji (mountains),

mullai (forest), marudham (paddy fields), neithal (coastal) and palai (desert). Tirunelveli

District was formed on September 1, 1790 by the East India Company, later came under

the direct control of the British Crown Queen Victoria. The name Tirunelveli has been

composed from the three Tamil words i.e. ‘Thiru – Nel – Veli’ meaning Sacred Paddy

Hedge. With effect from 20.10.1986 the district was bifurcated and new Tuticorin

District was formed.149

Tirunelveli is the second-largest district (as of October 2008),

after Villupuram district.

�� 147

T.K. Bose and S.K. Mitra, Fruits, Vol.1, Naya Prakash Publications, Calcutta, March

1996, pp.47-48.�

148 Ibid., p.49.

149 http://www.tirunelveli.nic.in/distformation.html

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Tirunelveli District was called as Thenpandiyanadu under the Pandyas rule. This

Area was under Cholas. They named Tirunelveli Mudikonda Cholamandalam under their

rule. Then this area was ruled by Madurai Nayaks. During their period Tirunelveli was

called as Tirunelveli Seemai. Under the British East India Company rule, it was

Tinnevelly district. That comprised present Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts and

parts of Virudhunagar and Ramanathapuram districts. In 1910, Ramanathapuram District

was formed by clubbing portions from Madurai and Tirunelveli district, which comprised

portions of Today's Virudhunagar District. After the Independence of India, Tirunelveli

district was bifurcated on 20 October 1986 to Nellai-Kattabomman (Today's Tirunelveli)

district and Chidambaranar (Today's Tuticorin) district. Subsequently, per the decision

of the Government of Tamil Nadu to call all the districts by the name of the headquarter

town, the name was changed from Tirunelveli Kattabomman district to Tirunelveli

district.150

2.4.1 Geography

The district is located in the southern part of Tamil Nadu. It is surrounded by

Virudhunagar District in the north, the Western Ghats in the west, Kanyakumari District

in the south and Thoothukudi District in the east. The district covers an area of 6759 sq.

kms. It lies between 8°05’ and 9°30’ north latitude and 77°05’ and 78°25’ east longitude.

The district has diverse geographical and physical features. It has mountains a stretch of

the Western Ghats and lowland plains. It has a perennial river (the Tamirabarani) and

small seasonal rivers. The district has many scenic waterfalls. Its physical features

include sandy soil and fertile alluvium, a variety of flora, fauna and protected wildlife.

The district also has inland and mountainous forests. The Tamirabarani River provides

��

��http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_tamilnadu.html�

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consistent irrigation to a large agricultural area.151

The Chittar River also originates in

this district. The Courtallam and Manimuthar waterfalls are the two major falls in the

district. Table 2.5 shows the Taluks and Blocks of Tirunelveli District.

Table 2.5

BLOCKS AND TALUKS OF TIRUNELVELI DISTRICT

Sl. No. Name of the Taluk Name of the Block Total Number of

Panchayat Village

1. Alangulam Alangulam 28

2. Ambasamudram

Ambasamudram

Cheranmahadevi

Kadayam

Pappakudi

12

12

23

15

3. Nanguneri Nanguneri

Kalakkadu

27

17

4. Palayamkottai Palayamkottai 30

5. Radhapuram Radhapuram

Valliyoor

27

18

6. Sankarankovil

Sankarankovil

Melaneelithanallur

Kuruvikulam

28

25

43

7. Shenkottai Shenkottai 6

8. Sivagiri Vasudevanallur 22

9. Tenkasi

Tenkasi

Kadayanallur

Keelapavoor

14

16

21

10. Tirunelveli Manur 41

11. Veerakeralampudur Keelapavoor 21

Source : Hand Book of Tirunelveli district, 2011, District Statistical Office, Tirunelveli.

�� 151

http://www.nellai.tn.nic.in/irrigation.html

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Table 2.5 explained the blocks and taluks of Tirunelveli district. The district has

been divided into 11 taluks. The district has 19 blocks. Among these blocks the highest

number of villages is in Kuruvikulam block registering 43 villages. The minimum

number of villages is in Shenkottai block registering only 6 villages.

2.4.2 Demographics

According to the 2011 census Tirunelveli district has a population of 3,072,880,

roughly equal to the nation of Oman or the US state of Iowa. This gives it a ranking of

116th in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of 458

inhabitants per square kilometre (1,190 /sq mi). Its population growth rate over the

decade 2001-2011 was 13.66%. Tirunelveli has a sex ratio of 1024 females for every

1000 males, and a literacy rate of 82.92%.152

The population at the 2001 census was 2,723,988. Of that population, 48.03%

was urban with a population density of 410.5 people per square kilometre. Tamil was the

main language spoken followed by Malayalam. Hindus formed the majority religious

group of the population (79.76%), followed by Christians (10.89%), Muslims (9.26%)

and other religions (0.09%).153

2.4.3 Infrastructure

Canals, wells, tanks and reservoirs are the sources of irrigation in the district. As

of 2005–2006, the district had a total of 151 canals with a length of 499 km, 85,701

irrigation wells, 640 tube wells, 8 reservoirs and 2,212 tanks. The district also has 21,776

wells used for domestic purposes. Electricity is provided by the Tamil Nadu Electricity

�� 152

http://www.census2011.co.in/district.php

153 http://www.census.tn.nic.in/religion.aspx

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Board (TNEB). The district has hydroelectric power plants and windmills, with an

installed capacity of 1,089.675 MW; it is one of the major producers of wind energy in

the state.

The Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant project is being undertaken (with Russian

aid) at the village of Koodankulam. Koodankulam is a place in the Tirunelveli district in

Tamil Nadu, India. It is situated 24 km north-east of Kanyakumari, 36 km from

Nagercoil and about 106 km from Thiruvananthapuram. The place is notable as the

construction site of the Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant. It is also the location of

hundreds of windmills used for power generation, eight of which are located inside the

grounds of the nuclear plant. These wind turbines have currently a total capacity of 2000

MW and represent one of the largest wind farms in India. Since the beginning of 2011,

this place has been embroiled in a nuclear plant controversy over fears of the plant

safety.154

The district is well-connected by a network of roads and railways. Tirunelveli

city serves as the main junction. It has no airports; the nearest airports are at Tuticorin

(40 km away), Madurai (150 km) and Thiruvananthapuram. The district has a total of 27

Railway stations. The following Table 2.6 is listing the length of roads and railways in

the district.

�� 154

http://www.dictirunelveli.in/profile.html

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Table 2.6

LENGTH OF ROADS AND RAILWAYS

Roads Length (km.) Railways

Route

Length

(km.)

Track

Length

(km.)

National Highways 174.824 Broad Gauge 257.000 495.448

State Highways 442.839 Meter Gauge 0.000 0.000

Corporation and

Municipality Roads 1, 001.54

Panchayat Union Roads 1, 254.10

Panchayat Roads 1, 658.35

Town Panchayat and

Townships Roads 840.399

Forest Roads 114.450

Source: http://www.rural.nic.in/AER/TN/AER_Tirunelveli.pdf

2.4.4 Education and Social Development

Tirunelveli is known for its educational institutions, many of which are located at

Palayamkottai (east of Tirunelveli). For this reason, Palayamkottai is known as the

"Oxford of South India". The district has a literacy rate of 76.97%, which is above the

state average. As of 2005–2006, the district had a total of 2,494 schools. It has one

university namely Manonmaniam Sundaranar University. There are four government

colleges, eleven Government-sponsored colleges and seven private colleges. There are

also one medical college, one Siddha medical college and twenty engineering colleges.

Tirunelveli has been an agricultural area throughout its history. The district is a

major producer of rice, coconuts, bananas, mangoes, spices and forest-based products.

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India Cements Limited is a cement manufacturing company in India. The first plant was

set up at Sankar Nagar in Tirunelveli in 1949. India Cement is 3rd largest cement

company in India.

Since it is a coastal district, Tirunelveli is also involved in fishery development

and production. For the period 2005–2006 the total inland fish catch was 1,874 tonnes,

and the total marine fish catch was 7,014 tonnes. The district is also rich in minerals,

with a total of 407 mines and quarries. Limestone, granite and garnet sand are some of

the minerals mined in the district. Major industries include textile, food and forestry

products. A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) was introduced at Nanguneri in 2001. A

Pharma Park and windmill spare-parts and television-manufacturing factories have been

planned in this SEZ. The Tamil Nadu Industrial Development Corporation (TIDCO) has

planned a Rs 700-crore high-tech industrial park in Nanguneri in association with INFAC

Group and Axes Technologies Inc of the US. The state government is planning light

manufacturing, design and assembly facilities, modern infrastructure facilities and

amenities in this SEZ to attract a workforce from around the world.155

2.4.5 Important Places in Tirunelveli District156

2.4.5.1 Manjolai Hills

Located between elevations ranging from 1000 to 1500 Metres, the Manjolai area

is set deep within the Western Ghats within the Kalakkadu Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve

in the Tirunelveli District. Located on top of the Manimuthar Dam & the Manimuthar

�� 155

http://www.nanguneri.com

156 Hand Book of Tirunelveli district, 2011, District Statistical Office, Tirunelveli.

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Water Falls, the Manjolai area comprises Tea Plantations, Small settlements around the

tea plantations; Upper Kodaiyar Dam and a windy view point called ‘Kuthiravetti’.

The Tea Plantations and the whole of Manjolai Estates are tea operated by The

Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation Ltd on Forest Lands leased by the Government of

Tamil Nadu. There are 3 Tea Estates within the Manjolai area - Manjolai Estate,

Manimuthar Estate & Oothu Estate. The Estates are located on elevations ranging

between 2300 Feet to 4200 Feet. The estates, road and the settlements in the Manjolai

area are managed by The Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation Ltd.

2.4.5.2 Courtallam

Courtallam is situated at a mean elevation of 160 m (520 ft) on the Western Ghats

in Tirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu, India. The numerous waterfalls and cascades along

with the ubiquitous health resorts in the area have earned it the title the Spa of South

India. The falls carry a good amount of water only when there is a rain on the hills. They

are Main Falls, Five Falls, the Shenbhaga Falls, the Tiger Falls, old Courtallam Falls,

Honey Falls, Orchard falls and Sittaruvi.

2.4.5.3 Tiger Reserve

The 900 square kilometres (350 sq mi) Kalakkadu Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve

was established in 1962. The reserve, at 8°39�N 77°23�E, is about 45 km west of

Tirunelveli and is known as KMTS to forest and tiger researchers. Kalakkadu is the

nearest town.

�

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2.4.5.4 Bird Sanctuary

A tiny village in the far south, Koonthankulam in Nanguneri Taluk of Tirunelveli

District is emerging as a new favourite of the migratory birds. It is just 38 km. About 35

species of birds visit this calm but congenial village for breeding. The birds called

Painted strokes are coming from North India and East European Countries to this place.

Similarly the flamingos which flew in mainly from the Rann of Kutch have hatched and

reared their young ones in the village.

2.4.5.5 Sankarankovil

Sankarankovil temple was built in the early part of the 11th century A.D.. The

temple at Sankarankovil depicts Hari and Hara as one God. There is a deity named

Sankara Narayanan, which are half Lord Shiva and half Lord Vishnu. There is another

deity, named Avodai Ambal or Gomathi Ambal, after whom the temple is named; it was

built by Ukrama Pandiyan in 900 AD. Sacred sand is available, which is believed

curative by some. July is marked by the Adi Thabasu festival.

2.4.5.6 Swami Nellaiappar and Kanthimathi Ambal Temple

The Nellaiappar Temple, a well-known temple in Tamil Nadu, is located at

Tirunelveli. The temple is rooted in tradition and history, and known for its musical

pillars and other sculpted figures. The nearest airport is Tuticorin Airport (TCR) at

Vagaikulam, a 30-minute drive (32 km) from Tirunelveli.

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2.4.6 Occupational Pattern

There are different people engaged in different fields like-wise classified into

cultivators, agriculture labourer’s activity, marginal workers and the like. The

occupational pattern of the total population in Tirunelveli district is presented in Table

2.7.

Table 2.7

Occupational Pattern in Tirunelveli District

Sl. No. Category Tirunelveli District

Persons Percentage

1. Main + Marginal Workers:

137516

356055

282282

505264

1281117

10.70

27.80

22.00

39.50

100.00

a. Cultivators

b. Agricultural Labourers

c. Household Industry

Manufacturing, Processing,

Servicing and Repairs

d. Other Workers

e. Total Workers

2. Non Workers 1442871 53.00

3. Total Population (3÷4) 2723988 100.00

Source : Census of India 2001.

It is inferred from Table 2.7 that out of the total working population in the district,

agricultural labourers accounted for nearly 27.80 per cent, 10.7 per cent registering

1,37,516 persons engaged in cultivation activities and other workers nearly 39.5 per cent

of the total number of workers. The household industry, manufacturing and the like

accounted for 22.00 per cent of the total number of workers. The overall total population

of the district nearly 47.00 per cent registering 1281117 persons is engaged in total

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working activities. The remaining 53.00 per cent registering 1442871 persons are non-

workers.

2.4.7 Soil Type

Besides rainfall and irrigation, the type of soil also determines the water use

efficiency. The soils in the study area are not uniform in colour and fertility. The types

of soil available most in the district are Lateritic, Loamy and Black Soil. The soils are

porous and quickly drained. This is the reason for the successful cultivation of mango in

the area.

2.4.8 Climate

Tirunelveli district favourably uses the tropical climate. The mean minimum

temperature is 21.70C and the maximum temperature is 35.6

0C. March, April and May

are the hottest months and the maximum temperature recorded during these months.

2.4.9 Rainfall

Tirunelveli has rainfall in all seasons (953.1 mm in 2005-2006). Most

precipitation came from the northeast monsoon (548.7 mm) followed by the southwest

monsoon (147.8 mm) and summer rains (184.2 mm).� � The district receives maximum

amount of rainfall from the North-East and the South-West monsoons. But the rainfall is

scanty in other seasons. Table 2.8 shows the Annual Average Rainfall in the district for 6

years.

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Table 2.8

Annual Average Rainfall of Tirunelveli District

(In mm)

Month Normal 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

January 50.20 54.49 24.80 9.28 8.89 37.16 25.26

February 30.20 1.80 3.52 83.30 NIL 0.08 46.37

March 41.30 124.23 7.44 377.19 31.63 40.48 40.00

April 59.80 25.51 131.64 103.40 72.01 36.91 65.00

May 38.00 35.95 10.97 4.94 24.07 39.40 4.25

June 29.60 28.60 87.78 10.32 21.38 29.67 63.31

July 26.40 26.80 46.49 35.22 59.94 60.56 22.08

August 23.30 25.38 33.11 72.00 25.97 18.43 23.43

September 30.20 63.04 79.70 20.63 30.56 77.53 14.93

October 166.00 361.28 187.03 345.60 126.59 107.56 311.84

November 208.20 287.23 181.90 183.10 431.59 293.38 275.70

December 111.60 19.31 126.16 94.78 153.29 168.53 79.52

Total Rainfall 814.80 1179.66 920.54 1339.76 985.93 873.69 971.69

Source : Hand Book of Tirunelveli District, 2011, District Statistical Office, Tirunelveli.

It is inferred from Table 2.8 that the overall rainfall during the study period from

2006 to 2011. The Normal Rainfall in the district recorded was 814.8 mm. The district

Annual Rainfall was recorded the maximum amount of rainfall registering 1339.76 mm in

2008 and low rainfall recorded in 2010 registering 873.69 mm.

The Season-Wise Rainfall in millimeters in Tirunelveli district during 2010-11 is

furnished in the following Table 2.9

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Table 2.9

Monthly Season-Wise Rainfall in Tirunelveli District during 2010-11

Sl. No. Period Rainfall

Actual Normal Deviation %

1.

June 2010

July 2010

August 2010

September 2010

Total [South-West Monsoon]

26.0

63.4

15.6

84.6

189.6

20.6

23.1

17.2

31.7

92.6

26.2

174.5

-9.3

166.9

104.8

2.

October 2010

November 2010

December 2010

Total [North-East Monsoon]

111.9

891.7

152.2

555.8

138.9

193.7

97.2

429.8

-19.4

50.6

56.6

29.3

3.

January 2011

February 2011

Total [Winter]

21.9

52.6

74.5

41.4

31.2

72.6

-38.1

-55.2

7.5

4.

March 2011

April 2011

May 2011

Total [Hot Summer]

44.7

78.0

5.0

127.7

41.7

61.6

38.6

141.9

-7.1

10.8

-89.5

-23.2

Annual Total 947.6 736.9 25.0


It is clear from Table 2.9 that the level of rainfall during winter season was much

lower in the other seasons.

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2.4.10 Land Utilization Pattern

The majority of the working population of Tirunelveli district is predominantly

engaged in agriculture and other allied activities. The district has a total geographical

area of 675850 hectares. Total land available in the district is utilized for different

purposes. The details of such purposes in the total area are shown in Table 2.10.

Table 2.10

Land Utilization in Tirunelveli District in 2009-2010 and 2010-11

Sl. No. Land Classification Area (in Hectares)

2009-2010 2010-2011

1. Forest 127758 127758

2. Barren and Uncultivable Waste 30725 29682

3. Land put to Non-Agricultural uses 103815 103117

4. Cultivable Waste 38960 36456

5. Permanent Pastures and other Grazing Land 5353 5156

6. Land Under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and

Groves not included Net Area Sown 9032 8626

7. Current Fallow 37594 43067

8. Other Fallow Land 166649 176941

9. Net Area Sown 155964 145047

10. Geographical Area According to Village Records 675850 675850

11. Total Cropped Area 183319 171155

12. Area Sown more than once 27355 26108

Source : ‘G’ Returns of the Tirunelveli District for the year 2010-11.

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It is shown from Table 2.10 that the Tirunelveli district is primarily an agriculture

based district, with a net area sown contribution to nearly 675850 hectares of the total

geographical area in 2010-11. Forest and hills account for 127758 hectares and 171155

hectares of total cropped area respectively. Land put to non-agricultural uses constitutes

103117 hectares of the total geographical area.

2.4.11 Size of Land Holding

The size of the land holdings was in ten categories starting from 0.05 hectares and

ending with the classification according to the size of the holdings above 20 hectares.

The total number of holdings in 2010-11 was 276432. The area under these holdings

worked out to 232101.53 hectares for the year 2010-11. The distribution of the number

of holdings and the total area under these holding classified according to the size of the

holdings area presented in Table 2.11.

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Table 2.11

Size of Land Holdings in Tirunelveli District in 2010-11

Sl. No.

Size of Land

Holdings

(in Ha.)

Number of

Holdings

Percentage

to Total

Holdings

Total Area to

Holdings

(in Ha.)

Percentage

to Total Area

1. Below 0.5 168251 60.86 40205.55 17.32

2. 0.5 to 1.0 50312 18.20 35544.41 15.31

3. 1.0 to 2.0 33834 12.24 47242.24 20.35

4. 2.0 to 3.0 11378 4.12 27319.57 11.77

5. 3.0 to 4.0 5096 1.84 17499.09 7.55

6. 4.0 to 5.0 2621 0.95 11622.01 5.01

7. 5.0 to 7.5 2706 0.98 16316.27 7.03

8. 7.5 to 10.0 1040 0.38 8834.56 3.81

9. 10.0 to 20.0 915 0.33 12312.31 5.30

10. 20.0 and above 279 0.10 15205.52 6.55

Total 276432 100.00 232101.53 100.00


From Table 2.11 it is found that nearly 79.06 per cent of holdings were below the

size of one hectare and they accounted for nearly 32.63 per cent of the total cultivation

area of the holdings. Holdings less than two hectares accounted for 91.30 per cent of the

total number of holdings. About 24.33 per cent of the total area was accounted for by

nearly 6.91 per cent of the total number of holdings and these holdings were between 2

and 5 hectares. Holding above the size of five hectares accounted for nearly 1.79 per cent

of total number of holdings. The number of persons holding less than 0.5 hectares is

168251 being 60.86 per cent. This figure is the highest among the total land holdings of

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the district. Hence, it can be concluded that the majority of the cultivators are small

farmers.

2.4.12 Agriculture

Tirunelveli District has never been self-sufficient in rice and other food grains,

even though majority of the working population are engaged in cultivation of paddy twice

in a year. The certain areas of the district, crops like fruits, vegetables and flowers are

cultivated and sent to other districts in the state also to some northern states. The normal

seasons for cultivation of paddy are June – August and September – December. During

these seasons, short-term and long-term crops are sown. Cattle dung, leaf manure, tank

sift, municipal compost and oil cakes, besides chemical fertilizers, are the important

manures used in the district. Onion and groundnut are also cultivated in Tirunelveli

district. Loans and advances were liberally given for the promotion of cultivators,

especially in kinds, by means of better seeds and fertilizers. Paddy, Coconut, Tobacco

and Sugarcane are cultivated with help of the irrigational facility.

2.4.13 Animal Husbandry

In Tirunelveli district, the livestock population consists of cattle and buffaloes,

sheep, goats, pigs and poultry. The Animal Husbandry Department controls the activities

throughout the district, with their headquarters in important centres. There are veterinary

hospitals, dispensaries, laboratory and animal disease intelligence units, besides tertiary

sub-centres, which look after the welfare of animals. The intensive cattle development

projects are being implemented in Tirunelveli district.

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2.4.14 Irrigation

Water is an important determinant factor of production of crops in agriculture

sector. Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil for normal growth of

plants. Well irrigation and Canal irrigation are the main sources of irrigation in the study

area. The irrigation in Tirunelveli district for the year 2011 is described in Table 2.12.

Table 2.12

Irrigation in Tirunelveli District in 2010-11

Sl. No. Source Number

Area Irrigated

in Hectares

Percentage to

Total Area

1. Government Canals 129 17283 15.79

2. Private Canal -- -- --

3. Tanks 2155 46375 42.37

4. Tube Wells 1469 990 0.90

5. Other Wells 77283 44801 40.93

Total Area Irrigated 81036 109449 100.00

Source : Hand Book of Tirunelveli District 2011, District Statistical Office, Tirunelveli.

It is observed from the Table 2.12 that more than 42 per cent of the total area is

irrigated by Tanks and more than 40 per cent of the total area irrigated by other wells.

Government Canals and Tube Wells cover only 15.79 per cent and 0.90 per cent

respectively of the total irrigated area.

2.4.15 Sources of Water Supply

The water supply is not uniform in Tirunelveli district depending on the

cultivation and other agricultural purposes. It varies in Taluk to Taluk. The Taluk-Wise

water supply is presented in Table 2.13.

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Table 2.13

Taluk-Wise Sources of Water Supply

Sl.

No.

Block

Canal Wells

Used for

Irrigation

Purpose

Tube

Wells

Wells

used for

Domestic

Purpose

Reservoirs Tanks

Nos.

Length

(Kms.)

1. Alangulam 4 20 6618 36 2359 0 127

2. Ambasamudram 7 115 3052 109 904 6 378

3. Nanguneri 3 81 5621 93 454 2 318

4. Palayamkottai 2 43 2013 0 1285 0 124

5. Radhapuram 1 56 8304 668 2872 1 269

6. Sankarankovil 0 0 20219 0 2384 0 231

7. Shenkottai 28 49 1032 189 372 4 215

8. Sivagiri 0 0 7959 22 2892 0 133

9. Tenkasi 71 123 9435 205 3396 1 169

10. Tirunelveli 9 34 5689 82 1740 0 129

11. Veerakeralampudur 4 11 7351 65 5818 0 62

129 532 77283 1469 24476 14 2155

Source : “G” Return of Tirunelveli District, Fasli 1420.

It is depicted in Table 2.13 that the maximum number of Canals is in Tenkasi

Taluk registering 71 Canals. The wells are used in Tirunelveli district for both domestic

as well as agriculture purposes. Tenkasi occupies the primary position in the length of

canals registering 123 kms and the Veerakeralampudur Taluk has the lowest position with

11 kms. The maximum number of wells is used in Sankarankovil Taluk registering

20219 for irrigation purpose and the smallest number of 1032 wells is in Shenkottai

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Taluk. No tube wells are used in Palayamkottai, and Sankarankovil Taluks. Wells used

for domestic purpose are highest in Veerakeralampudur Taluk and lowest in Shenkottai

Taluk accounting for 5818 and 372 wells respectively.

2.4.16 Reservoirs

The water reservoirs in Tirunelveli district are furnished in Table 2.14.

Table 2.14

Reservoirs in Tirunelveli District in 2010-2011

Sl.

No.

Name of the

Reservoir

Year of

Construction

Catchment

Area

(in Sq. km)

Water

Spread

Area at

FRL

(in Sq. km)

Maximum

Height

(in Metres)

Capacity

at FRL

(in MCM)

1. Manimuthar 1958 161.61 9.40 45.72 156.07

2. Kadana Nadhi 1974 46.46 0.80 32.92 9.97

3. Ramanadhi 1974 16.58 0.39 31.09 4.30

4. Karuppanadhi 1977 29.34 0.50 34.44 5.24

5. Gundaru 1983 9.92 0.21 14.66 0.71

6. Adavinainar 2003 15.54 0.35 47.20 4.93

7. Vadakku Pachaiyar 2003 35.09 1.85 20.10 12.51

8. Kodumudiyar 2003 24.86 0.53 28.00 3.45

9. Nambiaru 2000 187.06 1.52 10.84 2.33

10. Papanasam 1942 149.03 2.24 66.00 155.76

11. Servalaru 1986 110.00 - 51.34 34.69

Source : Office of the Assistant Engineer, P.W.D. & G Return, Fasli 1420.

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It is clear from Table 2.14 that the eleven reservoirs irrigate the lands in the

district. Its water irrigated is also utilized for drinking purpose of Tirunelveli city.

2.4.17 Area, Production and Yield of Major Crops

Among the major crops grown in Tirunelveli district, paddy, sugarcane, banana

are cultivated in irrigated conditions only. Cholam, Green Gram, groundnut and cotton

are the major crops which are cultivated both in irrigated and unirrigated conditions. A

well-served irrigational system and the farming operations, both intensive and extensive,

have successfully increased the agricultural production to a laudable extent. The

introduction of high-yielding varieties has increased the yield and production of all the

crops in the State as well as in Tirunelveli district.

Paddy, the most popular crop, was cultivated in Tirunelveli district to the extent of

79764 hectares and production was 351822 tonnes in 2010-11. But in mango cultivation,

the area constituted 5916 hectares and production accounted for 58465 tonnes. The

average yield rate of Mango Crop accounted for 9882.592 kg / ha.

2.5 Summary

In this part of the chapter, the researcher has presented various aspects of Mango

and Cultivation Practices. Mango is a tropical fruit. It can be grown at a height of 1500

m above mean sea level. It is found in several types of soils such as lateritic, alluvial

sandy loam and sandy soils. The researcher has also presented the various aspects of the

study area namely Tirunelveli District. Tirunelveli district is one among the premier

districts in Tamil Nadu, which has all kinds of natural resources in it. As per the Census

Report 2011 of Government of India, the Total Population of Tirunelveli District is 30.73

lakhs which includes 15.54 lakhs of Women.

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