0200 module 3.inst.design

Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction

Chapter 3:Chapter 3:

DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONDESIGNING INSTRUCTION

PREAMBLE

Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

Define instructional design Compare and contrast several instructional design models Describe the phases of the ADDIE model Discuss the steps involved in the instructional model proposed by Dick and

Carey List the work of an instructional designer

CONTENTS

Chapter 1: IntroductionChapter 2: Instructional TheoriesChapter 3: Designing InstructionChapter 4: E-LearningChapter 5: Web ToolsChapter 6: Designing Self-Instructional MaterialsChapter 7: Distance EducationChapter 8: Technology Integration

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Preamble What is instructional design? Instructional design models The ADDIE model

o Analysiso Designo Developmento Implementationo Evaluation

Dick and Carey modelo Goals

o Analysiso Objectiveso Testso Strategyo Materialso Evaluation

What do instructional designers do?

Key TermsSummaryReferences

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In this Chapter, we will discuss several definitions of instructional design examine the key words in these definitions. Emphasis will be on some of the instructional design models. Focus will be on two well-known models: the ADDIE model and the Dick and Carey model. While there is similarity in the two models, there also recognisable differences which will be highlighted in the chapter.

WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN?

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Instructional Design is concerned with understanding, improving and applying methods of instruction. As a professional activity done by teachers and instructional developers, it is the process of deciding what methods of instruction are best for bring about desired changes in student knowledge and skills for specific content and a specific student population. It is a “blueprint” of what the instruction should be like and a prescription as to what methods of instruction should be used, when it should be used for a particular content and group of students (Reigeluth, 1983).

Instructional Design is a technology for the development of learning experiences and environments which promote the acquisition of specific knowledge and skill by students. It is a technology which incorporates known and verified learning strategies into instructional experiences which make the acquisition of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, and appealing (Merrill, Drake, Lacy, Pratt, 1996).

Instructional Design is a systematic approach for the design, development, implementation and evaluation of instruction (Dick and Carey, 1996).

Instructional Design is the entire process of analysing learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities (Coldevin and Mead, 2001).

Instructional Design is a systematic approach to facilitating learning by: identifying the purposes of the learning, especially in terms of objectives, developing the learning experiences necessary to achieve those purposes, evaluating the effectiveness of those learning experiences in achieving the purposes, improving the learning experiences, in the light of evaluation, so as to better achieve the purposes. (Commonwealth of Learning, 1999).

Instructional Design refers to the systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources and evaluation (Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino, 2001)

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Instructional Design is the art and science of creating an instructional environment and materials that will bring bridge the gap from what the student cannot do to what you would like them to be able to do (Broderick, 2001).

If you were to examine the above definitions of instructional design you will notice the following terminologies that are common to the statements listed:

systematic design development instruction improve learning achieve objectives evaluation

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS

Since the 1960s, some 100 instructional design models have been introduced. Why are they called ‘models’? They are called ‘models’ because they present an abstract and simplified description of the instructional process. The models are presented as a “system” with a step-by-step process. What is a system? A system is any set of components that work together to achieve a specified outcome or goal. An important aspect of any system is the feedback mechanisms that ensure the goal is achieved or maintained.

Many of the instructional design models originate mostly from industry, education and the military. While it is acknowledged that instructional design models are important in education, educators are confused about which model to use because of the large variety of models available. Also, several of the models are based on a weak theoretical foundation and some do not have a theoretical base. In this Chapter we will discuss the following TWO popular Instructional Design models:

The ADDIE Model

Analogy of a SystemThink of the cruise control system on your car. You set the desired speed (or goal) and the cruise control sets the gas injection to the proper level. Using the cruise control analogy, the car does not just lock the gas pedal in one position. If you begin to drive uphill, the car briefly slows down until the speedometer information is fed back to the cruise control system, which then increases the amount of gas and the desired speed is reached once again. Just as a systems approach with its requisite feedback makes cruise control a viable system to maintain driving speed.

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Dick and Carey’s ID Model

THE ADDIE MODEL

The ADDIE model is an acronym referring to the major processes that comprise the generic processes: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (see Figure below). The Model does not seems to have a single author, but rather to have evolved informally through oral tradition. The origin of the Model is obscure, but the underlying concepts can be traced to the nodel developed for the United States armed forces in the mid-1970s.

The ADDIE model is a generic, systematic approach to the instructional design process, which provides instructional designers with a framework in order to make sure that their instructional products are effective and that their creative processes are as efficient as they can possibly be. In short, it aims to ensure that learning does not occur in a haphazard manner, but is developed using a process with specific measurable outcomes.

Figure 3.1 The ADDIE Instructional Design Model Figure 3.1 The ADDIE Instructional Design Model

When used as an instructional systems model, theses processes are considered to be sequential and also iterative. The five phases are ongoing activities that continue throughout the life of an instructional programme. After designing an instructional programme, the other phases do not end once the instructional programme is implemented. The five phases work like a loop. They are continually repeated on a regular basis to see if further improvements can be made.

ANALAYSIS DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

IMPLEMENTATION

EVALUATION

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1) The ANALYSIS Phase1) The ANALYSIS PhaseLet's take a look at the first phase in the ADDIE instructional design model—the analysis phase. Good educational or training programmes require planning and analysis. Your first task would be to find answers to the following questions:

Who is the audience? What do they need to learn be able to do after having gone through this

programme? What do learners already know? What are the delivery methods currently used? Do constraints exist?

To answer the above questions, the Instructional Designer may have to:

Interview Consult & Discus Check Documents

There is a tendency to skip this phase of the instructional design process and jump straight into the design and development phase. This is not advisable and could have grave consequences. For example carpenters use the old adage, “Measure twice; cut once” which can be translated to mean, “Analyse Thoroughly, Design Once”. Skipping the ‘Analyse’ phase can result in:

The content may not be relevant or redundant to learners, or even inaccurate. The content may be too easy or too hard which could bore or frustrate

learners You may not catch errors until it is implemented and it would be costly to fix

or redesign the course.

2) The DESIGN Phase2) The DESIGN Phase

Your have been given the task to design an 8 week course on “School Leadership and Management” for a group of newly appointed primary school headmasters. As an instructional designer, you have selected to use the ADDIE model for this purpose. The following are the phases you would go through to undertake the task:

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When you reach this phase, you are already are pretty clear about the learning outcomes and objectives (i.e. what learners will learn), the knowledge and skills already possessed by learners. Now you can begin the ‘Design’ phase in which you want to plan what the course should look like when it is complete focusing on the following questions:

How should content be organised? How should ideas be presented to learners? What delivery format should be used? What types of activities and exercises will best help learners? How should the achievement of the learning outcomes be measured?'

Your task to produce an Instructional Design Document for the course. This document is similar to an architect's blueprint. The document describes the course structure and its instructional strategies but it does not contain content or subject-matter to be taught, just like a blueprint is not a house. The actual course content and learning materials will be created during the ‘development’ phase.

The Instructional Design DocumentThe Instructional Design Document is an overview of the entire instructional solution. It provides the following:

Learning outcomes and objectives Instructional strategies, exercises and learning

activities. Grouping and sequencing of content Selection of media Assessment

a) Learning Outcomes and Objectives You want learners to remember the concepts and

principles learned You want learners to be able to apply the concepts and principles to real world

settings You want learners to solve problems when presented with case studies or

scenarios.

b) Instructional Strategies and Learning ActivitiesYou have to decide how the course material will be presented to the learners.

Specifically, we're looking at the strategies and methods to deliver the course. Here are a few examples:

Lecture Group discussions Role playing Case studies Scenarios Computer laboratories

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Generally, the strategies and activities selected must fit with the type of learning people will be asked to do.

c) Grouping and Sequencing of ContentYou must decide which content should be grouped because you cannot teach

everything at once, but sometimes it makes sense to put related topics together for the learners. Once topics have been grouped together, you have to organise the content into a course structure. The content needs to be sequenced that will facilitate learning. Here are just a few of the many possible sequencing options:

Step-by-step Part-to-whole Whole-to-part Known-to-unknown General-to-specific

As you can see, there are many different ways to organise and present course material. You have to choose the structure that makes the most sense for the learners and the course content.

d) Selection of MediaHere you will decide what media would be appropriate when presenting the content to learners. The following the some examples:

Powerpoint slides Audio clips Video clips Computer simulation

e) Designing AssessmentsAt the end of the needs analysis phase, you have design assessment tools that

will measure the learners progress.

You should ensure that the course's assessments should measure a learner's

progress towards each of the learning objectives. The types of assessment must fit the learning objective.

If you have a driver's license, you probably completed two types of tests before you received your license. You completed a written test that measured your understanding of street signs, laws, and procedures. You probably also performed an on-the-road test where someone observed your driving skills. The two tests measure different capabilities.

You could be very knowledgeable about traffic laws and procedures but a poor driver behind the wheel. Similarly, you might be good at driving the car but poor at recognizing street signs and safety procedures. You have to pass both tests before you can obtain a driver's license.

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The Instructional Design Document that has been discussed above serves as a quality assurance checkpoint. It is much easier to adjust the design than redevelopment later in the project. Based on the Document, you should make an effort to:

Check that the design concepts are cohesive and completeo Spot areas that are not clear

Present the proposed training solution to the cliento Check with your client if they are happy with what has been designed.o Invite feedback about the design

Provide instructions and guideline to those who are going to work on the development phase of the project

3) The DEVELOPMENT Phase3) The DEVELOPMENT Phase

The Development phase involves the actual creation (production) of the content and learning materials based on the Design phase. It involves creating or obtaining any media mentioned in the design of the courseware. This phase sees the creation of storyboards, graphics and programming involved in the development. It involves the following considerations.

Designing according to storyboard specifications Programming according to storyboard specifications Obtain and/or create the required media. Use technology to present information in many different multimedia formats

so that learners' preferences can be met Determine the appropriate interactions which should be creative, innovative,

and encourage learners to explore further Plan activities that allow for student group work to help construct a supportive

social environment.

The development phase in the ADDIE model of instructional design addresses the tools and processes used to create instructional material. This stage includes: story boards, coding, Graphic User Interface, and creating all multimedia elements. The development phase is the process of authoring and producing the materials needed to meet the objectives. The development phase builds on the process performance objectives and measurement tools constructed in the design phase. The product of this phase is a detailed plan of action that lists step-by-step procedures for implementing the change. The plan also needs to include who is responsible for which elements of the project, and time schedules and deadlines.

During the development phase, all audio, video, and text materials are collected, prepared, or created. Documentation is prepared and the product is ready to be tested.

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The course development team can include writers, editors, graphic designers, e-learning programmers, usability experts, and project managers. Some people may be needed for the entire course development process, while other people may be called in to accomplish just a few specific tasks.

4) The IMPLEMENTATION Phase4) The IMPLEMENTATION PhaseThere are plenty of issues to address during the ADDIE implementation phase.

It is important to make sure that the course gets delivered smoothly and effectively to the learners. Of course, these delivery issues will substantially depend on the course's delivery format. Generally, the implementation phase contains a lot of project management and logistics issues.

Let us take a brief look at the training delivery issues for a company that wants to offer instructor-led courses to 2,000 employees who work at sites across a country. During the one-day course, learners will gather in classes (ranging between 10-15 learners). Each learner will need to receive a course workbook and have access to an internet-ready computer. Some of the client's sites have classrooms with computers, but many sites will need to go to offsite locations for training. The following are some implementation issues that the delivery team will need to decide.

Establish the timetable for the course rollout Schedule the courses, enrol learners, and reserve on-site and off-site

classrooms Notify learners and their supervisors about the course Select trainers and prepare them with a custom train-the-trainer Arrange for the printer to deliver course workbooks to the class site

Possible Development Problems

Design team and development team of a project fail to communicate with each other.

The development team is incapable of meeting the needs of the design team.

The expectations of the design team are unrealistic because of time constraints.

The expectations of the design team are unrealistic because of lack of resources.

The development team may be unable to meet the deadline because of lack of programming expertise.

Lack of consensus of which authoring tool to use. Development team did not consider platform for different

types of machines. Development team did not explore all available options

before development of prototype

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LEARNING ACTIVITY What is the ADDIE model?What do you do at the ‘analysis’ phase?What is the purpose of the ‘instructional design document’?Describe what you do at the ‘design phase’.List the types of expertise at needed at the ‘development’ phase of the instructional design process.Discuss some of the issues that may arise during the ‘implementation’ phase.Why is the ‘evaluation’ phase necessary?


Ensure all sites will have internet-ready computers and arrange for laptops to be shipped when necessary

Manage travel and expenses for the trainers and/or learners

The rollout of a national training programme often becomes a complex, choreographed activity. Usually, the planning for the delivery phase starts well before the course is ready for implementation. Once the course has been delivered, it is time for the final phase of the ADDIE model—the evaluation phase.

5) The EVALUATION Phase5) The EVALUATION PhaseThe ADDIE model stresses the concept that good instructional programmes

require planning, review, and revision. Each of the five ADDIE phases provide review checkpoints that allow the instructional designer and the client to evaluate the work that has been produced so far.

The ADDIE evaluation phase can produce pretty graphs and tables, but that is not its main purpose. The evaluation phase measures the course's efficacy and locates opportunities to improve learners' on-the-job performance. The evaluation phase provides a final review checkpoint for the instructional programme developed. During the evaluation phase, the designer measures how well the project achieved its goals. Here are just some of the questions that might be explored during the evaluation phase.

Do learners like the course? Do learners achieve the learning objectives at the end of the course? Did learners behaviours change?

Several data collection techniques can be used to obtain information about the programme or course designed: surveys, questionnaires, interviews, observations, tests and so forth.

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The ADDIE model is only meant to suggest the activities at each phase. It is a guide, not a blue-print. Any given project will include some activities and not others, and additional activities may be needed, depending on your project needs. The team members at any given phase may also vary, depending on the scope of the project and the skills and capabilities of your team members.

THE DICK AND CAREY DESIGN MODEL

Walter Dick obtained his PhD from Penn State University in educational psychology and presently professor at Penn State University. Lou Carey obtained her PhD from Florida State University and studied with Robert Gagne' and Walter Dick, and is presently with Arizona State University. Both Dick and Carey wrote the book The Systematic Design of Instruction in 1978 in which they introduced the Dick and Carey Instructional Design Model.

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Figure 3.2 The Dick and Carey Model Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and Carey, components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes (see Figure 3.1).

The following are the steps of the model:

Step 1 – IDENTIFY INSTRUCTIONAL GOALSYou begin by writing what you expect your learners will be able to do at the

end of your instruction. If you say, "The learner will know about weathering", this only tells us what he or she knows, not what they are capable of doing. The goal needs to state behaviours that you can observe and determine to have occurred. Hence, you have to refine what you want learners to be able to do. If a learner demonstrates a particular behaviour, can you be certain that is what you want and can say definitely that learning has taken place the goal achieved.

Step 2 – CONDUCT INSTRUCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND IDENTIFY ENTRY BEHAVIOURS

(a) Conduct Instructional AnalysisWhen you do an ‘instructional analysis’ you identify all knowledge and skills that you want learners to acquire and therefore should be included in the instruction. You visually display the specific steps the learner would go through in performing the instructional goal as well as identify subordinate skills and entry behaviours.

(b) Identify Entry Behaviours Find out as much as possible about your target audience or your learners. The more you know about them the better! Among the things you should attend to are:

Entry Behaviours Prior Knowledge of the topic area Attitudes toward content and potential delivery system Academic Motivation Educational and ability levels General Learning Preferences Attitudes towards the organization giving the instruction Group Characteristics

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Focus on what is it that the learners are already capable of doing. Asking a few questions to individuals in your target group will certainly be better than relying on guesses or stereotypes. What proficiencies can you assume learners to have when they come to your instructional session. Not only do you want to make sure that they are ready for the instruction, but you must also determine if they already have some of the skills you have identified for the instruction

Step 3 – WRITE PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVESIn this phase, you will go through each sub-skill box of your instructional

analysis diagram and write a clear and precise statement about what behaviour the learner will exhibit, under what conditions, and on what criteria it will be judged successful.

Here is an example. Given a shelf of clearly labelled standard chemicals and apparatus in the laboratory, the learner will select the right chemicals and appropriate apparatus and produc oxygen. Let's now ask the defining question, "Would someone be able to determine if the learner has indeed performed this skill?" The answer is clearly yes. These performance objectives are important statements about what demonstrable behaviour the learner should be able to do to indicate that he or she 'knows' it.

Why Use Objectives?

1. Develop valid and reliable assessment items based on objectives. 2. Clarify what you want to teach. 3. Increases communication between instructor and student. 4. “They are the means by which the skills in the instructional analysis are

translated into complete descriptions of what students will be able to do after completing instruction” (Dick & Carey, 1996).

Step 4 – DEVELOP CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST ITEMSHere we create our test items. "Already?" you ask. Well, why should we create content if we don't yet know what we will expect of the learners? Using the criteria created for each performance objective, you will create questions that would show whether or not the learner can perform the skill. The type of test item, be it multiple choice, fill in the blank, essay, or other, should be dictated by the verbiage of the performance objective. Questions, such as essay types will need special evaluation

Mixed Opinions about Objectives: Some see objectives as limiting Difficult to measure some behaviours, for example

thinking or affective domains. Sometimes trivial if not developed correctly.

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instruments such as a checklist to verify that each key element of the answer has been addressed. The most important thing a designer does in this phase is to create a number of clearly phrased questions that give the learner the opportunity to demonstrate that he or she can perform a given skill. Questions that trick, confuse, or test skills other than that of the performance objective are useless.

Step 5 – DEVELOP INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGYAlthough you are probably very anxious to get in there and start creating the actual instructional materials, you must first create your instructional strategy.

“The term instructional strategy is used to cover the various aspects of sequencing and organizing the information and deciding how to deliver it” (Dick & Carey, 1996, p. 178).

This step, along with the next, is where you should really let your creativity run loose. This phase forces you to answer important questions about how you will implement your learning plan. The following are FIVE components of an instructional strategy:

1. Designed to measure an explicit set of objectives. 2. Used to

a. Test and evaluate student progress against a set of objectives, not other students.

b. Provide information about the effectiveness of the instruction c. Allow instructor to see exactly what areas of instruction are working

well and what areas need revision d. Pre-tests and Post-test e. Mastery rather than norm-referenced

1. Pre-instructional activities a. Motivation b. Objectives c. Entry Behaviours

2. Information Presentation a. Instructional Sequence b. Information c. Examples

3. Learner Participation a. Practice b. Feedback

4. Testing a. Pretest b. Posttest

5. Follow Through Activities a. Remediation b. Enrichment c. Memorization and transfer

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Step 6 – DEVELOP AND SELECT INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALSHere, you finally get to develop the materials. Because your instructional material will certainly be revised before final production, you should construct them on paper using text, sketches, and storyboards. The development should include a student manual, the instruction, tests, and an instructor's manual. Choices of multimedia should be made upon the congruence between the skill and the media type. Practice and feedback should be as close to the real world situation as possible.

Step 7 – DEVELOP AND CONDUCT FORMATIVE EVALUATIONFormative Evaluation: “the collection of data and information during the

development of instruction which can be used to improve the effectiveness of the instruction” (Dick & Carey, 1996, p. 256). Formative evaluation is the beta testing that takes place to help you smooth out your instruction. Even with all of your tedious and careful analysis, planning, and reviewing, you have only created instruction that will theoretically work. It is now time to test these assumptions empirically. If done with the instructional design itself as a framework, you will be able to pinpoint the exact areas that will need the improvements. When evaluating instruction, look for clarity, impact and feasibility.

Step 8 – DESIGN AND CONDUCT SUMMATIVE EVALUATIONCollecting data and information to make decisions about the continued use of some instruction. Does the instruction solve the problem identified in the first stage, Assess needs to identify goals?

For each lesson, consider the best technology or medium To present the materials To monitor practice and feedback To evaluate To guide students to the next activity whether it is

remediation, enrichment, or the next lesson

The following are some evaluation techniques::

a. One to one: work with three or more learners who are representative of your population.

b. Small Group Evaluation c. Field Trial d. Questionnaires e. Surveys f. Observations as work through instruction g. Focus groups h. Novice/expert comparisons

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LEARNING ACTIVITY What is meant by ‘instructional analysis’ in the Dick and Carey model?Why do you need to determine ‘entry behaviours’?What do you do when you are ‘developing the instructional strategy’?Explain the purpose of ‘formative’ and ‘summative’ evaluation.e) Describe how you would use the Dick and Carey Model in designing instruction for the subject you teach.


REVISE INSTRUCTION ACCORDINGLYRevision of instruction is conducted at three points in the instructional design flow and they are:

After Step 4: Developing Criterion-Referenced Items – Analyse the responses to the items to find if there are problematic test items that need to be thrown out. The point is to focus on which objectives need revision.

After Step 7: Designing and Developing Formative Evaluation – Your summaries from the formative evaluation will include learners' remarks, scores on pre-tests, embedded tests, post tests, your attitude questionnaire, and your debriefing notes.

After Step 8: Designing and Developing Summative Evaluation – The designer will typically create a revision table that includes the instructional component, the problem encountered, the suggested change, and the evidence and source for the problem. Your revision could involve changing any of the many design steps up to this point.

ConclusionThe Dick and Carey model has proven to be an effective in designing

instruction and is research based and empirically tested. Whether or not the instruction is truly effective, interesting, and engaging, depends on the instructional designers ability to put on the scientist's lab coat when analyzing the instructional goals, and putting on the artist's smock when creating engaging and enjoyable ways to present the information to the learner.

It does require a level of rigor and time that many people are not willing to expend. Although it takes into account all the necessary items needed to create effective instruction, it should not be followed so strictly that it impedes your creative expression, which in the end, draws the learner into the material.

WHERE DO INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGNERS WORK?

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An instructional designers is somewhat like an engineer. Both plan their work based upon principles; the engineer on the laws of physics and the designer in basic principles of instruction and learning. Both to design solution that are not only functional but also attractive or appealing to the end user. Both the engineer and the instructional designer have established problem-solving procedures that use to guide them in making decision about their designs

The widespread use of computers as teaching tools has created a need for instructional software. College courses, job training programs, how-to projects, and other types of instruction are now offered through software programs. Instructional designers carefully plan each program so it meets users' needs.

When working on a project for a client, instructional designers assume the role of a teacher. They plan the overall instructional flow of the program and see that content is both appropriate and clearly communicated. Instructional designers must be familiar not only with the content to be learned and the level of the learner, but also with a computer's means of presenting information and interacting with users.

Instructional programmes may be very specific and geared toward a fairly small audience, as in the case of a training program in basic office procedures for new employees of a company. Another program may be designed to instruct a larger audience on a topic of general interest such as car repairs or money management. The design may be simple, mainly requiring the user to read the information as it appears on the computer screen. Other designs are more intricate, requiring different branches, or courses of instruction, to appear after the user has responded to key questions, taken a test, or interacted in some other way with the computer.

Instructional designers work for software publishers, software development and design firms, and courseware developers. Most often they are part of a software development team, responsible primarily for planning and outlining the programs. Other team members might include a writer and an artist who create what will be seen on each screen, a programmer who translates the design and content into computer code, and a manager who coordinates production of the entire program. Therefore, the ability to work well with others and to communicate ideas clearly is very important.

KEY TERMSKEY TERMS

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Dick and Carey modelInstructional analysisEntry behavioursInstructional strategyInstructional materialsFormative evaluationSummative evaluation


SUMMARYSUMMARY

Instructional Design is concerned with understanding, improving and applying methods of instruction.

Instructional Design is a technology for the development of learning experiences and environments which promote the acquisition of specific knowledge and skill by students.

Instructional Design is the art and science of creating an instructional environment and materials that will bring bridge the gap from what the student cannot do to what you would like them to be able to do.

The ADDIE model is a generic, systematic approach to the instructional design process.

Good educational or training programmes require planning and analysis.

The design phase in which you want to plan what the course should look like when it is complete.

The Instructional Design Document is an overview of the entire instructional solution.

The Development phase involves the actual creation (production) of the content and learning materials based on the design phase.

Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts.

Instructional goals: You begin by writing what you expect your learners will be able to do at the end of your instruction.

Instructional designADDIE modelAnalysisDesignDevelopmentImplementationEvaluation

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When you do an instructional analysis you identify all knowledge and skills that you want learners to acquire and therefore should be included in the instruction.

The term instructional strategy is used to cover the various aspects of sequencing and organizing the information and deciding how to deliver it.

Formative evaluation is the collection of data and information during the development of instruction which can be used to improve the effectiveness of the instruction/

REFERENCESREFERENCES

Briggs, L. J., Gustafson, K. L. & Tellman, M. H., Eds. (1991), Instructional Design: Principles and Applications, Second Edition, Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ

Broderick, C. (2001). Instructional Systems Design: What it's all about. Boston: Wiley.

Coldevin, G. and Mead, A., Study Guide in Instructional Design, University of Namibia, 2001.

Dick, W. & Cary, L. (1978), The Systematic Design of Instruction, Third Edition, Harper Collins.

Dick, W. & Cary, L. (1996), The Systematic Design of Instruction, Fifth Edition, Harper Collins.

Commonwealth of Learning, Use and Integration of Media in Open and Distance Learning, 1999.

Edmonds, G. S., Branch, R. C., & Mukherjee, P. (1994), A Conceptual Framework for Comparing Instructional Design Models, Educational Research and Technology, 42(2), pp. 55-72.

Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.

Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J. and Smaldino, S. (2001). Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Kibler, R.J., & Bassett, R.E. (1977). Writing performance objectives. In Briggs, L.J. (ed.), Instructional design (pp. 49 - 95). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

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Merrill, D. Drake, L., Lacy, M. & Pratt, P. Educational Technology 1966, 36 (5), 5-7Dick, W. & Cary, L. (1990), The Systematic Design of Instruction, Third Edition, Harper Collins

Reigeluth, C. (1983). Instructional Design Theories and Models: An Overview of their Current Status. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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