01 yang (2015)_procrastination in switzerland

International Hospitality and Tourism Student Journal 7 (2) 2015 3-14

An investigation of procrastination behaviour patterns among hospitality students in Switzerland

Liu Yang HTMi, Hotel & Tourism Management Institute, Sörenberg, 6174 Luzern, Switzerland

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Abstract

Academic procrastination has been increasingly popular as a phenomenon that is experienced by students in higher education on regular basis. Even though emerging volume of research are being carried out in exploration of behaviour pattern, variables and their causal relationship with academic procrastination, there is extremely limited study focuses on vocational school and no academic research studies about hospitality education specifically. Therefore, the author aims to investigate the procrastination behaviour patterns amongst hospitality students in Switzerland. The investigation is conducted in a typical Swiss hospitality instate, namely, SI, in a form of supervised self-completed questionnaire where a non-random purposive and convenient sampling is practiced. The results of the research reveal high prevalence of academic procrastination in SI and its possible dependency on fear of failure, task averseness and cultural differences. Nonetheless, age and gender appears to be less relevant in the findings of the current study.

Keywords: Academic procrastination; Behaviour pattern; Hospitality education; Hospitality students; Switzerland

© 2014 International Hospitality Research Centre. All rights reserved.

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1. Introduction

Students in college and university procrastinate on daily bases. (Steel, 2007 cited Hen and Goroshit, 2012). Referring to Morford (2008), a significant amount of college students suffer from procrastination as they live under an environment of frequent deadlines. Procrastination has been defined by Lay (1986) as the tendency to delay initiation of completion of important task, whilst academic procrastination, according to Gargari et al. (2011), has been typically defined as learners’ ubiquitous desire to postpone academic activities. Procrastination has long been perceived as a negative or even problematic by researchers due to the unfavorable consequences and outcomes it leads to (Solomon and Rothblum,1984). Ferrari (1991) and Flett et al. (1995) state that procrastination is associated with mental health and general health problems. Furthermore, Tice and Baumeister (1997), as well as Stead et al. (2010); Howell and Watson (2007); Deniz et al. (2009 cited Hen and Goroshit, 2012) stress that procrastination has negative impacts on procrastinators’ physical and mental health, which commonly leads to stress and illness. It contributes for poorer emotional well being, including anxiety and depression (ibid).

Despite the negative outcome it associates with, procrastination has been reported (Harriott and Ferrari, 1996; Morford, 2008) as a global phenomenon that is widespread up to approximately 15 to 20 per cent in general population.

More specifically, Ellis & Knaus (1977) and Brien (2002 cited Steel, 2007) point out that procrastination are especially popular within an academic background, roughly, as much as 70 to 90 per cent of population within higher education are involved in procrastination in different forms and to various extends. Lay and Schouwenburg (1993) indicate that procrastination has influential impacts on students’ academic performances, whilst Clark and Hill (1994) further explained the negative correlation between procrastination and academic achievements, performances and life satisfaction. Such results are missing deadlines, late submission, failure of completing assignments, continual anxiety and panic, and overall poor performances. Moreover, as a result of chronic procrastination, extreme scenario of irritation, self- blame, apprehension or even give up studying occurs (Burka and Yuen, 1983; Rothblum, 1986; Solomon and Murakami, 1986; Psycyl et al., 2000). Students are being increasingly aware of such problem and are aiming to improve the current quo, as Brien (2002 cited Steel 2007) proposes, 95 per cent of self-reported procrastinators wish to reduce or diminish it. Due to its omnipresence and its deleterious impacts, increasing attention has been paid to this topic in academic and vocational setting. Despite the expanding volume of research undertaken, studies on procrastination are considered as less established as Ferrari (1994) and Steel (2007) point out that it still remains as one of the least understood human imperfections.

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Early reference on procrastination can be traced back to around 800 B.C. (Steel, 2007). Within the last dew decades, researchers are increasingly interested in undertaking studies focusing on procrastination. One has noted numerous attempts to define and categorise procrastination (Ferrari, 1992; Chu and Choi; 2005). Others have discussed the influential impacts and related consequences caused by procrastination (Greonewoud and Schouwenberg, 2001; DeWitte and Schouwenberg, 2002). A large volume of research aims at examining reasons behind such behaviour and variables that are associated with it (Silver and Sabini, 2004; Howell et al., 2006, Bowman et al., 2008). More specifically, an increasing amount of research has been shedding insights into academic procrastination. Evaluating the empirical research, only a few studies have focused on students in community college (Senécal et al., 1995; Prohaska et al., 2000 cited Sokolowska, 2009) and graduate schools (Onwuegbuzie, 2000 cited Sokolowska, 2009). Nevertheless, the majority of data are collected on traditional students whom, to quote from Sokolowska (2009), ‘are enrolled in four year colleges, living on campus, and mainly Caucasian’ (Green, 1982; Burns et al., 2000; Schouwenburg and Growenwoud, 2001; Jackson et al., 2003; Bowman et al., 2008).

Despite the rise in attention and recognition, as well as increasing research conducted on the topic, the author found that there is lack of empirical research focusing on vocational institute and no academic work written specifically about procrastination in hotel and tourism management education in particular. In addition to that, no data has been collected based on students in hospitality management institutes in Switzerland. Moreover, little contemporary evidence exists of the prevalence of procrastination (Rabin et al., 2010) and very few have focused on investigating changes in attendant behavior patterns (Solomon and Ruthlum, 1984). Having experienced studying in one of the hotel and tourism management institute in Switzerland, the author observes that the nature of such institute differs from traditional colleges and universities in regards to its remoteness, intake size, diverse culture, and close interaction between students. This could lead to a difference in terms of prevalence and pattern of procrastination. That being the case, the researcher’s contribution to knowledge aims at filling this gap by investigating procrastination behaviour pattern among hospitality students in Switzerland.

The intention of this research is to investigate procrastination behaviour patterns among students in hotel and tourism education in Switzerland. In order to assist the achievement of the aim, there key objectives are framed; to investigate the prevalence of academic procrastination among hospitality students in Switzerland; to determine the typology criteria of academic procrastination among hospitality students in Switzerland; and to examine the behavioural manifestation of academic procrastination among hospitality students in Switzerland.

2. Literature review

2.1. Theories and Concepts

2.1.1. Definitions and conceptualisation of procrastination

Definition of procrastination has been generally accepted as needless, unnecessary, intentional and irrational postponement of tasks perceived being crucial, resulting in emotional upsets in psychological filed (Burka, 1983; Milgram, 1991; Ferrari et al, 1995; Steel, 2007; Sokolowska, 2009). In contrary, defined by Kotler (2009), procrastination has been perceived as a discrepancy between intention and action. Despite the fact that procrastination possesses a multi dimensional nature, there is a lack of universal acceptance or agreement on the definition of it. Since the specific components and the nature of procrastination still remains debatable (Steel, 2010). Even so, the majority of studies conducted selectively examining procrastination on a basis of four components, including affective, behavioural, cognitive and motivational (Sokolowska, 2009). The affective component refers to the association of mood and emotions (Burka, 1983; Burka and Yuen, 1983, cited Sokolowska, 2009; Ferrari, 1992; Hiou et al., 2006), while behavioural component indicates the action of delaying itself. Discussing from the cognitive perspective, it has been highlighted that procrastination is in its essence, is irrational and counterintuitive decision made consciously despite the expected negative consequences (Rosenthal et al, 1978; Solomon and Rothblum, 1984; Milgram, 1991). Lastly, the motivational components have been inspected on focuses of value of task, expectation and self- efficacy (Wolters, 2003; Lee, 2005; Locke and Latham, 2006; Tuckman, 2007; Steel and Gröpfel, 2008; cited Sokolowska, 2009). Academic procrastination specifically, according to Gargari et al. (2011), has been defined as learners’ ubiquitous and pervasive desire or tendency to postpone the beginning and completion of academic activities. Solomon and Rothblum (1984) describe academic procrastination as a prevalent and maladjusted behavior for many students in higher education. Harris and Sutton (1983 cited Binder, 2000) identified academic procrastination as a form of situational procrastination. Lay (1986) and Ferrari, Johnson and McCown (1995) further explained that students might have the initials of completing tasks within required or expected time frame, though they were not motivated enough to put the intension into actions. Regardless the intention, academic procrastination has been examined as a cause of missing deadlines, late submission, failure of completing assignments, lower grades, higher course withdrawals and poorer classroom attendance and student dropouts (Murakami et al, 1986; Ferrari et al., 1995; Knaus, 1998; Tice and Baumeister, 1997; Knaus, 2000). Procrastination is predominantly regarded as destructive. Poor outcomes and psychological distress are frequently accompanying procrastination (Solomon and Rothblum, 1984) and it has commonly being depicted as a result of individual’s failure on self- regulation (Howell and Watson, 2007). Nonetheless, Knaus (2000) argues procrastination does

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not necessarily result in negative impacts and consequences. Instead, procrastinators can benefits from this behaviour. This opinion has been further supported by Chu and Choi (2005), who point out that by proactive procrastination behaviour such as prioritising tasks can lead to a positive construct. They further conceptualised the idea into passive and active procrastination. While passive procrastination refers to the traditional understanding of procrastination as a maladaptive behaviour, active procrastination in contrast, is distinct from traditional concept on cognitive, affective and behavioural dimensions (Corkin, Yu and Lindt, 2011). Knaus (2000) and Gendron (2005) further support the theory by stressing that postponements caused by extensive planning and preparatory process can eventually lead to results that are satisfying or even beyond expectation. They found out that in comparison with others, students who report a high level of active procrastination have better academic results (Corkin, Yu and Lindt, 2011). However, Tice and Baumeister (1997) holds an oppose opinion stating that what has been defined as act ive procrast inat ion i s of mis leading and misunderstanding. Moreover, Ferrari (no date cited Jeff, 2013) reinforces the debatable nature of active procrastination. They highlight on the negative outcome and associated emotional severity that procrastinators suffer from and stress procrastination cannot be regarded as adaptive or innocuous (Tice and Baumeister, 1997). For the purpose of the current research, it is more applicable to consider procrastination within its traditional contexts.

Researchers have classified procrastination as arousal, avoidant and decisional. Ferrari first proposed the trichotomy in 1992. It has been used by Bao and Zhang (2006) Sirois (2007) and Morales and his co-researchers (2008) as a fundamental theory in their studies. Avoidant procrastinators delay the completion of task to avoid aversion whilst arousal procrastination occurs when individuals seeks for the ‘thrill’ feeling by completing the task close to the deadline. Most procrastinators fall under the category rationalise their behaviour claiming that they work better under high pressure (Simpson and Pychyl, 2009). However, Pychyl (2010) criticises the declaration being untrue. He reinforces the concept itself is questionable since in its essence, arousal procrastination is delusion of procrastinators. However, the categorisation and such opinion have been criticised by Lay (2009) as he declares that intentions of postponing task to protect one’s self esteem is not at all procrastinatory behaviour. Nonetheless, Steel (2010) repudiates the rationalisation, construing it an excuse established by individuals as protection of their self- esteem. Decisional procrastination takes place when one faces intense conflicts regarding a crucial decision (Kraaij et al.,2009). Notwithstanding its popularity in use of research, Anderson (2003) suspects the validity of the model by stressing that decisional avoidance is not a type of procrastination. Having acknowledging the definition, influential conceptualisation of procrastination and the controversy relates, in the coming section, the author will further discuss causes and variables associates.

2.1.2. Causes and Variables associates with procrastination

Procrastinators are believed to endorse multiple reasons simultaneously (Schouwenberg, 1992). Wilson and Nguyen (2012) point out that procrastination is partially relevant to genetic reasons. Nevertheless, independent variables, which refer to attitudinal and external factors, also play a crucial role on procrastination. Evaluating the existing literature, the author has noticed that numerous indicators predict procrastination and a wide variety of variables have been proposed and investigated. However, since the vast majority of researches have examined the variables selectively and each of them has an extremely diverse emphasis, there is a clear lack of congruency of the variables.

Pychyl (2010) states that the common belief describes fear of failure as one of the most decisive factors that cause procrastination. Solomon and Rothblum (1984) reinforce the important of fear of failure through a measurement of its subordinate elements, which are maladaptive perfectionism, low self-confident and anxiety. Additionally, Flett (no date, cited Crawford, 2009) underlines that perfectionist may be susceptible to procrastination since failure tends to be a more serious issue and more unacceptable for them. On the contrary, Schouwenberg (1992) declares that fear of failure is more of a peripheral factor than a dominating one. Haycock (1993) also argues in one of his study that only 7 per cent of procrastinators values maladaptive perfectionism a contributor of procrastination. Further studies also suggest that, it is only accompanied by anxiety, can fear of failure has a significant impacts on procrastination (Schouwenberg , 1995; Maschi et al., 2013). Moreover, Steel (2007; 2009; 2010) stresses self-esteem is also highly relevant to procrastination and Ferrari (2010) further illustrates the idea by exemplifying that a large amount of population who suffer from chronic procrastination would rather be considered as people who are lack of sufficient efforts and inputs than have others thinking of them being lack of abilities and skills. In contrary, Lay (2009) and Howell et al. (2006) state that self- esteem is less likely to influence whether or not and how people procrastinate. It should be noted, however, self – esteem is, to a certain extent, associated with fear of failure. Hence, it reflects on procrastination behaviour. In review of contexts above, the following hypothesis is structured to be detected;

Hypothesis A: Fear of Failure aggravates tendency of academic procrastination of hospitality students in Switzerland.

Other researchers (Briody, 1980; Froehlich, 1987; Anderson, 2001; Haycock, 1993, as cited in Steel, 2007) however, have place aversion on top of other variables, saying that it is playing a solid role in procrastination. They justify that task averseness is well suited as a proper explanation of procrastinatory behaviours. Generally speaking, when tasks, for instance, chores and duties, appear to be intrinsically aversive, people tends to procrastinate. Task averseness in academic setting has been specified into two representing items, which are inadequate energy and dislike of academic

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tasks (Solomon and Rothblum, 1984). Relationship between nature of tasks and procrastination has been further discussed by Ferrari, Mason and Hammer (2006). They conclude that variables including task difficulty, whether it is enjoyable, if it is clearly instructed and efforts involved affects procrastination, though it still remains unknown to which level it affects. Referring to the above contents, the following hypothesis is created to be investigated;

Hypothesis B: Task Averseness catalyse academic procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland

Large volume of studies on procrastination involves gender differences showed fixed results, gender, therefore, seems to be a less relevant factor to procrastination. Moreover, it is commonly implied that behavioural pattern of procrastination is roughly evenly distributed by gender and it has only a very weak causal link with age (Wilson and Nguyen, 2012). Hence, procrastination has long been regarded as a prevailing phenomenon across age and gender. Yet there is one exception. Conversely, Steel (2007) holds an oppose opinion supposing that procrastination is less prevalent amongst male. He further muses that one could expect a weaker association with procrastination as one ages. Based on contents afore-mentioned, the following hypothesis is structured to be tested:

Hypothesis C: Age and gender differences influence on procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland

2.2. Temporal motivation theory (TMT)

Temporal motivation theory (TMT), also known as the procrastination equation, is developed by Steel and König (2006) based on four existing theories in order to further examine time as a crucial component that affects human behaviour. TMT is being regarded as an integrated theory that draws upon four widely utilised and closely related motivational theories, which are Need theory proposed by Dollard and Miller (1950), Expectancy theory introduced by Vroom (1964), Picoecomonics (Ainslie, 1992) and Cumulative Prospect theory (Tversky and Kahneman, 1992). It is one of the most recent and creditable theory that evaluates and measures people’s motivation behinds a particular behaviour and decision. Referring back to researches concentrating on procrastination in recent decades, it has been noticed that the phenomenon has been investigated under three major contexts, which are self-regulation failure, individual differences and temporal discounting (Steel, 2007, 2009, 2010). Compared to the other two, temporal discounting is more contemporarily developed. One of the obvious advantage of TMT is that is has taken all three contexts into consideration. The equation calculates one’s motivation as a result of four influencers, being, expectancy, value, impulsiveness and delay. Theoretically, the higher the utility, the more preferable it is for one to conduct certain task.

" (Steel and König, 2006; Steel 2007)

In the equation, expectancy refers to the chances of the occurrence of outcomes, while value refers to which extent is the outcome rewarding for the individual. These two variables can be considered as variables that compose or influence on averseness of tasks. Therefore, Steel and König (2006) suggest that escalation of rewarding level and perceived possibility of reaching the rewards facilitate students starting off a less enjoyable task or activity. Impulsiveness and delay are the two denominators. Impulsiveness refers to susceptibility, or sensitivity to delay, whereas delay refers to the length of time period one has to experience and wait in order to eventually accomplish the task and attain the reward. It is worth to notify that impulsiveness is not a solid stable factor. In stead, it may vary as task differs (Howell et al., 2006). Temporal discounting is a concept associates with delay and impulsiveness. DeWitte and Schouwenberg (2002) identify that procrastination involves the tendency of underestimating and discounting the value of remote and distant rewards, namely, temporal discounting. Akerlof (1991), at first place, stressed how human beings irrationally consider present cost being more conspicuous than future costs. Furthermore, Silver and Sabini (2004) says procrastinators show lack of ability to conquer temptations that bring readily pleasure, while Greonewoud and Schouwenberg (2001) point out that procrastinators tends to underestimate the significance of current efforts and habitually future of inputs for distant, though necessary tasks. In stead, they chose to succumb to and indulge in irrelevant activities that are more enjoyable (Ferrari et al., 2006).

Therefore, TMT suggests that when there is an available activity being immediately pleasurable, one would procrastinate by putting off a remote and less enjoyable task even if it is of greater significance and eventually leads to larger rewards. Considering all four variables and view the equation in its entirety, the following hypothesis are designed to be evaluated:

Hypothesis D: Curricular diversity stimulates the likelihood of academic procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland.

TMT is beneficial for analysis due to the fact that it facilitates to map out the interrelationship between self-regulation and related individual construct (Boekaerts et al., 2005). Steel and König (2006) claims that TMT is so far the only theory that accounts for almost every major empirical finding in the venue of procrastination. In addition, Morford (2008) suggests that TMT can be a extremely useful tool to measure and predict pattern of procrastination amongst students. However, Pychyl (2008) addresses critiques about limitations of TMT. According to Pychyl (2008), it is misleading to explain procrastination by an equation, since it

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underestimates the complexity of the nature of this behaviour.

2.3. Existing Empirical Research

2.3.1. Procrastination in Domestic Setting

Balkis and Duru (2007) reveal that has an extremely high occurrence in general population and it destructively affects on major aspects of people’s life including career, financial management, social relationship and marriage (Greenhaus et al., 1995; 2000; Feldman, 2003; Ferrari et al., 2005, Balkis and Duru, 2007). Harriott and Ferrari (1996) claim that up to 20 per cent of adults suffer from chronic procrastination. Additionally, Hammer and Ferrari (2002) found that every two out of ten adults engage in procrastination on daily tasks and duties in routine life. Robb (1998 cited in Knaus, 2000) and Knaus (2000) stress procrastination is directly linked to negative outcomes, which is exemplified as shrinkage in working performance. Financially, a cost of 400 USD has been reported as an average cost in workplace due to procrastination (Kaster, 2004 cited in Steel, 2007).

Despite critiques about misconceptualization (Lay, 2009 and Pychyl, 2010), a trichotomy of arousal, avoidant and decisional procrastination proposed by Ferrari (1992) has been wildly implied in studies of procrastination in domestic setting (Bao and Zhang. 2006, Morales et al., 2008; Demir et al., 2009). Homogeneous findings have been exhibited that there is no significant influence of age or gender differences on the prevalence of procrastination of any kind in studied adults (ibid). Evaluating variables and their causal relationship with procrastination, low self-efficacy and high level of stress and anxiety are reported to be the two main contributors for non-academic procrastination (Haycock et al., 1998). For example, Ferrari and his colleagues (2005) found that compared to blue collar workers, white collar worker are being more possibly reported to experience procrastination as a result of high level of stress. Other researchers have shed more insights of self- esteem (Beck et al., 2000, Steel, 2010) and perfectionism (Ferrari, 1992; Martin et al., 1996; Kağan et al., 2010). However, from the perspective of individual differences, numerous researchers emphasise on a solid relationship between personality and procrastination in domestic contexts (McCrae and Costa, 1991; Tokar et al., 1998; Lay et al., 1998 cited Balkis and Duru, 2007). The Five Factors model is in frequently utilisation for the exploitation of this relationship. Surprisingly, results and findings concluded from different studies have shown a clear consistency. Neuroticissmand and conscientiousness appear to be the two factors that are most strongly and closely relevant to procrastination. (Johnson and Bloom, 1995; Schouwenburg and Lay, 1995; Boudreau et al., 2001; Fumham and Fudge, 2008). Further illustrating the relationship, Milgram and Tenne (2000) and Higgins (2007) clarify that neuroticissmand is positively correlates with procrastination whilst conscientiousness is negatively correlates with it.

Other contributing factors such as poor time management skills, inadequate motivation, lack of organisation skills and

feelings of overwhelming are also regarded as contributing factors though are less frequently discussed (Murrakami et al., 1986; Milgram et al.,1995).

2.3.2. Procrastination in Academic Setting

In contrast to research within domestic contexts, there is a larger volume of research investigating procrastination within an academic setting and increasingly considerable attention has been given. Sirois (2004) and Norzad et al. (2011) notify academic procrastination appears to occur most frequently. Academic procrastination has long been regarded as extremely prevailing phenomenon amongst undergraduates as Ellis and Knaus (1977) reveal as high as 95 per cent of American undergraduate students are involved in procrastinatory behaviours. However, Rabin et al. (2010) came up with a more recent data, which indicates that the prevalence of procrastination among college students is estimated between 30 to 60 per cent of the time. Despite the existing amount and rapidly increasing volume of studies done on academic procrastination. The majority of the studies agree on that academic procrastination induces academic failure such as missing deadlines, lower grades, demotivation of study and even dropouts (Deniz et al. 2009 cited Hen and Goroshit, 2012; Ariely and Werenbroch, 2012; Gröpel and Steel, 2008). Not only academic performances are negatively influenced by academic procrastination, but also damages on students’ mental and physical well-beings, since accumulatively they suffer from higher levels and quantities of anxiety and illness. (Ferrari et al., 1995; Tice and Baumeister, 1997; Ferrari et al., 2005; Howell and Watson, 2007; Stead et al. 2010). However, contradictory findings suggest that when active other than passive procrastination takes place, procrastination then should be considered as beneficial as it leads to better academic results (Knaus, 2000; Chu and Choi, 2005; Gendron, 2005; Corkin, Yu and Lindt, 2011).

In regards of contributing factors, findings of research have demonstrated an extreme diverse variety. Nevertheless, self-regulation, self-efficacy and self-esteem seem to draw most attention of research and show inverse relationship with academic procrastination (Ferrari, 2001; Cassady and Johnson, 2002; Wolters, 2003; Howell et al., 2006; Klassen et al., 2008). However, more specific variables have been generated. The varieties of task and the essence of the task itself, task averseness, fear of failure (Solomon and Ruthblum, 1984; Dewitte and Schouwenburg, 2002). Solomon and Ruthblum (1984) reveals that students procrastinate more frequent and heavily dealing with academic activities such as studying for exam, writing a term paper or completing weekly reading. In comparison, procrastinatory behaviour lessens significantly when students are required to complete an attendance task, administrative task and participant of school activities in general. They further stress on the finding that graduate students display a higher procrastination rate than undergraduate students, yet there is no specification on whether the difference is caused by age differences.

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2.4. Research Context: Swiss Hotel and Tourism Management Institute

Compare to traditional college and universities, curriculum within hospitality institutes has a heavier emphasis on practical and vocational training (Pavesic, 1993). In contrast to American hospitality educational system, European system focuses more on traditional knowledge and tools (Formica, 1996). Many schools in Swiss hospitality education are still private and in remote location. For the purpose of this paper, the author will be focusing on only on institute to give initial insights into the posed research question, with hope of findings that are generalizable. At a private Swiss Hotel and Tourism Management Institute, which for the purpose of this paper will be referred to as SI, the course program is designed in response to the mentioned trend. Being a typical private hospitality institute in Switzerland, SI is remotely located. Both its remoteness of location and the small quantity of intake are possibly associated with more frequent interactions and closer relationship between students. SI operates two semesters per year with an intake of approximately 160 to 180 students per semesters. Gender are being roughly even whilst nationality and culture is considerably diverse. Beside, academic assignments and examination, compulsory rotating duties that advocate practices in specific relevant skills, including food preparation, service, bar-tending, housekeeping and front office operation are required to be conducted by students on weekly basis. In addition, students are engaged in organisation and participation planning various events. Accomplishments of internships are mandatory for students to be certified for certain degree. Throughout the semester, it is the necessity of students to constantly look for placement for a four to six month internship. The extreme diversity of task and the intensity of the workload require students’ ability to study and work under pressure and manage to meet frequent deadlines. As procrastination has been identified as what the majority of college students suffer on regular basis (Morford, 2008), it draws attention to the task of research on whether such phenomenon exists under the demanding leaning environment in SI and to what extent it is prevalent. The research further provides an opportunity to investigate the manifestations and visible behavioural patterns and habits that externalise themselves.

3. Methodology

3.1. Approach

Black (1999) and Babbie (2010) differentiate that quantitative research is based on the assortment of numerical data. They further emphasise on data being collected from large population of representative samples to be further generalised to explain a particular phenomenon. Conversely, qualitative research focuses on the acquisition of rich and deep data on fewer subjects (Black, 1999; McMillan and

Weyers, 2010 and Bryman, 2012). In addition to that, Newman and Benz (1998), Aliaga and Gunderson (2000), and Ernst (2003) have agreed on that quantitative research is conducted when one aims on testing and measuring the confirmation or disconfirmation and causality of existing theory or hypothesis. In evaluation of the purpose of the current research, which is the investigation on procrastination behaviour pattern of hospitality students, it appears appropriate for the author that quantitative research is suitable to conduct the primary research. In comparison of qualitative method, Black (1999) has highlighted quantitative research illustrates tendencies of groups examined and patterns of data. Reason being that, quantitative method allows the generalised results to be collected from reliable and believable data while minimising potential bias and misleading results. That is, the author hopes that the results may be extrapolated into other research contexts.

3.2. Hypotheses

With respects to the objectives, hypotheses were proposed as following to be evaluated:

Hypothesis A: H0: Fear of Failure has no effect on tendency of academic

procrastination of hospitality students in Switzerland H1: Fear of Failure has positive effect on tendency of

academic procrastination of hospitality students in Switzerland

H2: Fear of Failure has negative effect on tendency of academic procrastination of hospitality students in Switzerland

Hypothesis B: H0: Task Averseness has no influence on academic

procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland

H1: Task Averseness aggravates academic procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland

H2: Task Averseness academic alleviate procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland

Hypothesis C: H0: Typological differences has no relationship to

procrastination H1: Gender is related to procrastination H2: Age is reliant to procrastination H3: Culture is relevant to procrastination Hypothesis D: H0: Curricular diversity has no impact on the likelihood of

academic procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland

H1: Curricular diversity has positive impact on the likelihood of academic procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland

H2: Curricular diversity has negative impact on the likelihood of academic procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland

3.3. Sampling and Data Collection

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A sample being distinct from the population in general, is being acknowledged as the selected group of people that is studied or participates in the research. (Riley et al., 2000; Vanderstoep and Johnston, 2009). The research intents to utilise a non-random purposive sampling to obtain as much of the population as possible. More specifically, aiming to maximise the level of precision and accuracy of the outcome, cover divers demographic criteria and minimise the sampling errors. Census data, which refers to data that are collected in relation to all units of a population appears to be preferable to author (Bryman and Bell, 2011). Moreover, in the case of current study, it is vital for the author to collect data on considerable samples to explore and draw conclusion on the behaviour pattern. Within the current context, samples involve all students enrolled with all type of courses provided by SI, including undergraduates for hospitality management, post graduates for hospitality management, hotel events management and European Baking and Pastry Arts, students for Masters of Arts, Master of Business Administration and Manager in Training Program. Population of the sample is approximately 160 to 180 per semester, repeated in a second, resulting in a population of approximately 320 to 360 in total.

Simultaneously, being an enrolled student of SI, convenience sampling would be applied by author as a result of its virtue of accessibility and availability (Bryman and Bell, 2011; 2012). Nonetheless, it is argued that whether convenience sampling is creditable in regard of generalizability, since it remains unknown of what population the sample is representative. It is of concerns by reason of numerous researches using such sampling methods are selecting students with multiply identities, for instance MBA students being managers from hotels, while the research topics are highly related to their other identities (ibid). In contrary, the focus of current study is comparatively independent from students’ other identities and the fact is that the majority of students in SI are full time students, which well represent the studied population. Aiming to examine procrastination behaviour pattern of hospitality students. Conduction of supervised or administrated self- completed questionnaire are planned to take place during organised session with assistance from SI faculty. By using supervised self - completion questionnaire, several problems with using questionnaire to investigate behaviour such as problem of meaning and omission (Drew et al., 2008) can be avoided by guidance and explanation throughout the process. Altschuld and Lower (1984) suggest that it is feasible to receive high response rate when respondents find the research of high relevance. The chosen sampling and data collection method ensure the highly possibility of eliminating no completion or no response. In combination with the census data method, a better overall accuracy in the results would be exhibited. Taking into consideration of the demanding learning environment and students’ intense schedules, the author decided to conduct the research in a less time consuming form, being self completion questionnaires, at the end of every semester in order to gain access of objective and structured data based on numerous large sampling groups. Questionnaire is designed based on two

widely used self- reported instruments that detect procrastination within academic fields (Alexander et al., 2006), Procrastination Assessment Scale Students (PASS) (Solomon and Rothblum, 1984 cited Alexander et al., 2006) and Academic Procrastination State Inventory (APSI) (Schouwenburg, 1995 cited Höcker et al., 2012). PASS contains two factors that are fear of failure and task averseness (Alexander et al., 2006) and it evaluates to which extent students procrastinate in academic areas (Howell et al., 2006). Whereas APSI comprises three factors: ‘state procrastination in the narrow sense’, ‘fear and insecurity’, and ‘aversion’ (Patzelt and Opitz cited Höcker et al, 2012). Beside, it emphases on not limiting on traditional- age students (Ferrari et al, 1995), which better serves the background of primary research. These scales were chosen on the grounds of their internal and external validity and test- retest reliability in prior studies. These though were not related to the hospitality environment or education within this discipline. These two scales are adapted to better serve the current research site.

3.4. Data Analysis

Evaluating the mass of engendered data and presenting it in the way that illustrates or communicates the most crucial findings in order to test out the hypothesis and objectives set for the research (Chambliss et al., 2003). Questionnaire being the method chosen, descriptive data, from which pattern may be emerged is anticipated to be in use of data analysis. Aiming to investigate the behaviour pattern of students, data will be analysed in order to conclude how often and to which extend students procrastinate. Therefore, an initial univariate analysis of data will be carried on to evaluate frequency, central tendency as well as dispersion (Bryman and Bell, 2011; 2012). In addition to that, a cross tabulation analysis will be applied in pursue of distributing associations between two or more dependent or independent variables to establish the behavioural manifestations of procrastination and its relationship with students’ procrastination tendency (Chambliss et al., 2003). Computer software, SPSS, which is one of the most frequently and widely used quantitative data analysis tool (Bryman, 2011), will also be implemented to facilitate the data analysis process. Based on the prior analysis of descriptive statistics, a further round of testing will be endeavoured under supervision from the research supervision. This analysis will comprise an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to understand if underlying latent factors explain much of the variance in the observed date, or if differing items are explained by a similar factor (Koostra, 2004; Brown, 2006). A next step will be taken; that is to use confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to conform or disconfirm the prior stated hypothesis in an a priori manner and to allow for testing an array of other analytic measurements, a strength of this method of analysis (Brown, 2006).

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3.5. Validity and Objectivity

Validity of a research has been being explained as whether or not the research is indeed measuring what has been initially set to be gauged (Marshall and Rossmann, 2011). Clearly instructed questioned has been designed based on two scales of their internal and external validity and reliability in prior studies. Nonetheless, adaptation and changes has been made accordingly which may affects the validity of the final version of instrument. Hence, the author will implement an initial measurement by using Cronbach’s alpha to test out internal validity of the questionnaire.

Objectivity ensures the independence of a research without contamination of the research’s personal prejudices predilections or values and beliefs of any kind (Coryn et al., 2010). Payne and Payne (2004) suggest that to gather erroneous data and withdraw an impartial outcome of a research, researcher should remain distance from participants. However, as the author herself is one of the enrolled students in SI, chances are that potential participants are classmates and friends who have notions of authors’ inters in the topic. Interference of author’s personal value may influence on participants would eventually leads to numerous bias that destruct the objectivity of the research. Hence the author should purposely avoid such interference by circumvent conversation covering the study or even related information if is required.

3.6. Reliability and Generalisability

Reliability refers to the degree to which the research emerge results of high consistency and stability (Labaree, 2013). A test- retest method within different time frame is recommended to inspect the stability of a measure. Namely, it is suggested to conduct the measure on the same population, if possible, twice a semester in SI. Nonetheless, an obvious drawback is that respondents’ answers to later sections would be influenced by the answer given within earlier time frame.

Generalizability is being considered as generalised results attained from research being applicable in a larger population outside (Bryman and Bell, 2011; 2012). The majority of Swiss private hospitality institutes are homogeneously diverse in demographic criteria and SI represents a typical private Swiss hospitality institute. Other similarities including educational system, enrolled courses and remoteness of location also enhance the generalizability of the research. Yet, each and every institute varies in its specific way of designing modules and assignments. This plays an influential role on generalizability of this study since task averseness is an essential variable affecting the procrastination behavioural tendency and pattern.

3.7. Ethical Issues

Simons and Usher (2000) point out that ethical concerns should be regarded as an integral and inseparable component of an academic research other than a burden. Babbie (2010) has further stressed that it is of researchers’ responsibility

ensure the protection of data from misuse and exploitation. Hence, to ensure the confidentiality of data and encourage the participant for sincere contribution and honest respond, names will remain anonymous. Although an organised section facilitated by SI faculty is planned to take place for the completion of the questionnaire, in respect of participants’ voluntary consent, individuals reserve one’s right of free power of choice whether or not to be involved throughout the entire process (Drew et al., 2008). Likewise, a great deal of self- disclosure is required for the completion, whereas such information can be considered as situational sensitive and such engagement can possibly arouse discomfort for participants (Marshall and Rossmann, 2011). Theretofore, it will be clearly explained that one may discontinue the activity at anytime.

3.8. Limitations

One of the limitations that may encounter is fake email address posted in Groupon Hong Kong or low frequency of the potential respondents to check their emails which lead to reduce in sample population and result in low response rate. The research is conducted online in a self-administrated way. The population may be answering the questions improperly as they may send out unfinished survey or response by false idea to affect the result of the research. The email survey link sent to the sample population may be regarded as spam and have no response (Michael, 2011). The number of questionnaire collected is unable to obtain additional information for the anonymous nature. Due to the time difference from purchasing, dining and receiving survey takes approximately one to two months, samples may not remember clearly about subject asked which may influence the validity of the result. The open ended questions may not obtained sufficient information since the respondents usually do not prefer to type in detail (Bryman, 2012). Regarding the promptness of responses from answering the survey, open ended questions are avoided in the survey.

4. Discussion

For the purpose of this paper, the author will be focusing on only on institute to give initial insights into the posed research question, with hope of findings that are generalizable. In order to assist the achievement of the aim, it is crucial to examine the prevalence of academic procrastination among students in SI. It is also important to notify the typology criteria. In addition to that, an exploration of behavioural manifestation of academic procrastination among students in SI is also considered necessary.

4.1. To investigate the prevalence the prevalence of academic procrastination among hospitality students in Switzerland

As Ellis and Knaus (1997) point out, procrastination is a prevailing global phenomenon. Based on that, Brien (2002 cited Steel, 2007) stress that within academic setting,

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procrastination is particularly popular. Moreover, amongst different forms of procrastination, academic procrastination has been evaluated to have the highest occurrence (Ferrari et al., 2006). A recent data from Rabin et al. (2010), indicates an estimation of 30 to 60 percent of college students, including both g raduates and under g raduates experience procrastination on regular basis. Compared to traditional university and colleges, SI is remote located and has a very small amount of intake. In despite of the differences SI has in comparison to traditional universities and colleges, it seem to be a high possibility that, the investigation will reveals a high level of prevalence of academic procrastination among students in SI.

4.2. To determine the typology criteria of academic procrastination among hospitality students in Switzerland

Wilson and Ngyuyen (2012) stressed that behavioural pattern of procrastination has very weak causal relationship with gender differences. It is also commonly believed that age differences have no influential impacts on procrastination neither. Nonetheless, Steel (2007) holds an oppose opinion supposing that procrastination is less prevalent amongst male. He further muses that one could expect a weaker association with procrastination as one ages. However, he is referring to procrastination in general population and in a setting of every day life. Therefore, it might be less likely for the author to group procrastinators by age or gender differences. Even thought procrastination in general is being considered as across culture phenomenon, the inadequate empirical research investigating on this issue leave the lack of evidence proving the irrelevance of cultural and academic procrastination. Hence, H3 in Hypothesis C (Culture is relevant to procrastination) can be considered of possibility to be true.

4.3. To examine behavioural manifestation of academic procrastination among hospitality students in Switzerland

Fear of failure and task averseness has been regarded as two of the most relevant factors associate with academic procrastination (Schouwenburg, 1995 cited Höcker et al., 2012; Alexander et al., 2006; Howell et al., 2006) Firstly, fear of failure has been discussed. Numerous researchers have justified that task averseness has a solid relationship with academic procrastinatory behaviours (Briody, 1980; Froehlich, 1987; Anderson, 2001; Haycock, 1993, as cited in Steel, 200 ). Based on TMT theory, Steel and König (2006) suggest that escalation of rewarding level and perceived possibility of reaching the rewards facilitate students improve their behaviours regarding to procrastination. Ferrari, Mason and Hammer (2006) state that task difficulty, enjoyableness, and clarification of tasks, and effort inputs are variables that overall aversion of task. Solomon and Rothblum (1984) have proved the validity of the theory. The findings of their research shows a higher tendency and prevalence relates to academic tasks that are intrinsically aversive such as studying for exam, writing a term paper or completing weekly reading.

Nevertheless, fewer students procrastinate when they are required to complete an attendance task, administrative task and participant of school activities in general. As above-mentioned, it tends to be matching with H2 in Hypothesis B (Task Averseness aggravates academic procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland). Therefore, students in SI may behaviour differently as tasks vary. It seem to be appropriate to assume that academic activities required by SI, for instance, practical duties, event organisation, academic presentation and assignments may lead to various level or prevalence of procrastination amongst SI students.

Pychyl (2010) describes fear of failure as one of the most decisive factors that associates to procrastination. Maladaptive perfectionism, as a subordinate element is being highlighted as a factor that influence on academic procrastination (Flett, no date cited Crawford, 2009). Although it is suggested that only in combination with anxiety, can fear of failure has crucial impacts on procrastination (Schouwenberg , 1995; Maschi et al., 2013) ,the significance of fear of failure still stands on its own. Reason behind such confirmation is that self-esteem closely associates with fear of failure, while it has been proven that vast quantity of students who suffer from chronic procrastination would rather be considered as people who are lack of sufficient efforts and inputs than have others thinking of them being lack of abilities and skills (Ferrari, 2010). Based on what have been discussed above, Hypothesis A: H2; (Fear of Failure catalyst on tendency of academic procrastination of hospitality students in Switzerland) is hindered to be evaluated as valid. As a typical Swiss hospitality institute, SI has a different curriculum design compared to traditional universities and colleges. Curriculum system of SI emphasise on practical and vocational training and focuses more on traditional knowledge and tools (Pavesic, 1993; Formica, 1996). Therefore, SI students are engaged in a wider diversity of academic activities. Referring to what have been discussed task averseness, anxiety and stress, it appears to be appropriate to imply the possibility of Hypothesis D, H1: Curricular diversity has positive impact on the likelihood of academic procrastination behaviours of hospitality students in Switzerland.

5. Conclusion and recommendations

Procrastination has been drawing increasing interests in research site due to its omnipresence and its deleterious impacts in both academic and vocational setting. Accumulating attention has been given especially on academic procrastination since it appears to be the most prevailing form of procrastination. Despite the existing research venue and the expanding volume of research undertaken on the topic, studies in this field that specifically concentrate on hospitality education has been left empty. Moreover, by inspecting the differences between the nature of Swiss hospitality institutes and traditional university and colleges, it remains debatable whether findings from existing empirical research are suitably applicable for Swiss hospitality institutes. With respect to afore mentioned, it has been derived from the

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rationale together with the aim of this paper that is, to investigate procrastination behaviour patterns amongst hospitality students in Switzerland. For the purpose of this paper, the author focuses only on institute to give initial insights into the posed research question, with hope of findings that are generalizable. Contingent on the available evidences, high prevalence of academic procrastination amongst student in SI has been superficially identified. It is believed that having a different curriculum system reveals a wilder range of diversity; students in SI may have a higher likelihood of conducting academic procrastination. Furthermore, it is also believed that fear of failure catalyst academic procrastination in SI and students may demonstrate various procrastination tendency and behaviour patterns as tasks vary. Yet, gender and age differences seem to be regarded as less relevant to procrastinatary behaviour. However, culture dimension is considered as possible contributors on academic procrastination of students in SI. Eventually, a supervised self-completed questionnaire where a non-random purposive and convenient sampling has been practiced was conducted in order to assess the current study.

The current research illustrates a preliminary investigation on academic procrastination in hospitality education. Since the current research has focused on the evaluation some of most widely accepted variables such as fear of failure and task averseness, it is suggested for future researcher to give a better insight of other variables associated. Moreover, due to the current study analysis academic procrastination under behavioural and motivational contexts, it is recommended for further research to take into consideration that procrastination in general has also been argued to posses a quality of inborn trait. Additionally, majority of findings of this study provides descriptive data that introduce briefly on selected contributors and their relationship with academic procrastination. Hence, the author would like to suggest scholars to undertake research based on same theory, but more comprehensively, to explore in depth information and understanding. Last but not the least, it is also reasonable and necessary for the author to stress that, qualitative research method is recommended in future research for in depth exploration and achievements of validity of data.

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