Pre-Raphaelite and the Victorian Literary Imagination- Assessment 1: Art

Catalogue

Ekphrastic Fantastic

Lord Alfred Tennyson 1809-1892

‘Mariana’ 1830

John Everett Millais 1829-1896

Mariana 1851

Oil on Mahogany 59.7 x 49.5

Allocated by HM Government in lieu of tax to the Tate Gallery 1999.1

The poem ‘Mariana’ by Sir Alfred Tennyson is a singularly ekphrastic piece that

expands upon Shakespeare’s figure Mariana in Measure for Measure. Millais’

painting of the same name, which used Tennyson’s as a starting point, and therefore

Shakespeare, is more ekphrastic through the incorporation of elements of his own

work, as well as his surroundings at the time. As this essay shall highlight, the use of

ekphrasis adds to the creation of the figure of Mariana, but their individual skill as

artists can also be seen where they have expanded upon, or created new aspects,

from their ekphrastic inspiration. Together, the ekphrasis and personal ability of

Tennyson and Millais create two “Ekphrastic Fantastic” works.

Tennyson explores Mariana’s time in social and romantic exile in his poem using

three poetic devices, the semantic field of neglect, imagery, and repetition. Of these,

the last uses Mariana’s own voice for effect. Throughout the poem she states ‘he 1 Frances Fowle, ‘Sir John Everett Millais, Bt: Mariana, 1851’, Tate, (2000) <http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/millais-mariana-t07553 > [accessed 25 October 2017].

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cometh not’2 highlighting her isolation. The change in tense in the final verse from

present, ‘he cometh not’,3 to future, ‘he will not come’,4 show Mariana’s acceptance

of Angelo’s, her ex-fiancé and Measure for Measure’s antagonist, abandonment of

her by recognising its continuation. Moreover, Mariana’s repetition demonstrates her

desire and longing for him. Her acknowledgement of his absence reveals that she is

hoping he will return. This contrast between her desire and her reality heightens the

emotion in the phrase ‘he will not come’,5 as it is not merely an acknowledgement of

her abandonment, but also an understanding of her longing being unfulfilled.

Furthermore, Tennyson uses imagery to parallel her condition. The semantic field of

neglect is foregrounded from the outset by adjectives like ‘rusted’,6 ‘broken’7 and

‘lonely’.8 Just like Mariana, the objects have been abandoned and left to decay. A

particularly poignant image is of the ‘unlifted latch’.9 It tells us that no one has been

to visit Mariana. She has been orphaned, her brother dying at sea in the play, then

exiled by society to ‘the lonely moated grange’.10 Through the description of her

landscape, Tennyson creates ‘a strong state of emotion’11that corresponds to

Mariana’s psychology. She is not simply ‘dejected’,12 but mentally decaying and

emotionally desperate as a result of her exile.

2 Lord Alfred Tennyson, ‘Mariana’, in The Norton Anthology of Poetry , ed. by Margaret Ferguson, Mary Jo Salter, Jon Stallworthy, 5 th edn (New York and London, W. W. Norton and Company, 2005), pp 982- 983, (p. 982), l. 10.3 Ibid. 4 Ibid, l. 82.5 Ibid.6 Ibid, l. 3.7 Ibid, l. 5.8 Ibid, p. 982, l. 8.9 Ibid, l. 6.10 Ibid, l. 8.11 The Poetry Foundation, ‘Alfred, Lord Tennyson: 1809-1892’, Poetry Foundation.org, (2017) <https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/alfred-tennyson> [accessed 7 November 2017].12 William Shakespeare, ‘Measure for Measure’, The Complete Works of Shakespeare, ed. by Peter Alexander (London and Glasgow, Collins, 1951), iii. 1. 255.

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Moving onto Millais’ Mariana, the ekphrastic Pre-Raphaelite aim to sympathise with

the emotional in former art is achieved through his replication of Tennyson in

portraying the theme of abandonment. Nevertheless, Millais does not limit his

ekphrasis to Tennyson or even Shakespeare. To do so, Barthes writes, would mean

‘to impose upon that text a stop clause, to furnish it with a final signification. To close

the writing.’13 Rather than ‘impose’14on his creativity by remaining true to the texts,

Millais paints Mariana carrying out a probable, although unmentioned, task of

embroidering in her chamber. Mariana is stretching out her back from the work, her

face and posture suggest a physical and a mental weariness. By not working on her

embroidery, we can infer that she is beginning to recognise the totality of her

desertion and thus the futility in continuing it. However, she has not yet fully walked

away from it. She is transitioning from the hope hinted at in ‘he cometh not’15 into the

realisation and consequent depression that ‘he will not come’.16 It is only with the

knowledge of Tennyson and Shakespeare’s texts that the viewer would fully

appreciate Mariana’s abandonment and resultant mental state. In spite of this,

Millais’ deviation means that an ‘unknowing’17 viewer can also recognise the

emotional distress Mariana is going through. Indeed, William Michael Rossetti

records ‘[Mariana] appeared to be a great favourite with women, one of whom said it

was the best thing in the exhibition’.18 The ekphrasis that is present does not

complete the work, it is a successful, separate entity, undeniably though, it adds

another layer of meaning that helps Mariana continue to be intriguing.

13 Roland Barthes, The Death of the Author, trans. Richard Howard.14 Ibid.15 Tennyson, p. 982, l. 10.16 Ibid, l. 82.17 Frances Bonner, Jason Jacobs, ‘The first encounter: Observations on the chronology of encounter with some adaptations of Lewis Carroll’s Alice books’, Convergence, 17.1 (2011), pp. 37-48 (p. 39) < http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1354856510383361#articleCitationDownloadContainer> [accessed 9 November 2017]. 18 William Michael Rossetti, quoted in Elizabeth Hawksley, ‘John Everett Millais and The Seductive Mariana’, Celebrating the Arts, Writing, (2016) < http://elizabethhawksley.com/john-everett-millais-and- the-seductive-mariana/ > [accessed 1 November 2017].

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Additionally, Millais inclusion of leaves over Mariana’s work, and in her chambers, as

well as the free roaming mouse, suggest that Mariana has abandoned her societal

duty of carrying out domestic tasks, just as Angelo abandoned his in not marrying

her. Although her surroundings have hitherto avoided the stage of decay that

Tennyson’s poem begins with, Millais’ Mariana is mentally and physically

progressing towards that total mental dejection. One example of faithful ekphrasis is

in the contrast of abandonment with longing shown with Mariana gazing out the

window. Interestingly, the window is a doubly ekphrastic feature having been

adapted from one of Merton College Chapel’s own stained glass windows.19 It is

possible that Millais is drawing on Tennyson’s depiction of Mariana looking ‘athwart

the glooming flats’20 searching for her lover. But Marek Zasempa argues that her

longing is not merely for economic and social security through marriage, it is a

sexual longing; ‘Mariana’s awaiting is sexual; it even verges on some bodily

impatience’.21Mariana’s contorted pose is easily read as barely suppressed sexual

desire when considered with Shakespeare. In Measure for Measure, the Duke

informs Isabella that despite Angelo’s ‘unjust kindness, that in all reason should have

quenched her love’,22 his spurning of her has been ‘like an impediment in the current,

made it more violent and unruly.’23 Mariana’s passionate and all-consuming love for

Angelo is one more ekphrastic feature. Shakespeare’s description of Mariana as

‘unruly’24 supports Zasempa’s reading because it suggests a transgression, namely

she has developed a sexual appetite unfitting of her class and gender. Millais’

composition of Mariana looking out a window is key in showing this one-sided,

19 Alastair Grieve, ‘The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the Anglican High Church, The Burlington Magazine, 111.794 (1969), pp. 292+292-295 (p. 259) <http://www.jstor.org.oxfordbrookes.idm.oclc.org/stable/pdf/875938.pdf > [accessed 3 November 2017] .20 Tennyson, p. 982, l. 20.21 Marek Zasempa, The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood: Painting versus poetry, (doctoral dissertation, Katowice, University of Silesia, 2008), p. 112 <https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/693/pre-raphaelite+brotherhood_MZ.pdf?sequence=1 > [accessed 1 November 2017]. 22 Shakespeare, 233.23 Ibid, 234.24 Ibid.

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socially inappropriate longing. The window is closed and therefore creates a barrier

to the outside world, so too are her inner desires stopped by this external, social

barrier. The Pre-Raphaelites regularly made their figures sexually alluring and even

seem to convey personal desire, as shown with Mariana, contrary to the accepted

views of the time. When it was done, it was ‘only alluded to, concealed, unattainable

for visual perception without the textual explanation’.25 It is only in collaboration with

the texts that the concealed emotion of Millais’ Mariana can be fully understood.

After the first wave of Pre-Raphaelitism, the painters moved away from literature and

began to pursue the forming Aesthetic movement, however, these earlier pictures,

arguably, contain a much greater impact in their conscious rebellion against

academic teaching and use of ekphrasis.

The passage of time is another theme that is present in Tennyson’s ‘Mariana’ which

he creates through a regular rhyme scheme which mirrors the unceasing flow of

time. The change of noun in the phrase ‘my life is dreary’26 between ‘the day’,27 ‘the

night’28 and ‘my life’29 suggest that, although the time passes, everything is so similar

and monotonous to Mariana that the only discernible qualities are that it is either

‘day’30 or ‘night’,31 or even more ambiguously, her ‘life’32 that is ongoing, nothing

more. Her disinterest in the passing of time, and lack of enjoyment in general,

characterise her as a heavily depressed figure.33 For the reader, the ambiguity of the

nouns mean that the details that do occur are more noticeable. As discussed above,

the imagery Tennyson creates is one of abandonment and exile, so, with the

characterisation of Mariana as depressed, the tone ensures that by the end of the

25 Zasempa, p. 23. 26 Tennyson, p. 982, l. 9.27 Ibid, l. 33. 28 Ibid, l. 21.29 Ibid, l. 9.30 Ibid, l. 33.31 Ibid, l. 21.32 Ibid, l. 9.33 NHS, ‘Clinical Depression’, NHS.UK, (2016) <https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/clinical-depression/symptoms/ > [accessed 8 November 2017].

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poem, the reader similarly feels despair, longing, and depression towards the

situation and as such empathises with Mariana.

Secondly, the passing of time is shown in the contrast between Mariana’s life and

nature. Tennyson depicts Nature as moving, showing how time is passing regardless

of Mariana’s inability to move on from Angelo. Bats flit, ‘night-fowl crow’,34 even the

‘rusted nails’35 falling show how life goes on. Yet, Mariana is stagnant in comparison.

Although time is passing and things are decaying, including Mariana herself as this

essay will explore later, she insists on remaining passive. Despite her passionate, all

consuming love, she does not seek out Angelo, instead she waits in the grange

longingly. Mariana is acting out the stereotypical female role of ‘the Angel in the

house’.36 She is still hopeful of being married, and so insists on remaining the

‘passive, submissive, unawakened’37 domestic figure that patriarchal society

demands good women be while she, and everything around her, is slowly degrading.

Although trying to be the ‘angel’,38 her longing is in conflict with the social demand to

have ‘no self-assertive consciousness, no desire for self-gratification’39giving her little

option than to remain, indefinitely, in the grange. It should be of little surprise then

that Tennyson’s Mariana is ‘aweary’40 and wishing for death, not just with awaiting

someone who may never come, but with the mental turmoil of having to suppress

her true desires knowing that time is slipping away from her and she will eventually

be too far gone to be rescued or redeemed in marriage.

Likewise, Time is shown as progressing in Millais’ painting through the

aforementioned leaves and mouse in Mariana’s room, as well as in the landscape

34 Tennyson, p. 982, l. 26.35 Ibid, l. 3.36 Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination, (New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 2000), p. 615 <https://ia801709.us.archive.org/30/items/TheMadwomanInTheAttic/The%20Madwoman%20in%20the%20Attic_text.pdf> [accessed 3 November 2017]. 37Ibid. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 Tennyson, p. 982, l. 11.

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outside her window, which depicts the Combe’s garden, Millais patrons at the time.41

Symbolically, Nature stands for life and fertility, thus the autumnal leaves suggest not

just the literal passing of time as Tennyson does, but also Mariana’s loss of

desirability, fertility, and youth. As Meaghan Kelly summarises, ‘It is evident that the

days of summer, fertility, and purity are at an end. Winter, desolation and solitude

begin to close in on Mariana.’42 As discussed earlier, Millais presents Mariana as

transitioning emotionally from hope into hopelessness, therefore the physical

depiction of autumn provides a realistic indicator of her transition. Her ‘violent and

unruly’43 feelings haver so far, not been fully quenched by time and abandonment,

and so are not yet wintery, resultantly, Millais’ Mariana has a little more hope left.

Considering the ekphrasis behind Mariana as well, Measure for Measure does

conclude with Angelo and Mariana married, although unwillingly on his part, which

supports Millais’ decision to maintain a sense of hope in his interpretation.

Both Tennyson’s and Millais’ ‘Mariana’ are “Ekphrastic Fantastic” in their creation

and depiction of the abandonment and longing of Mariana. Their combination of

realism in landscape, but also their use of symbolism, convey the social constraints

she is under, the conflict between her emotions and reality, and the passage of time.

When considered with the texts and works that have inspired them, such as

Shakespeare, both Mariana’s display the advantages of ekphrasis which helps their

works achieve the great psychological and emotional depth present. Additionally,

because of the ekphrasis that occurs, where there is diversions and additions, this

showcases Tennyson and Millais’ individual skill in being able to comprehend and

translate a state of being into word or image. In short, both Tennyson and Millais’

Mariana most definitely deserve their place in this ‘Ekphrastic Fantastic’ exhibition.

41 Grieve, p. 259.42 Meaghan Kelly, ‘Mariana and Angelo or Mary and the Angel’, The Victorian Web, (2004) < http://www.victorianweb.org/painting/millais/paintings/kelly3.html > [accessed 1 November 2017]. 43 Shakespeare, 234.

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Word Count- 1,814

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