Disability Rights Movement

Yulleivy Hernandez

21 December 2018

SBS 328: Social Theory Module

Professor Covarrubias

California State University, Monterey Bay

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Introduction

Social movements are important for change. There exist many organizations at a micro- and

macro- level. Analyzing social movements through theory allows for a clear understanding of

how the movements are formed and executed. For this assignment, I have chosen the disabilities

rights movement. This movement is composed of many organizations that tackle different issues

pertaining to people with impairments. My interest in this movement came from reading

Feminist, Queer, Crip by Allison Kafer in SBS 300. My knowledge about the disabilities

communities expanded through reading this book. Previous to reading this book, I had little

knowledge about how people with impairments felt marginalized. It was important for me to

expand my knowledge over this topic.

The following essay goes as follows: the first section, thematic section, includes the history of

the movements, its objectives, participants and ideology. The second, theoretical section, is

where I include social movement theories. This includes the elements that compose a social

movement and the characteristics they have or should have. Lastly, the analytical section is

where I analyze the disability rights movement through two theories: Resource Mobilization and

Dramaturgical Framework.

Thematic Section

The disabilities rights movement is a call for equality and rights for people with disabilities.

People do not choose to be diagnosed with impairments or conditions, rather they are born that

way. The World Health Organization defines “disabilities” as an umbrella term that covers

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impairment, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. Examples of disabilities are

physical, visual, mental disorders, and health issues. The United States Social Security

Administration provide a separate list of impairments for children and adults. Some of the

impairments include: Respiratory disorders, cardiovascular system, special senses and speech,

skin disorders, among many more. The movements have made distinctions between impairment

and disability, and, stigmatization and marginalization (Winter, 2003). Winter states

stigmatization and marginalization are both a process that exclude people with impairments from

participating in the mainstream of social activities. It is important to define “disability” to better

understand who the social rights movements pertain to.

Disabilities rights movements occur worldwide. Janet Lord (2009) states that disabilities rights

movements were first organized in North America and Europe during the 1970’s and later in

Latin America and other regions during the 1980’s and 1990’s. The United States was one of the

first countries to give civil rights to people with disabilities by implementing the American

Rehabilitation Act in 1973. By the mid- 1990’s, the phenomena caught on resulting in anti-

discriminatory laws in Sweden, Australia, Japan, Cambodia, Uganda, Liberia, and Yemen.

The objective of any social movement is to make change in their community. The disability/ies

communities advocating for disabilities rights yearn to include fairness and equality. In the

United States, the movement was formed to ensure equal opportunities and rights with demands

for accessibly and safety in transportation, improvements in architecture and physical

environment. They also wanted equal opportunities in independent living, employment,

education, housing, prevention of abuse, neglect and violations of patients’ rights. Section 504 of

the American Rehabilitation Act of 1973 aimed to not discriminate against any person who has a

physical or mental impairment (Katsiyannis, Landrum, and Reid, 2018). Discrimination was

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prohibited in the workforce, the educational setting, and health, welfare and social services. One

objective is to change the view and stigmatization of a person with one, or many disabilities.

First and foremost, the way we speak about disabilities is important. Equality training in the

United Kingdom provides its trainees with a guide on respectful language. They state that a

disabled person uses the term “impairment” when speaking about their medical condition or

diagnosis. Similarly, they use the term “disability” to describe the social effects of their

impairments. Therefore, they strive to inform people to remove “disability” as a description of a

person’s characteristic.

There exist many organizations that strive to give opportunities and same quality of life, as those

who do not have a disability, to people with disabilities. The mission of Stop Ableism is to have

society treat people with disabilities the same as able-bodied people. Ableism according to Stop

Ableism is a “set of practices and beliefs that assign inferior value (worth) to people who have

developmental, emotional, physical or psychiatric disabilities”. National Telecommuting

Institute was founded in 1995 with the mission to develop work-at-home jobs for Americans who

are physically disabled. Their vision was to improve the quality of life of all persons with

disabilities. Disabled Peoples’ International United is an organization combined with other

national organizations is formed by disabled people in over 130 countries. People with

disabilities in this organization have a vision for a sustainable world. This organization strives to

have people with disabilities involved in developing and delivering methodologies as well as

engaging in issues in society. Visitability is a movement to change home construction practices

so that all new homes accommodate people with disabilities. The aim is to make people with

disabilities feel welcome anywhere they visit. This means rethinking steps, bigger door frames,

and bathrooms. These organizations are among the thousands that exist in the world. Ultimately,

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all organization hold the same vision: to include people with disabilities in everyday social

activities.

The ideology of advocates of disabilities are working to break institutional, physical, and societal

barriers. This means that anywhere they go, they should be welcome. Accommodations are

expected to be made to serve their needs. They do not want people to pity them, and instead

should include them in activities. We should not assume a person with a disability cannot

perform the same activities as us. People with disabilities do not want people to view them as

different from those who do not have disabilities. Alison Kaefer (2013) says “everything from

sterilization…from bone-lengthening surgeries to growth attenuation, has been justified that such

acts will lead to better futures for the disabled person and/or for their communities…Disability

cannot appear as anything other than failure” (p.30). Illness, defect, deviance and disability are

viewed as damaging to the community by polluting the gene pool, destroying family quality life,

and draining public services. Scotch (1989) mentioned that Disability Rights Center and the

National Association for Retarded Citizens joined with conservative right-to-life groups to seek

government protection for newborns whose impairments would lead the parents to terminate the

pregnancy. Kaefer (2013) also states that people pay more attention to curing people from future

disabilities while ignoring the needs and experiences of disabled people.

It is important to know the efforts disability advocates push. These movements occur worldwide

because people want changes to serve the needs of their friend, child, parent, sibling, and other

people they care about. Both people with and without disabilities have united to better their

futures in society. Society for disabilities studies states Disability Studies was created to explore

models and theories that examine social, political, cultural and economic factors that define

disability and de-stigmatizing diseases, illness, and impairments. Disabilities studies are

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important because not only are they educating people about disabilities, they are also examining

and analyzing in depth issues within the disabilities communities. There are no boundaries for

disabilities, they exist everywhere, even if we cannot see them. That is why there is a need to

advocate for those who are marginalized. In this case, people with disabilities.

Theoretical Section

Social movement refers to collective behaviors of people to bring attention, awareness, and

change to an existing stance in society or groups. Oliver and Marwell (1992) explain that

activists sometimes act alone but often seek to draw others to heighten the movement. Changes

made by social movements can shape the future of society. An example includes movements for

changes in social policy and within institutions and structures. Although there is not a set

definition for “social movement”, scholars aim to define it along the same lines. Giugni defines it

as “complex sets of groups, organizations, and actions that may have different goals as well as

different strategies for reaching their aims” (p. xx). Likewise, Sociologist Charles Tilly defines

“social movement” as “a sustained challenge to power holders in the name of a population living

under the jurisdiction of those power holders by means of repeated public displays of that

population’s worthiness, unity, numbers, and commitment (p. 260). Lee (2017) states that the

definitions hold three shared characteristics: organization, civilian components, and disruption or

coercion against some authority.

Benford and Hunt (1992) use dramaturgical framework to examine how movements construct

and communicate power. Their framework analyzes how the actors of movements articulate

power through four techniques: scripting, staging, performing, and interpreting. Scripting in

social movements includes ideas, norms, values and beliefs that need improvement. Staging

involves promoting the social movement as well as carrying out public activities. Performing in

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social movements requires demonstrations and enactment of power. Lastly, interpreting is when

the audience make sense of what the performance in social movements meant.

Resource Mobilization theory was developed in the 1970’s in order to understand the social

movements of the 1960’s. Resource mobilization according to McCarthy and Zald (1977),

examines both societal support and the constraint of social movements. It also emphasizes how

social movements mobilize resources such as mass media, personnel, and money, among many

more resources. Edwards and Kane (2007) developed a list of resources. Resource types

includes: moral resources, cultural resources, human resources, material resources, and social-

organizational resources. The success of a movement is heavily depended on how well the

resources are used.

Morris (2000) states that proponents of the framing process, argue environment of the people

play a huge role. Cultural dynamics such as ideas, belief systems, and rituals, are central to the

development of social movements.

Oliver and Marwell (1992) define activists as “people who care enough about some issue that

they are prepared to incur significant costs and act to achieve their goals” (p. 252). Participants

of social movements carry on a wide variety of activities such as planning meetings, building

networks, and looking for resources, among many others. Social movements are not solely about

politics, there also exists religious, reform, and revolutionary movements. Movements could

either target groups or individual needs. Social movements may or may not be organized. An

example of unorganized movement is if an incident occurs, people may use their social media to

spread the word about it and instantly the movement may gather several followers. Social

movements may also be peaceful or violent; it is unpredictable as to how a movement could

unfold. What is also uncertain is the amount of time a movement remains in the spotlight. For

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example, the “Black Lives Matter” movement as well as the “Me Too” movement had their fair

share of time on social media platforms and media outlets. Lately, the movements do not get as

much attention unless an incident regarding those movements occurs. The range of social

movements also fall between being global and, or, local.

With the technological advances, it becomes easier for people to discover global and local

occurrences and issues. Social movements are not always physical demonstrations. Online

petitions are also forms for demanding change. This process takes only a couple of minutes.

Likewise, social media platforms have made it possible for social movements to grow vastly.

Indeed, technology has majorly impacted the manner in which social movements have and will

occur. Now, more than ever with technology, it is easier to recruit volunteers and activists to join

or follow a group. However, there also exists the dilemma of fake news. Pictures and information

of previous protests and demonstrations can be used to present current events even though it is

not accurate. Because news and fake news is spread through social media platforms and media

outlets in a matter of seconds, it becomes difficult to keep up with as well as difficult to

distinguish fake news from real information.

Social movements occur when a group of people feel they are targets of injustices. Those who do

not feel content with societal standards are those who build social movements. Sociology

Discussion lists the people who are prone to social movements. Among those susceptible are

people and groups who are: isolated from the community, threatened by economic insecurity and

loss of social status, and not fully accepted and integrated into the mainstream group

(marginalized). Social movements are built to attempt to make a change. When people are tired

of being oppressed and, or marginalized, they get the urge for people to hear their concerns.

Without the push and pressure from groups of people, there would not exist changes that benefit

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those who are not well represented. Society is constantly changing, and there will always be

groups who are dissatisfied with those changes. Social movements will be in existence for as

long as groups or individuals see injustices happening to them.

Analytical Section

Disabilities rights movements occur worldwide. It is an umbrella social movement because many

other social movements and organizations have derived from it. I previously mentioned

organizations that target specific disabilities or disabilities as a whole, such as, Stop Ableism,

that aims to educate society on equal treatment of people with and without disabilities. Many

organizations and movements involving rights for those with disabilities have occurred. Some

have even been successful. In this section, I will be analyzing two theories while incorporating

different examples of organizations and movements.

Benford and Hunt (1992) use dramaturgical framework to examine how movements construct

and communicate power. Their framework is composed of four techniques: scripting, staging,

performing, and interpreting. These techniques analyze how the actors of movements articulate

power. Each technique holds an idea. Another theory used to describe social movements is

Resource mobilization. According to McCarthy and Zald (1977), resource mobilization examines

both societal support and the constraint of social movements. I will be using these two theories to

explain and analyze how disability communities come together for the purpose to see change.

Scripting in social movements includes ideas, norms, values and beliefs that need improvement.

Scripting in disabilities rights movements are beliefs that want to lead to change by breaking

institutional, physical, and societal barriers. One objective is to change the view and

stigmatization of a person with one, or many disabilities. For example, when we see a person in a

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wheel chair, we typically think they are not capable of doing certain things. In reality, we do not

certainly know, we only assume. Disabilities communities believe they should be treated equally,

as well as be able to have access to the same resources as those who do not have a disability. In

resource mobilization, moral, cultural and human resources are needed (Edwards and Kane,

2007). Like scripting in the dramaturgical framework, morals in resource mobilization are

encompassed in beliefs and values. Cultures typically tend to share the same beliefs. For

example, the National Consortium on Leadership and Disability for Youth, feel a sense of

unification. Unification to them is expressions of their beliefs and heritage in cultural activities

that bring them together, gives them support, and underscores their common values. It is

important to note that having common beliefs and sharing common goals for change is essential

to a movement.

Staging involves promoting the social movement as well as carrying out public activities. Shaw

(2008) states that in 2008, there were 58 million Americans with disabilities. Because they were

a minority, the group was hard to see. Disabilities are often invisible therefore keeping people

out of the public view. Promoting this movement included developing ideas to better inform and

educate people about the issue. Planning meetings, building networks and looking for resources

are some of the activities that participants of social movements carryout. Movements in some

cases are not organized, but if participants want successful outcomes, there needs to be a

consensus about what they are doing. They also need to be prepared for whatever may come

their way. Resource mobilization includes the use of mass media. Now more than ever, it has

become easier for news to spread like wild fire. Technology is used to the advantage of social

movements, for it allows rapid recruitment of participants.

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Performing in social movements requires demonstrations and enactment of power. Shaw (2008)

gave an example of the 25-day-sit in San Francisco. The sit in was planned to take place in

several offices of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, in order to sign section 504

as a law (Shaw, 2008). Section 504 prohibited discrimination against people with disabilities

who wanted to receive federal funds. Due to technological advances, social movements do not

have to be physical demonstrations. For example, petitions for change can be created online.

This has made it easier for the disability communities, for they are not able to physically leave

their homes to join. Demonstrations can also be peaceful or violent. Disability movements are

typically peaceful. For example, a deaf-community in Oxnard, Ca, would encourage

communities to attend meetings and events to inform them about their conditions and what they

can do in the case of finding themselves struggling while trying to communicate with a deaf

person. Social movements are not always big protests and demonstrations. Movements occur

locally, and globally.

Lastly, interpreting, is when the audience makes sense of what the performance in social

movements mean. This last idea is where movements find out if there will be change or not.

Because movements are not solely about politics, but also about reform, and revolutions, there

does not have to be executive decisions for movements. For example, many disability

organizations yearn for society to not see them as “different”. This will take for society to be

better educated on topics of disability. Vanhala (2009) states that’s disability organizations have

has a significant presence in the Supreme Court. Although not a supreme court case, an example

of executive decision is the 25-day-sit-in that took place at in San Francisco. This protest helped

Section 504 become a law. Interpreting is important because it helps the spectators understand

why the movement was formed as well as what they were able to accomplish.

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Shakespeare mentions that no major theorists include disabilities as a marginalized group for

social movements. Although I did not use social movement theory, it was criticized because the

new social theory movement focuses to allocate resources instead of concerns of distribution of

economic, and political power. (Shakespeare 1993). New social movements have seen a shift in

values to post-materialism (Shakespeare, 1993). Shakespeare (1993), states “The whole thrust of

the disability movement is for more resources to be channeled towards disabled people, and

challenges the distributive logic of capitalism” (p. 258). Some of the disabilities rights

organizations aim to make changes within buildings and parks. For example, Kafer (2013),

mentions change in trails of state parks to make them accessible to disabled people. Similarly,

resource mobilization is a theory that conveys that resources are needed to obtain a goal.

Although it does not state that the objective is to gain resources, it is evident that some

movements are formed to essentially gain something. Through resource mobilization, success is

dependent on how resources are used.

Conclusion

The purpose of this essay was to analyze a social movement through social movement theories.

The movement I chose was the disabilities rights movements. As mentioned, there are many

organizations with the same purpose, to break institutional, physical, and societal barriers. With

the purpose to see change, many organizations have seen change in their favor. Although

sometimes not political, disabilities movements also yearn for a change in the state of mind of

society. For example, Disabilities studies are important because not only are they educating

people about disabilities, they are also examining and analyzing in depth issues within the

disabilities communities. Nearly 1 in 5 people have a disability in the U.S., according to the

senses report. Clearly, many Americans have a disability. Because disabilities are not often

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visible, it is difficult to see it in the majority of the population. This is one of many reasons why

people with disabilities continue to be marginalized.

Social movements and organizations are continuing their efforts to break down the many barriers

that impede people with impairments from having a normal life. Overall, it is essential to better

educate ourselves and others about the issues in the disability communities.

Works Cited

Benford, R.D. & Hunt, S.A. (1992) Dramaturgy and Social Movements: The Social Construction and Communication of Power. Sociological Inquiry, 62(1), 36-56.

Edwards, B., & Kane, M. D. (2007). Resource mobilization theory. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, 1-5.

Giugni, M. (1999). How Social Movements Matter: Past Research, Present Problems, Future Developments. In How social movements matter, introduction, xiii-xxxiii.

Kafer, A. (2013). Feminist, queer, crip. Indiana University Press.

Katsiyannis, A., Landrum, T.J., Reid, R., (2002). Rights and Responsibilities Under Section 504. Beyond Behavior, 11(2), 9-15.

Lee, D.W (2017) Resistance Dynamics and Social Movement Theory: Conditions, Mechanisms, and Effects. Journal of Strategic Security, 10(4), 42-63.

Lord, J. (2009). Disability rights and the human rights mainstream: Reluctant gate-crashers. In Bob, C. (Ed.). (2011). The International Struggle for New Human Rights (83-92). University of Pennsylvania Press.

McCarthy, J.D.& Zald, M.N. (1977) Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 82(6), 1212-1241.

Oliver, P. E., & Marwell, G. (1992). Mobilizing technologies for collective action. In Frontiers in social movement theory, 251-72.

Tilly, C. (1999). From interactions to outcomes in social movements. In How social movements matter, 10, 253-270.

Shaw, K. (2008). Disability Rights Movement. Momentum. 20-28. Scotch, R.K. (1989). Politics and Policy in the History of the Disability Rights Movement. The

Milbank Quarterly, 67(2), 380-400.

Shakespeare, T. (1993). Disables People’s Self-organisation: a new social movement. Disability, Handicap and Society, 8(3), 249-264.

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Vanhala, L. (2009). Disability Rights Activists in the Supreme Court of Canada: Legal Mobilization Theory and Accommodating Social Movements. Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue Canadienne De Science Politique, 42(4), 981-1002.

Winter J.A. (2003). The Development of the Disability Rights Movement as a Social Problem Solver. Disability Studies Quarterly, 23(1), 33-61.

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