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Genres of 21st Century Literature: Film as Literature Glossary

Always ask yourself: How does the apparatus allow us to perceive the story or argument in a way that our sense organs do not?

Include: 1) a definition that makes sense to you (in your own words); 2) your own example (with visual); 3) effect of the device; 4) application that you can imagine in your own film.

Denotation: The literal description of something. We shall call this the observable facts.

Connotation: The beyond-the-literal meaning.

Film Shot: In filmmaking and video production, a shot is a series of frames that runs for an uninterrupted period of time. Film shots are an essential aspect of a movie where angles, transitions and cuts are used to further express emotion, ideas and movement. The term "shot" can refer to two different parts of the filmmaking process:

1. In production, a shot is the moment that the camera starts rolling until the moment it stops.

2. In film editing, a shot is the continuous footage or sequence between two edits or cuts.

Extreme Close-up: The extreme close-up shot is traditionally used in film to allow the viewer to enter the character’s intimate space, revealing certain characteristics and emotions that would otherwise go unnoticed from afar. This unnaturally close view intensifies feelings that the character is experiencing and allows us to feel sympathy for, and establish a connection with, the character in question. At such an extreme intimate proximity, every subtle expression, muscle movement, facial characteristic, reflection and detail becomes that much more apparent. In this way, it emphasizes the dramatic importance of the scene, making it stand out with respect to the movie as a whole.

Close-up: A close-up or closeup in filmmaking is a type of shot that tightly frames a person or object.

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Medium Shot: The medium shot is a general, all-purpose shot. Medium shots are used for dialogue sequences, and they allow the viewer to pick up on the character's movements and gestures. Body language is important to conveying emotion, and the medium shot remains close enough to capture that emotion.

Long Shot: In photography, a long shot (sometimes referred to as a full shot or wide shot) typically shows the entire object or human figure and is usually intended to place it in some relation to its surroundings.

Extreme Long Shot or Distance Shot: In film, a view of a scene that is shot from a considerable distance, so that people appear as indistinct shapes. An extreme long shot is a view from an even greater distance, in which people appear as small dots in the landscape if at all (eg. a shot of New York's skyline).

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Establishing Shot: An establishing shot in filmmaking and television production sets up, or establishes the context for a scene by showing the relationship between its important figures and objects.

Tracking Shot: this may refer to a shot in which the camera is mounted on a camera dolly. One may dolly in on a stationary subject for emphasis, or dolly out, or dolly beside a moving subject (an action known as "dolly with").

The term may also refer to any shot in which the camera follows a subject within the frame, such as a moving actor or a moving vehicle. When using the term tracking shot in this sense, the camera may be moved in ways not involving a camera dolly, such as via a Glidecam, via handheld camera operator, or by being panned on a tripod.

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High Camera Angle: A high-angle shot is a cinematic technique where the camera looks down on the subject from a high angle and the point of focus often gets "swallowed up." High-angle shots can make the subject seem vulnerable or powerless when applied with the correct mood, setting, and effects.

Low Camera Angle: A low-angle shot, is a shot from a camera angle positioned low on the vertical axis, anywhere below the eye line, looking up. Sometimes, it is even directly below the subject's feet. Psychologically, the effect of the low-angle shot is that it makes the subject look strong and powerful.

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Bird’s Eye View Shot: A bird's-eye view is an elevated view of an object from above, with a perspective as though the observer were a bird

Camera Pan: this is a horizontal camera movement in which the camera moves left and right about a central axis. This is a swiveling movement, i.e. mounted in a fixed location on a tripod or shoulder, rather than a dolly-like movement in which the entire mounting system moves.

Camera Tilt: This is a cinematographic technique in which the camera stays in a fixed position but rotates up/down in a vertical plane. Tilting the camera results in a motion similar to someone raising or lowering their head to look up or down.

Point of view shot (POV): A point of view shot is when a shot is coming from the perspective of a character (it is as if we are seeing from the perspective of the camera). Over the shoulder shot (OS,OTS) is a shot of someone or something taken from the perspective from the shoulder of another person. The back of the shoulder and head of this person is used to frame the image of whatever (or whomever) the camera is pointing toward. This type of shot is very common when two characters are having a discussion and will usually follow an establishing shot, which helps the audience place the characters in their setting.

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Oblique (Dutch) Angle: Also known as Dutch tilt or canted angle, it is a type of camera shot where the camera is set at an angle on its roll axis so that the shot is composed with vertical lines at an angle to the side of the frame, or so that the horizon line of the shot is not parallel with the bottom of the camera frame. This produces a viewpoint akin to tilting one's head to the side.

Dolly Zoom: A dolly zoom is a cinematic technique in which the camera moves closer or further from the subject while simultaneously adjusting the zoom angle to keep the subject the same size in the frame. The effect is that the subject appears stationary while the background size changes (this is called perspective distortion).

Two Shot: A shot in which the frame encompasses a view of two people (the subjects). The subjects do not have to be next to each other, and there are many common two-shots which have one subject in the foreground and the other subject in the background. Two-shots are good for establishing a relationship between subjects. If you see two sports presenters standing side by side facing the camera, you get the idea that these people are going to be the show's co-hosts. As they have equal prominence in the frame, the implication is that they will provide equal input. Of course this doesn't always apply, for example, there are many instances in which it's obvious one of the

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people is a presenter and the other is a guest. In any case, the two-shot is a natural way to introduce two people.

Long Take (Mise En Scene) This shot is an uninterrupted shot in a film which lasts much longer than the conventional editing pace either of the film itself or of films in general, usually lasting several minutes. Long takes are often accomplished through the use of a dolly shot or Steadicam shot. Long takes of a sequence filmed in one shot without any editing are rare in films, but prized among filmmakers. Composition: Composition refers to the frame of an image and how the elements appear within it. The Rule of Thirds: The guideline proposes that an image should be imagined as divided into nine equal parts by two equally spaced horizontal lines and two equally spaced vertical lines, and that important compositional elements should be placed along these lines or their intersections. [2] Proponents of the technique claim that aligning a subject with these points creates more tension, energy and interest in the composition than simply centering the subject.

Editing: Film editing is a technical part of the post-production process of filmmaking. The term is derived from the traditional process of working with film which increasingly involves the use of digital technology. The film editor works with the raw footage, selecting shots and combines them into sequences which create a finished motion picture. Film editing is described as an art or skill, the only art that is unique to cinema, separating filmmaking from other art forms that preceded it, although there are close parallels to the editing process in other art forms such as poetry and novel

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writing. Film editing is often referred to as the "invisible art" because when it is well-practiced, the viewer can become so engaged that he or she is not aware of the editor's work.

Cut: The splicing of two shots together. This cut is made by the film editor at the editing stage of a film. Between sequences the cut marks a rapid transition between one time and space and another, but depending on the nature of the cut it will have different meanings.

Jump Cut: This is a cut in film editing in which two sequential shots of the same subject are taken from camera positions that vary only slightly if at all. This type of edit gives the effect of jumping forwards in time. It is a manipulation of temporal space using the duration of a single shot, and fracturing the duration to move the audience ahead. This kind of cut abruptly communicates the passing of time.

Continuity Cuts: These are cuts that take us seamlessly and logically from one sequence or scene to another. This is an unobtrusive cut that serves to move the narrative along.

Dissolve/Lap-dissolve: These terms are used interchangeably to refer to a transition between two sequences or scenes. In a dissolve a first image gradually dissolves or fades out and is replaced by another which fades in over it. This type of transition, which is known also as a soft transition (as opposed to the cut), suggests a longer passage of time than a jump cut.

Vsevolod Pudovkin’s Editing Techniques (Consult https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-jiiM3X3_XM)

Contrast: Moving from one shot to a drastically different shot.

Parallelism: A way of connecting two scenes visually by matching certain elements within the scenes.

Symbolism: Juxtaposing (or throwing side-by-side) one scene that shares attributes denotatively and connotatively with the following scene.

Simultaneity (Cross-Cutting): Cutting between different sets of action that can be occurring simultaneously or at different times. Cross-cutting is used to build suspense, or to show the relationship between the different sets of action.

Leitmotif: A recurrent theme throughout a musical or literary composition, associated with a particular person, idea, or situation.

Narrative Terms (Narrative Mode of Expression):

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Setting: The time, place, and social milieu (i.e., circumstances) in which a story occurs or develops.

Characterization: The creation or construction of a fictional character; a description of the distinctive nature or features of someone, something or some place.

Direct Characterization: The process by which the personality of a fictitious character is revealed by the use of descriptive adjectives, phrases, or epithets.

Indirect Characterization: The process by which the writer shows the character's personality through speech, actions and appearance. When you watch a movie or television show, you can usually gather what type of person the main character is based on the character's actions and reactions in different situations.

Flat Character: A two-dimensional character that is relatively uncomplicated. Flat characters are often said not to have emotional depth.

Round Character: A round character is more fully developed, fully described and multi-dimensional than flat characters. Round characters can be thought of as “‘good’ people who do ‘bad’ things and ‘bad’ people who do ‘good’ things.”

Static Character: A static character is one who doesn't undergo any significant change in character, personality or perspective over the course of a story.

Dynamic Character: A character that undergoes an important inner change, as a change in personality or attitude: Ebenezer Scrooge is a dynamic character. Stock Character: A stock character is a stereotypical fictional character in a work of art such as a novel, play, film, or a movie whom audiences recognize from frequent recurrences in a particular literary tradition. Stock characters are archetypal characters distinguished by their flatness. For example, the mad scientist, the punk, the damsel in distress.

Protagonist: The protagonist is the primary agent propelling the story forward, and is often the character who faces the most significant obstacles.

Antagonist: A character or force that actively opposes or is hostile to the protagonist.

Hero: A hero, or protagonist, is the principal character of a story, who may be known for special achievements. A hero is often thought of as better than ourselves.

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Antihero: An antihero or antiheroine is a central character in a story who lacks conventional heroic qualities and attributes such as idealism, courage and morality. Think Holden Caulfield from The Catcher in the Rye.

Caricature: A literary style in which certain features or mannerisms are exaggerated for satirical effect. A likeness or imitation that is so distorted or inferior as to seem ludicrous.

Foil: In fiction, a foil is a character who contrasts with another character, usually the protagonist, to highlight particular qualities of the other character. Think George and Lennie from Of Mice and Men.

Confidant: The confidant is a character in a story whom a protagonist confides in and trusts.

Monologue: A speech by one actor in a play or film.

Internal Monologue: An internal monologue, also called self-talk or inner speech, is a person's inner voice which provides a running verbal monologue of thoughts while they are conscious.

Dialogue: A conversation between two or more people as a feature of a book, play, or film.

Symbol: A symbol is both a thing in itself but also representative of something beyond itself. Often the attributes of the thing connect to the larger idea that the thing points to. For example, a dove is, denotatively, a white non-predatory bird that coos, generally stays with one partner for life, and lives between the earth and sky. It does not hurt anyone and can be caged or set free. In what ways might these attributes be connected to notions of peace, which a dove represents?

Motif: A dominant or recurring idea in an artistic work.

MacGuffin: In fiction, a MacGuffin (sometimes McGuffin) is a plot device in the form of some goal, desired object, or another motivator that the protagonist pursues, often with little or no narrative explanation.

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Plot Chart (Freytag’s Pyramid): A basic formula for a story, it is a modification of Aristotle's structure where he transformed the triangle into a pyramid and added two other levels. Aristotle writes that every story must have a beginning, middle and end. Freytag's Pyramid is a diagram created in 1863 by Gustav Freytag to chart the structure of tragedy, but can be used to talk about the plot structure of just about any piece of prose. The plot chart (Freytag’s Pyramid) comprises Exposition, Rising Action, Complication, Climax and Denouement (Resolution).

Exposition: Exposition is the insertion of important background information within a story. It includes information about the setting and characters; it often references prior plot events and historical context.

Rising Action: Created by some kind of conflict, it is a series of relevant incidents in a plot that creates suspense, interest, and tension in a narrative. In literary works, a rising action includes all decisions, characters' flaws, and background circumstances that together create turns and twists leading to a climax.

Conflict: Conflict in literature refers to the different drives of the characters or forces involved. The literary purpose of conflict is to create tension in the story, making readers more interested by leaving them uncertain which of the characters or forces will prevail.

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Person vs. Person: In a person vs. person conflict, the conflict is between two forms of like beings. This is often the protagonist versus the antagonist. The conflict may be verbal, physical, or emotional. Ex: Rocky Balboa vs. Apollo Creed in Rocky. Person vs. Self: In this type of conflict, a character finds him or herself battling between two competing desires or selves, typically one good and one evil. Holden Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye. Person vs. Society: The person versus society conflict is when a protagonist has a strong belief against the majority of the community or surroundings and decides to act on it. Since this type of conflict is between a character and an outside group, it is classified as an external conflict. Think of Martin Luther King Jr. versus the American white establishment or Mahatma Gandhi versus the British Raj.

Person vs. Nature: The person versus nature conflict is an external struggle positioning the character against an animal or a force of nature, such as a storm or tornado or snow. Example: Chief Brody against the shark in Jaws. Person vs. God/Fate/Supernatural: In this conflict, the main character opposes a supernatural being. Such conflicts were common in ancient literature when gods were believed to play a greater role in the day-to-day life. Often the gods tested the story’s protagonist. One of the most popular of such stories is the myth of Prometheus, who stole fire from the gods and against their express wishes gave it to mankind. Person vs. Technology: This conflict places a character against technology. Frankenstein is often considered the classic example of this conflict, with a scientifically created human becoming a destructive monster. This conflict takes on new meaning in the age of digital mediation and artificial intelligence. In this vein, The Terminator serves as a perfect example of this conflict.

Climax: Climax, a Greek term meaning “ladder,” is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point.

Falling Action: The Falling Action occurs right after the climax, when the main problem of the story resolves. The falling action is where the tension stemming from the story's central conflict decreases and the story moves toward its conclusion. For instance, the traditional "good vs. evil" story (like many superhero movies) doesn't end as soon as the force of evil has been thwarted. Rather, there tends to be a portion of the story in which the hero must restore regular order to the world, clean up the mess they made, or make a return journey home. This is all part of the "falling action."

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Denouement (Resolution): The dénouement is part of the general process of bringing the story to a point of resolution, so it's easy to see why it would be confused with falling action, but the two parts have some very specific, key differences that are important to understand. Dénouement is the final part of the story, in which loose ends are tied up, and the effect or "outcome" of the events of the story is hinted at, if not shown. For example, the dénouement might give the audience a sense for what the future will hold for the characters, or how they were changed by the story. This part of the story is usually quite brief, even compared to the falling action: the most well-known dénouement is "and they lived happily ever after." Dénouements, by definition, occur after the resolution that marks the end of the falling action. Whereas the falling action results in the resolution of the major plot point, the dénouement resolves issues or conflicts that are of a secondary nature to the main issue of the story. Like an epilogue, the dénouement may also show how the events of the story fit into the broader scheme of history or the lives of those involved.

Narrative Perspective (Point of View): Narrative Perspective refers to a set of features determining the way a story is told and what is told. It includes the person who is telling the story, or the narrator, as well as the character from whose point of view the story is told.

First Person Point of View: First person narrative is a point of view where the story is narrated by one character at a time. This character may be speaking about him or herself or sharing events that he or she is experiencing. Listen for pronouns in the story-telling like “I,” and “me.”

Third Person Omniscient: A point of view is a method of storytelling in which the narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all of the characters in the story. All characters are described using pronouns such as “they”, “he”, and “she”.

Third Person Limited Omniscient: A point of view where the narrator only knows the thoughts and feelings of one character. All characters are described using pronouns such as “they”, “he”, and “she,” but one character is closely followed throughout the story, typically a main character.

Irony: A tonal mode of expression where one's meaning signifies the opposite of what is presented, typically for humorous or emphatic effect.

Situational Irony: Situational irony is a literary device that you can easily identify in literary works. Simply, it occurs when incongruity appears between expectations of something to happen, and what actually happens instead. Thus, something entirely different happens from what audience may be expecting, or the final outcome is opposite to what the audience is expecting. Situational irony generally includes sharp contrasts and contradictions. Example: Think of a fire station burning down or a police station getting robbed.

Verbal Irony: Verbal Irony is when words express something contrary to truth or someone says the opposite of what they really feel or mean. In understatement, the speaker says something that downplays a situation in order to actually highlight its magnitude. For instance, a person looking at a

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great white shark might say, "What a cute little fish!" The understatement actually emphasizes just how big and un-cute the shark is. In overstatement, the speaker exaggerates a situation, once again to highlight its opposite. If two people desperately need money and find a quarter on the street, one might ironically say, "We're rich!" Verbal irony is often confused with the term sarcasm. But there are important differences between the two. Sarcasm involves the use of language to mean something other than its literal meaning, but always with the intention to mock or criticize someone or something. Verbal irony, while involving non-literal meaning of language, does not have to involve mockery or criticism. Put another way: sarcasm is a specific form of verbal irony. When someone laughs at a person wearing a fanny pack and says "Nice fanny pack, nerd," that's sarcasm—but it's also verbal irony, since what they really mean is something like "Your fanny pack looks dumb." Not all examples of verbal irony are examples of sarcasm, but all examples of sarcasm are ironic.

Dramatic (or Tragic) Irony: With Dramatic Irony the audience or reader’s understanding of events or individuals in a work surpasses that of its characters. Dramatic irony is a form of irony that is expressed through a work’s structure: an audience’s awareness of the situation in which a work’s characters exist differs substantially from that of the characters’, and the words and actions of the characters therefore take on a different—often contradictory—meaning for the audience than they have for the work’s characters. Example, when Oedipus proclaims to the masses that he will find and punish the murderer of Laius, the King of Thebes, the audience is a aware (but Oedipus is unaware) of the fact that Oedipus, himself, is the killer. His proclamation thus seems ridiculous, almost silly.

Narrative Frameworks: Ways of presenting narratives. A common, familiar way of telegraphing the telling that a story is going on is “once upon a time”or “...and they lived happily ever after.”

Bildungsroman: A novel dealing with one person's formative years or spiritual education. A more general phrase for this type of narrative is a “coming-of-age” story.

En Medias Res: Latin for "into the middle of things." It usually describes a narrative that begins not at the beginning of a story but somewhere in the middle — usually at some crucial point in the action. Then, through flashbacks the audience is brought back to earlier action eventually coming to the middle point.

Flashback: A scene in a film or novel set in a time earlier than the one in which the main story takes place.

Cliffhanger (aka Serial) A cliffhanger is when a text concludes suddenly or with a thrilling plot twist. Cliffhangers usually leave big questions unanswered, resulting in an audience that wants more. Creating a cliffhanger is a great strategy for writers and filmmakers to get readers to buy the next installment of a series.

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Christopher Booker’s The Seven Basic Plots:Overcoming the Monster: The protagonist sets out to defeat an antagonistic force (often evil) which threatens the protagonist and/or protagonist's homeland. Example: any James Bond movie

Rags to Riches: The poor protagonist acquires power, wealth, and/or a mate, loses it all and gains it back, growing as a person as a result. Example: Cinderella.

The Quest: The protagonist and companions set out to acquire an important object or to get to a location. They face temptations and other obstacles along the way. Example: The Odyssey. Voyage and Return: The protagonist goes to a strange land and, after overcoming the threats it poses to them, they return with experience. Examples: Ramayana or Alice in Wonderland.

Comedy: Light and humorous character with a happy or cheerful ending; a dramatic work in which the central motif is the triumph over adverse circumstance, resulting in a successful or happy conclusion. Booker makes sure to stress that comedy is more than humor. It refers to a pattern where the conflict becomes more and more confusing, but is at last made plain in a single clarifying event. The majority of romance films fall into this category. Examples: Think of episodes of Friends. Tragedy: The protagonist's character flaw or great mistake which is their undoing. Their unfortunate end evokes pity at their folly and the fall of a fundamentally good character. Example: Hamlet. Rebirth: An event forces the main character to change their ways and often become a better person. Example: A Christmas Carol. Also, think of Luke Skywalker entering the cave in the Dagoba System in order to confront Darth Vader. As he emerges with his new knowledge that Vader is his father, he is “born again,” i.e., has a new identity.

Hero’s Journey: The common template of a broad category of tales that involve a hero who goes on an adventure, and in a decisive crisis wins a victory, and then comes home changed or transformed.

Hero myth pattern studies were popularized by Joseph Campbell, who was influenced by Carl Jung's view of myth. In his 1949 work The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Campbell described the basic narrative pattern as follows: “A hero ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man.”

Campbell’s seventeen stages:

DepartureThe Call to Adventure

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Refusal of the CallMeeting the MentorCrossing the First ThresholdBelly of the Whale

InitiationThe Road of TrialsThe Meeting with the GoddessThe Woman As TemptressAtonement with the Father/AbyssApotheosisThe Ultimate Boon

ReturnRefusal of the ReturnThe Magic FlightRescue from WithoutThe Crossing of the Return ThresholdMaster of Two WorldsFreedom to Live

Values: Important and lasting beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture about what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable. Values have major influence on a person's behavior and attitude and serve as broad guidelines in all situations. They should not be seen in a “family values” kind of way. While they include, for example, loyalty, justice, companionship, they also include money, power, and revenge. Values are at the heart of theme construction.

Theme: A general statement about life that can be supported throughout a text. It does not denote what should be but reflects, rather, what the world is. A theme is not a word (e.g., love or motherhood) nor should it be a cliche, e.g., “Don’t judge a book by its cover.”

Four Literary Principles:Contrast: In literature, story elements that reflect striking differences. For example, an evil character shrouded in darkness who is cut to from a good character bathed in light.

Progression/Regression: Story elements that increase or decrease in intensity as a story moves on. For example, a character may slowly grow more evil or less powerful as a story moves forward.

Parallelism: Parallelism refers to using elements that are similar or identical in structure, sound, or meaning. This technique adds symmetry, effectiveness, and balance to the written piece. We sometimes see parallel plots running in the same story. For example, if we hear, “meanwhile, back on the ranch…,” it suggests that we are being pulled from one story to move to another that is going on at the same time. Consider Luke’s journey in Star Wars: A New Hope, while Han’s story is going on at the same time. George Lucas cuts back and forth between these parallel plots. Consider

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too how the film editing technique of “Simultaneity” facilitates this. Consider its use in Silence of the Lambs near the end of the film.

Repetition: Novelists and filmmakers will often repeat ideas, words, images or plots for effect. The entire film Groundhog Day relies on the repetition of the same day. Objects or actions are often repeated in a story and may become symbols. For example, Holden Caulfield’s red hunting cap pops up again and again throughout The Catcher in the Rye.

Documentary Filmmaking Terms : Dialogue: Conversations that take place between subjects in a film (or subjects and the filmmaker)

Factual: Attempting to relay information that is accurate about something real or actual; based on facts

Fictional: Something invented or imagined; a made-up story.

Footage: Footage refers to all material used in a film, including edited and unedited sequences Opinion – an evidence-based personal belief or judgment that, unlike a fact, can be disputed by another person without either of you being wrong (e.g., vanilla is the best flavor for ice cream)

Persuade: To cause to believe; to convince.

Point of View: Sometimes abbreviated as POV, the perspective from which a story is told; in film, also refers to a shot that depicts a character’s outlook or position.

Re-enactment: A depiction created at a later time than the actual event.

Represent: To retell; all media is a representation of something (e.g., a photograph of a horse is not the actual horse; it represents the horse)

Stock Footage (archival footage): Footage that is included in a film that is often shot by another filmmaker or for another project and not specifically for the film

Subjects: The topics of the film or the people the film features

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Voice-over: A production technique or creative device in which an off-screen voice is used for narration. This voice often establishes context and was recorded at another point in time.

Informational/Expository Writing: Expose means to uncover or lay something bare, or to discover something in a way that others know what it is. Expository is derived from exposition, which is a noun of ‘expose.’ An expository essay is a genre of writing which tends to explain, illustrate, clarify, or explicate something in a way that it becomes clear for readers. Therefore, it could be an investigation, evaluation, or even argumentation about an idea for clarification. As is clear, an expository essay is an exposition, explanation, investigation, or illustration for the purpose of clarification, therefore, its tone is often kept neutral. However, in an argumentative essay, a clear position about something is taken before the argument is presented. There is no issue of objectivity or neutrality.

Types of Expository Writing (Expository Mode of Expression) (refer to https://literarydevices.net/expository-essay/)Descriptive Essay: A descriptive essay describes something, some place, some experience, or some situation through sensory information.

Example: Summer Ritual (by Ray Bradbury)

“About seven o’clock you could hear the chairs scraping from the tables, someone experimenting with a yellow-toothed piano, if you stood outside the dining-room window and listened. Matches being struck, the first dishes bubbling in the suds and tinkling on the wall racks, somewhere, faintly, a phonograph playing. And then as the evening changed the hour, at house after house on the twilight streets, under the immense oaks and elms, on shady porches, people would begin to appear, like those figures who tell good or bad weather in rain-or-shine clocks.

Uncle Bert, perhaps Grandfather, then Father, and some of the cousins; the men all coming out first into the syrupy evening, blowing smoke, leaving the wSWomen’s voices behind in the cooling-warm kitchen to set their universe aright. Then the first male voices under the porch brim, the feet up, the boys fringed on the worn steps or wooden rails where sometime during the evening something, a boy or a geranium pot, would fall off.”

This is an example of a passage from a descriptive essay. It has full description which tells us about sounds and colors; a type of sensory information.

Process Essay: A process essay explains or shows a process of making or doing something.Example: Learning to Read (by Malcolm X)“It was because of my letters that I happened to stumble upon starting to acquire some kind of a homemade education.

I became increasingly frustrated at not being able to express what I wanted to convey in letters that I wrote, especially those to Mr. Elijah Muhammad. In the street, I had been the most articulate hustler out there. I had commanded attention when I said something. But now, trying to write simple English, I not only wasn’t articulate, I wasn’t even functional. How would I sound writing in slang, the way I would say it, something such as, ‘Look, daddy, let me pull your coat about a cat, Elijah Muhammad — ‘

Many who today hear me somewhere in person, or on television, or those who read something I’ve said, will think I went to school far beyond the eighth grade. This impression is due entirely to my prison studies.”

This passage has been taken from a process essay. In this essay, Malcolm X tells the process of his learning. In this paragraph, he gives full detail how he learns letters.

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Comparison Essay: A comparison essay makes comparison and contrasts between two things.Example: How Chinese Mothers are Superior (by Amy Chua)“I’m using the term ‘Chinese mother’ loosely. I know some Korean, Indian, Jamaican, Irish and Ghanaian parents who qualify too. Conversely, I know some mothers of Chinese heritage, almost always born in the West, who are not Chinese mothers, by choice or otherwise. I’m also using the term ‘Western parents’ loosely. Western parents come in all varieties. All the same, even when Western parents think they’re being strict, they usually don’t come close to being Chinese mothers. For example, my Western friends who consider themselves strict make their children practice their instruments 30 minutes every day. An hour at most. For a Chinese mother, the first hour is the easy part. It’s hours two and three that get tough.”

This is an excerpt from a comparison/contrast essay by Amy Chua, which explains how mothers are different in different cultures. This paragraph compares mothers from Chinese, Iranian, Jamaican, and Irish contexts.

Cause/Effect Essay: A cause and effect essay finds out the cause of something and then its effects on something else.Signal Words for Cause and Effect EssaysCause and effect uses special words for causes, effects, and predictions, such as led to, because, cause, reason, explanation, so etc. However, for effects, the words most commonly used are therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, then, and thanks to. For predictions, the most commonly used words are if, when, after, as soon as, may, might, or possible.

Example #1: Why We Crave Horror Movies (by Stephen King)“I think that we’re all mentally ill: those of us outside the asylums only hide it a little better—and maybe not all that much better, after all. We’ve all known people who talk to themselves, people who sometimes squinch their faces into horrible grimaces when they believe no one is watching, people who have some hysterical fear—of snakes, the dark, the tight place, the long drop … and, of course, those final worms and grubs that are waiting so patiently underground.

When we pay our four or five bucks and seat ourselves at tenth-row center in a theater showing a horror movie, we are daring the nightmare.

Why? Some of the reasons are simple and obvious. To show that we can, that we are not afraid, that we can ride this roller coaster. Which is not to say that a really good horror movie may not surprise a scream out of us at some point, the way we may scream when the roller coaster twists through a complete 360 or plows through a lake at the bottom of the drop. And horror movies, like roller coasters, have always been the special province of the young; by the time one turns 40 or 50, one’s appetite for double twists or 360-degree loops may be considerably depleted.”

Stephen King tells the reasons people like to watch something horrible or terrible. This passage sheds light on those reasons.

Problem/Solution Essay: A problem/solution essay presents a problem and its solution for readers.The two types of structure, block and chain, are shown in the diagram below. This is for a short essay, which includes the 'situation' in the introduction and 'evaluation' in the conclusion. A longer essay, for example one of around 1,000 words, with citations, would probably have these two sections as separate paragraphs in the main body.

Block FrameIntroductionIncluding SituationProblem 1Problem 2Transition Sentence/Paragraph

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Solution 1Solution 2Conclusion(Including Evaluation)

Chain FrameIntroduction(Including Situation)Problem 1&Solution to Problem 1Problem 2&Solution to Problem 2Problem 3&Solution to Problem 3Conclusion(Including Evaluation)

Example essayBelow is a problem-solution essay on the topic of obesity and poor fitness. It uses the block structure.

Consumption of processed and convenience foods and our dependence on the car have led to an increase in obesity and reduction in the fitness level of the adult population. In some countries, especially industrialized ones, the number of obese people can amount to one third of the population. This is significant as obesity and poor fitness lead to a decrease in life expectancy, and it is therefore important for individuals and governments to work together to tackle this issue and improve their citizens' diet and fitness.

Obesity and poor fitness decrease life expectancy. Overweight people are more likely to have serious illnesses such as diabetes and heart disease, which can result in premature death. It is well known that regular exercise can reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke, which means that those with poor fitness levels are at an increased risk of suffering from those problems.

Changes by individuals to their diet and their physical activity can increase life expectancy. There is a reliance today on the consumption of processed foods, which have a high fat and sugar content. By preparing their own foods, and consuming more fruit and vegetables, people could ensure that their diets are healthier and more balanced, which could lead to a reduction in obesity levels. In order to improve fitness levels, people could choose to walk or cycle to work or to the shops rather than taking the car. They could also choose to walk up stairs instead of taking the lift. These simple changes could lead to a significant improvement in fitness levels.

Governments could also implement initiatives to improve their citizens' eating and exercise habits. This could be done through education, for example by adding classes to the curriculum about healthy diet and lifestyles. Governments could also do more to encourage their citizens to walk or cycle instead of taking the car, for instance by building more cycle lanes or increasing vehicle taxes. While some might argue that increased taxes are a negative way to solve the problem, it is no different from the high taxes imposed on cigarettes to reduce cigarette consumption.

In short, obesity and poor fitness are a significant problem in modern life, leading to lower life expectancy. Individuals and governments can work together to tackle this problem and so improve diet and fitness. Of the solutions suggested, those made by individuals themselves are likely to have more impact, though it is clear that a concerted effort with the government is essential for success. With obesity levels in industrialized and industrializing countries continuing to rise, it is essential that we take action now to deal with this problem.

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Argumentative Writing (Persuasive Mode of Expression): In an argumentative essay, a clear position about something is taken before the argument is presented. There is no issue of objectivity or neutrality.

Argument/Claim: A statement as to why one is for or against something. It needs to be opinionated or debatable.

Evidence: The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid.

Types of Evidence:Anecdotal Evidence: The use of personal stories to support claims. Example: “I knew a guy who was mugged in Toledo, Ohio. Therefore, one should never go to Toledo or he, she will certainly be attacked.”

Testimonial Evidence: The use of witness and expert statements to support claims. Example: “According to Dr. Robert Q. Dingleberry, Professor of Anthropology at Dexter University, bald men are the most captivating creatures to have ever roamed planet Earth.”

Statistical Evidence: Quantitative and logical measurements used to support claims. Example: “three out of four dentists say that Colgate toothpaste is most effective.”

Analogical Evidence: An analogy is a comparison — usually either a metaphor or a simile — that helps to explain something or make it clearer. Example: The atmosphere is simply the lungs of the Earth. The Earth’s “lungs” are “sick” and so we need to spend more tax money on the environment, the “heal” the atmosphere.

Thesis and Pillars: This is probably the most common type of argument essay taught. In short, one makes an argument in the form of a thesis (the Greek root is “thet,” which means “to put,” as in “put” your point out there). This is then followed by three claims which support the argument. The claims often appear within their own paragraphs and are supported with evidence.

Compare/Contrast: Compare/Contrast Essays juxtapose (i.e., throw side-by-side) two possible claims, and examine which alternative is the best. Two different models include Opposing and Alternating Patterns.

Opposing Pattern:The most common strategy for developing a comparison is called the Opposing Pattern. As its name suggests, this strategy divides the comparison into two separate sections, devoting the first half to a discussion of A and the second half to a discussion of B. The examples in A should be linked to those in B to unify the contrast of the two parts. One way to achieve that linkage is to follow a similar pattern in both sections. For example, if you make three basic points about A, you then should make three basic points about B. You can also arrange your points in the same sequence, devoting the same amount of space to each point, if possible.

Alternating Pattern:

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In the alternating pattern for developing your material, the details of A and B are not grouped separately but are presented in matched pairs, sometimes in the same paragraph, sometimes in the same sentence. The divided pattern is more common, perhaps, because it is an easier pattern to organize and control, particularly in short essays. The alternating pattern requires you to organize your material more precisely, especially in a longer piece of writing. But the pattern is often easier and more interesting for the reader, because the point-by-point development reinforces the comparison with every pair of matched details and of the the balanced sentence structure emphasizes the comparison or contrast.

Straw Man: Debaters invoke a straw man when they put forth an argument—usually something extreme or easy to argue against—that they know their opponent doesn't support. You put forth a straw man because you know it will be easy for you to knock down or discredit. It's a way of misrepresenting your opponent's position.

Concession: Concession is when you acknowledge or recognize the opposing viewpoint, saying that it has some merit. An opponent is more likely to listen to you if you show you can see his/her point of view before you counter that argument.

(Descriptive Mode of Expression):Mood: In literature, mood is a literary element that evokes certain feelings or vibes in readers through words and descriptions. Usually, mood is referred to as the atmosphere of a literary piece, as it creates an emotional setting that surrounds the readers.

Tone: Tone, in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. The tone can be formal, informal, serious, comic, sarcastic, sad, or cheerful, or it may be any other existing attitude.

Tone Glossary:

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