CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Construction refers to the process of constructing a building or

infrastructure. Construction differs from manufacturing in that

manufacturing typically involves mass production of similar items without a

designated purchaser, while construction typically takes place on location

for a known client. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine

percent of the gross domestic product of developed countries. Komaki

(2008) Construction starts with planning, design, and financing; and

continues until the project is built and ready for use. Large-scale

construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect

normally manages the job, and a construction manager, design engineer,

construction engineer or project manager supervises it. Leighton. (2001)

Those involved with the design and execution must consider zoning

requirements, environmental impact of the job, scheduling, budgeting,

construction-site safety, availability and transportation of building materials,

logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by construction delays and

bidding. Large construction projects are sometimes referred to as

megaprojects. Havert. (2005). Etymology Construction is a general term

meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations,

and comes from Latin construction (from com "together" and structure "to

pile up") and Old French construction. Majorah. (2002) Construction is used

as a verb: the act of building, and a noun: how a building was built, the

nature of its structure.

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Industrial assemblage of a thermal oxidizer in the United States of

America. Ataev. (2009) Military residential unit construction by U.S. Navy

personnel in Afghanistan In general, there are three sectors of construction:

buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is usually

further divided into residential and non- residential

(commercial/institutional). Majora. (2002) Infrastructure is often called

heavy civil or heavy engineering that includes large public works, dams,

bridges, highways, railways, water or wastewater and utility distribution.

Industrial construction includes refineries, process chemical, power

generation, mills and manufacturing plants. There are also other ways to

break the industry into sectors or markets.

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Engineering News-Record (ENR), a trade magazine for the construction

industry, each year compiles and reports data about the size of design and

construction companies. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market

segments divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial,

and water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste and a

tenth category for other projects. In their reporting, they used data on

transportation, sewer, hazardous waste and water to rank firms as heavy

contractors. Nwabueze. (2006) The Standard Industrial Classification and

the newer North American Industry Classification System have a

classification system for companies that perform or engage in construction.

To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into

three subsectors: building construction, heavy and civil engineering

construction, and specialty trade contractors. There are also categories for

construction service firms (e.g., engineering, architecture) and construction

managers (firms engaged in managing construction projects without

assuming direct financial responsibility for completion of the construction

project).

Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property

or construction of buildings. The majority of building construction jobs is

small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom.

Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, and design

team for the entire project. Although building construction projects consist

of common elements such as design, financial, estimating and legal

considerations, projects of varying sizes may reach undesirable end

results, such as structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation. For this

reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain

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careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. The

National Cement Share Company of Ethiopia's new plant in Dire Dawa.

Commercial building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing

various delivery methodologies, including cost estimating, hard bid,

negotiated price, traditional, management contracting, construction

management-at-risk, design & build and design-build bridging. Odumodu.

(2007) Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources

must conform to local building authority regulations and codes of practice.

Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction

materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber). Agomuoh. (2008)

Cost of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for

houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations,

economies of scale (custom designed homes are often more expensive to

build) and the availability of skilled trades people. Residential construction

as well as other types of construction can generate waste such that

planning is required.

According to McKinsey(2006) research, productivity growth per worker

in construction has lagged behind many other industries across different

countries including in the United States and in European countries. In the

United States, construction productivity per worker has declined by half

since the 1960.

The most popular method of residential construction in North America

is wood-framed construction. Typical construction steps for a single-family

or small multi-family house are: Obtain an engineered soil test of lot where

construction is planned Develop floor plans and obtain a materials list for

estimations (more recently performed with estimating software) Obtain

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structural engineered plans for foundation (soil test report obtained earlier

will be used by engineer to design foundation), floor plan, floor (if two

story). Obtain lot survey Obtain government building approval if necessary

If required obtain approval from HOA (homeowners association) or ARC

(architectural review committee) Clear the building site (demolition of

existing home if necessary) Survey to stake out for the foundation Excavate

the foundation and dig footers (Scope of work is dependent of foundation

designed by engineer) Install plumbing grounds Pour a foundation and

footers with concrete Build the main load-bearing structure out of thick

pieces of wood and possibly metal I beams for large spans with few

supports. See framing (construction) Add floor and ceiling joists and install

subfloor panels Cover outer walls and roof in OSB or plywood and a water-

resistive barrier. Install roof shingles or other covering for flat roof Cover the

walls with siding, typically vinyl , wood, or brick veneer but possibly stone or

other materials Install windows Frame interior walls with wooden 2x4sAdd

internal plumbing , HVAC , electrical , and natural gas utilities Building

inspector visits if necessary to approve utilities and framing Install

insulation and interior drywall panels (cement board for wet areas) and to

complete walls and ceilings Install bathroom fixtures Spackle , prime, and

paint interior walls and ceilings Abrahamsen. (2006)

Additional tiling on top of cement board for wet areas, such as the

bathroom and kitchen backsplash Install final floor covering, such as floor

tile, carpet, or wood flooring Install major appliances Unless the original

owners are building the house, at this point it is typically sold or rented.

New construction techniques and sustainability As efficiency codes have

come into effect in recent years, new construction technologies and

methods have emerged. University Construction Management departments

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are on the cutting edge of the newest methods of construction intended to

improve efficiency, performance and reduce construction waste. New

techniques of building construction are being researched, made possible by

advances in 3D printing technology. In a form of additive building

construction, similar to the additive manufacturing techniques for

manufactured parts, building printing is making it possible to flexibly

construct small commercial buildings and private habitations in around 20

hours, with built-in plumbing and electrical facilities, in one continuous

build, using large 3D printers. Working versions of 3D-printing building

technology are already printing 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) of building material per

hour as of January 2013, with the next-generation printers capable of 3.5

metres (11 ft) per hour, sufficient to complete a building in a week. Dutch

architect Janjaap Ruijssenaars's performative architecture 3D- printed

building was scheduled to be built in 2014. In the current trend of

sustainable construction, the recent movements of New Urbanism and New

Classical Architecture promote a sustainable approach towards

construction that appreciates and develops smart growth, architectural

tradition and classical design. This is in contrast to modernist and short-

lived globally uniform architecture, as well as opposing solitary housing

estates and suburban sprawl. Both trends started in the 1980.Wood is

being introduced as a realistic material for skyscrapers (nicknamed "ply

scrapers") thanks to new developments in super-strong engineered timber,

whose collective name is "mass timber" and includes cross-laminated

timber

Construction sites is a work hazardous land based job. Some

construction site jobs include: building houses, roads, tree forts, workplaces

and repair and maintain infrastructures. This work includes many

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hazardous task and conditions such as working with height, excavation,

noise, dust, power tools and equipment. The most common fatalities are

caused by the fatal four: falls, being struck by an object, electrocutions, and

being caught in between two objects. Construction work has been

increasing in developing and undeveloped countries over the past few

years. With an increase in this type of work occupational fatalities have

increased. Occupational fatalities are individuals who die while on the job

or performing work related tasks. Within the field of construction it is

important to have safe construction sites.

Construction fatality rates in 2014, the United States had 4,679 fatal

occupational injuries, an incidence rate of 3.3 per 100,000 full-time

employed workers. In the same year, fatal work injuries in construction and

extraction occupations increased 5%. One in five deaths of workers in 2014

were construction related. Construction has about 6% of U.S. workers, but

17% of the fatalities - the largest number of fatalities reported for any

industry sector. In the United Kingdom, the construction industry is

responsible for 31% of fatalities at work and 10% of major workplace

injuries. In South Africa there are 150 fatalities and approximately 400

injuries each year related to construction sites. In Brazil, the incidence rate

for all occupational fatalities is 3.6 per 100,000. (Little to no information

regarding construction fatalities could be found in Asia, South American,

Africa, and the Antarctic.) The chart below contains more countries and the

rate of construction site fatalities. Various workplace safety signs commonly

used at construction sites and industrial work environments the leading

safety hazards on construction sites include falls, being caught between

objects, electrocutions, and being struck by objects. These hazards have

caused injuries and deaths on construction sites throughout the world.

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Failures in hazard identification are often due to limited or improper training

and supervision of workers. Areas where there is limited training include

tasks in design for safety, safety inspection, and monitoring safety. Failure

in any of these areas can result in an increased risk in exposing workers to

harm in the construction environment. Falls are the leading cause of injury

in the construction industry, in particularly for elder and untrained

construction workers. In the Occupational Safety and Health Administration

(OSHA) Handbook (29 CFR) used by the United States, fall protection is

needed in areas including but not limited to ramps, runways, and other

walkways; excavations; hoist areas; holes; form-work; leading edge work;

unprotected sides and edges; overhand bricklaying and related work;

roofing; precast erection; wall openings; floor openings such as holes;

residential construction; and other walking/working surfaces. Other

countries have regulations and guidelines for fall protections to prevent

injuries and deaths. Motor vehicle crashes are another major safety hazard

on construction sites. It is important to be cautious while operating motor

vehicles or equipment on the site. A motor vehicle should have a service

brake system, emergency brake system, and a parking brake system. All

vehicles must be equipped with an audible warning system if the operator

chooses to use it. Vehicles must have windows and doors, power

windshield wipers, and a clear view of site from the rear window. All

employees should be properly trained before using motor vehicles and

equipment.

Employees on construction sites also need to be aware of dangers on

the ground. Cables running across roadways were often seen until cable

ramp equipment was invented to protect hoses and other equipment which

had to be laid out. Other hazards found on construction site include

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asbestos, solvents, noise, and manual handling activities. Temporary

fencing on a building site in Sydney, Australia Education and safety

Construction workers need to be properly trained and educated on the task

or job before working, which will assist in preventing injuries and deaths.

There are many methods of training construction workers. One method is

coaching construction site foremen to include safety in their daily verbal

exchanges with workers to reduce work-related accidents. It is important

that the workers use the same language to assure the best communication.

In recent years, apart from traditional face to face safety knowledge

sharing, mobile apps also make knowledge sharing possible.

Another method is ensuring that all workers know how to properly use

electronics, conveyors, skid-steer, trucks, aerial lifts, and other equipment

on the construction site. Equipment on the job site must be properly

maintained and inspected regularly before and after each shift. The

equipment inspection system will help the operator make sure that a

machine is mechanically sound and in safe operating conditions. An

employee should be assigned to inspect equipment to insure proper safety.

Equipment should have lights and reflectors if intended for night use. The

glass in the cab of the equipment must be safety glass in some countries.

The equipment must be used for its intended taskat all times on the job site

to insure workers' safety. Each construction site should have a construction

site manager. This is an occupational health and safety specialist who

designs and implements safety regulations to minimize injuries and

accidents. He or she also is in charge of conducting daily safety audits and

inspections to ensure compliance with government regulations. Most

construction site managers have an entry level experience or higher

degree. Before any excavation takes place, the contractor is responsible for

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notifying all applicable companies that excavation work is being performed.

During excavation, the contractor is responsible for providing a safe work

environment for employees and pedestrians. Access and egress are also

important parts of excavation safety. Ramps used by equipment must be

designed by a person qualified in structural design. No person is allowed to

cross underneath or stand underneath any loading or digging equipment.

Employees are to remain at a safe distance from all equipment while it is

operational. Employees who have training and education in the above

areas will benefit their co-workers and themselves on the construction site.

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 created over

12,600 road construction projects, over 10,000 of which are currently in

progress. Workers in highway work zones are exposed to a variety of

hazards and face risk of injury and death from construction equipment as

well as passing motor vehicles. Workers on foot are exposed to passing

traffic, often at high speeds, while workers who operate construction

vehicles are at risk of injury due to overturn, collision, or being caught in

running equipment. Regardless of the task assigned, construction workers

work in conditions in poor lighting, poor visibility, inclement weather,

congested work areas, high volume traffic and speeds. In 2011, there were

a total of 119 fatal occupation fatalities in road construction sites. In 2010

there were 37,476 injuries in work zones; about 20,000 of those were to

constructionworkers. Causes of road work site injuries included being

struck by objects, trucks or mobile equipment (35%), falls or slips (20%),

overexertion (15%), transportation incidents (12%), and exposure to

harmful substances or environments (5%). Causes of fatalities included

getting hit by trucks (58%), mobile machinery (22%), and automobiles

(13%).

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Media safety campaigns Road construction safety remains a priority

among workers. Several states have implemented campaigns addressing

construction zone dangers and encouraging motorists to use caution when

driving through work zones. National Work Zone Safety Awareness Week

is held yearly. The national event began in 1999 and has gained popularity

and media attention each year since. The purpose of the event is to draw

national attention to motorist and worker safety issues in work zones.

Preventing accidents and improving safety

In most workplaces, accidents are a nuisance to the worker and a in

construction site, accidents have the potential to be life threatening. With

every new story about environmental disasters, earth-shattering

explosions, and trapped laborers, construction sites become less and less

appealing — even the population grows and demands new, update

structures increases. Building construction is regarded as one of the most

dangerous professions, construction work on the job site can be considered

anything but entirely safe. Obviously, the employers do need to mitigate

safety hazards to construction workers, but t workers need to keep in mind

a lot of precautions themselves when working in such hazardous

conditions. Thus, construction industry leaders must strive to safeguard

their employees — if not for the ethical reasons, then for the economic

ones. Here are eight ways construction businesses reduce workplace

accidents.

Before any worker no matter his or her role experience level can set

foot on a construction site, he or she must be fully cognizant of the possible

hazards. Ignorant workers are perhaps the biggest dangers in any industry,

as their unknowing mistakes put everyone else at risk Understanding of

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perils at hand and sustaining perpetual state of alertness is perhaps the

number-one best way to prevent accidents, OSHA Safety Check Lists.

Though most of a construction worker’s skills can be gained on the

job, safety is one skill s that is best learned before works enter the

construction site. The Occupational Safety a Health Administration (OSHA)

and other organizations publish some resources to help businesses train

their new laborers on standard safety and security practices, including

pamphlets, worksheets, training videos, and e on-site training opportunities.

Experienced workers should be expected to refresh theirknowledge of

standard safety by attending regular training sessions throughout the year.

Accidents are more likely to occur when work are unsure what to

expect. Direct communication regarding the day’s goals and activities will

cut down on surprises that could cause bodily harm. Construction firms

would wise to equip workers with devices, like smart phones or headsets,

which allow fast a efficient communication among team member.

There are some legal hoops most construction companies must jump

through to begin building and it is essential that all proper registration and

licenses are earned before work begins. Supervisors and contractors who

will be char with particularly difficult tasks, like blasting, certainly should

provide evidence of their certification well in advance of their employ on the

job site. Not only does this prevent accidents due to improper training, but it

protects the construction firm from legal action and public scrutiny. Also,

documenting all work the field using cloud and mobile technology I making

it easier than ever before to mitigate future lawsuits.

Construction workers equipped with improper gear are bound to

make fatal errors. Not only should each piece of equipment on the job is be

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ideally suited to the task at hand, but construction firms must make certain

that all machinery and material are well maintained. Construction

companies must also consider equipment that doesn’t directly contribute to

construction project. Workers should have supply of water on-site as well

as a shady place to prevent dehydration and exposure-related illnesses.

Longer construction projects may e benefit from fabric structures to store

equip and cover incomplete sites.

Ideally, construction workers would fully understand the ramifications

of inadequate safety precautions and thus act in a manner ensure site-wide

well-being but this is not perfect world. Every site must have a strong

supervisor who is willing and capable of enforcing safety standards with no

exception this foreman must keep tabs on all employees throughout the

day and correct those who fail commit to proper safety procedures.

The accident rate would be even higher than today if it were not for

construction firms will to devote extra resources to keep their employees

safe. The development of new practices that will enhance security should

always be encouraged, and companies should avoid speaking against

legislation aimed at improving safety protocols. Perhaps with enough

innovation, all construction sites can be 100percent accident-free.

The worst thing any construction firm can do its reputation is attempting a

cover-up. Hidin accidents from the press and the public not lowers the

opinion of a single endeavor it paints the building industry as a whole in a

negative light. Ultimately, people understand accidents happen, and as

long as contractors doing their best to foster a safe environment their

workers, any accidents that do occur will only contribute to the growing

need to augm modern safety techniques. Transparency, also with the other

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seven practices on this list, will help construction as a whole become a

safer industry in which to work.

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHAct) was

passed to prevent workers from being killed or seriously harmed at work.

The law requires that employers provide their employees with working

conditions that are free of known dangers. The Act created the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), which sets and

enforces protective workplace safety and health standards. OSHA also

provides information, training and assistance to workers and employers. To

help assure a safe and healthful workplace, OSHA also provides workers

with the right to: Receive information and training about hazards, methods

to prevent harm, and the OSHA standards that apply to their workplace.

The training must be in a language you can understand; Observe testing

that is done to find hazards in the workplace and get test results; Review

records of work-related injuries and illnesses ; Get copies of their medical

records; Request OSHA to inspect their workplace; and Use their rights

under the law free from retaliation and discrimination.

Employers have the responsibility to provide a safe workplace.

Employers MUST provide their employees with a workplace that does not

have serious hazards and follow all OSHA safety and health standards.

Employers must find and correct safety and health problems. OSHA further

requires that employers have to try to eliminate or reduce hazards first by

making changes in working conditions rather than just relying on masks,

gloves, ear plugs or other types of personal protective equipment (ppe).

Switching to safer chemicals, enclosing processes to trap harmful fumes, or

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using ventilation systems to clean the air are examples of effective ways to

get rid of or minimize risks.

Employers must also inform employees about hazards through

training, labels, alarms, color-coded systems, chemical information sheets

and other methods. Keep accurate records of work-related injuries and

illnesses. Perform tests in the workplace, such as air sampling required by

some OSHA standards. Provide hearing exams or other medical tests

required by OSHA standards. Post OSHA citations, injury and illness data,

and the OSHA poster in the workplace where workers will see them. Notify

OSHA within 8 hours of a workplace incident in which there is a death or

three or more workers go to a hospital. Not discriminate or retaliate against

an employee for using their rights under the law. (Source: OSHA)

Scaffolding, also called scaffold or staging, is a temporary structure

used to support a work crew and materials to aid in the construction,

maintenance and repair of buildings, bridges and all other manmade

structures. Scaffolds are widely used on site to get access to heights and

areas that would be otherwise hard to get to. Unsafe scaffolding has the

potential to result in death or serious injury. Scaffolding is also used in

adapted forms for formwork and shoring, grandstand seating, concert

stages, access/ viewing towers, exhibition stands, ski ramps, half pipes and

art projects. There are five main types of scaffolding used worldwide today.

These are Tube and Coupler (fitting) components, prefabricated modular

system scaffold components, H-frame /facade modular system scaffolds,

timber scaffolds and bamboo scaffolds (particularly in China). Each type is

made from several components which often include: A base jack or plate

which is a load-bearing base for the scaffold. The standard, the upright

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component with connector joins. The ledger, a horizontal brace, the

transom, a horizontal cross-section load-bearing component which holds

the batten, board, or decking unit. Brace diagonal and/or cross section

bracing component. Batten or board decking component used to make the

working platform. Coupler, a fitting used to join components together.

Scaffold tie, used to tie in the scaffold to structures. Brackets, used to

extend the width of working platforms. Specialized components used to aid

in their use as a temporary structure often include heavy duty load bearing

transoms, ladders or stairway units for the ingress and egress of the

scaffold, beams ladder/unit types used to span obstacles and rubbish

chutes used to remove unwanted materials from the scaffold or

construction project.

The widespread use of scaffolding systems, along with the profound

importance that they earned in modern applications such as civil

engineering projects and temporary structures, led to the definition of a

series of standards covering a vast number of specific issues involving

scaffolding. Among the standards there are: DIN 4420, a DIN standard

divided in 5 parts which covers the design and detail of scaffolds, ladder

scaffolds, safety requirements and standard types, materials, components,

dimensions and load bearing capacity.

In the field of architecture and civil engineering, building construction

is a process that consists of the building or assembling of infrastructures.

Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or

construction of buildings. Often, the owner of the property acts as labourer,

paymaster, and design team for the entire project. Akintobi (2006) states

that although building construction projects typically include various

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common elements, such as design, financing, estimating and legal

considerations. For this reason, those with experience in the field make

detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a

positive outcome. Commercial building construction is procured privately or

publicly utilizing various delivery methodologies, including cost estimating,

hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management contracting,

construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build bridging.

Building construction is defined as a process of preparing for and forming

building and building system (Onah, 2007) Therefore in general, building

construction starts with planning, design and financing and continues until

the structure is ready occupation

Building construction sites are full of dangers and as such safety laws

are required in all aspect of life endeavors. There are laws and regulations

governing construction industry and these laws are usually enforced by

building construction or labour inspectors who normally provides useful

advice to the workers at site

Wearing of good apparel in building site is very important in reducing

injury to the body such as hands, skin and eye infection. According to Alaka

(2007) open wounds, abrasion, fractures, dislocations, strains, amputations

can be handling techniques using protective gloves and gantlets. Also

adopting a property constructed scaffolds Agomuo (2009) identified

employees as being one of the victims of scaffolding accidents such as falls

of persons from a high objects in the construction sites. Scaffolding,

According to Occupational Safety and Health, Administration OSHA (2009)

is a temporary structure supporting one or more platforms and which is

used either as a work place or for storage of materials in the course of any

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type of construction work which includes maintenance and demolition of

work Scaffolding requires good quality materials which could be of steel,

aluminum, wood and bamboo. Therefore whatever the materials is made

of, it should be of adequate strength to support the weight and stress of

imposed loads workers will place upon it.

Handling of working equipment in building construction sites requires

that employers and employees should follow all safety practice such as

operating equipment correctly, lifting heavy items correctly in order to avert

accident in the construction site. Many accidents in the construction

industry could be avoided if adequate precautions and safe working

techniques or methods of handling equipment are adopted. Materials on

building site must be handled with care. A lot of hazards emanates as a

result of improper handling of building materials especially when mixing wet

cement which causes skin infection when contacted with the body. Hands

are extremely vulnerable to accidental injury. Handling of building materials

is crucial when referring to safety of workers.

Supervisors and workers play a vital role when it comes to safety at

the building site. It is the duty of the supervisors to oversee the entire work

done by workers at site, making sure that works are handled according to

schedule and specification. Poor workmanship by the workers contributes

to the problems of building failures resulting to injuries and death at the

construction sites.

Building construction sites are full of dangers and as such safety

consciousness and adherence to safety laws are required in all aspect of

life endeavors and specifically in the training process, and industrial

operations. Building construction site according to Hinz (2007) is an

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environment where all industrial, commercial and residential building is

constructed and the projects could be secretariat, hospital, commercial or

residential buildings or stadium.

Building construction according to Akintobi (2008) is the process of

adding structure to real property. Hinze (2007) stated that construction is a

very hazardous industry, therefore each year a lot of workers (both the

skilled and unskilled) lose their lives, and more are maimed and injured on

construction site. As a result of attendant loss generated on frequent

accident occurrence on site, which has resulted to loss of life, money, time

and company reputations. Safety of workers on construction site must be of

paramount importance to any construction company that wants to continue

to operate.

However, the importance of safety as a cost controlling measure is

often overlooked by owners and contractors. As a means of reducing the

risks associated with building construction, safety can significantly impact

on the overall cost. A dedicated commitment to safety by both the owner

and contractor helps to ensure project success.

Paulson (2009) explained that safety is a field of study that includes

minimization, elimination of hazardous or unexpected incidents from

occurring.

Safety strategy can be explained as a factor that provide and create

awareness of safety measures needed in the building construction. The

human factor is not restricted to employees alone but also to employers

which include: the attitude, the quality of supervision and the skill or training

that regulate the workers actions on the job.

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Safety is a concept that has attracted the attention and interest of mankind.

Therefore safety has various interpretations from different people. Oranu

(2008) defined safety as the right way of doing things. Nwabueze (2007)

pointed out that safety is freedom from injury or hazardous events, while

Peter (2005) defined safety as those activities that seek to minimize or

eliminate hazardous conditions that can cause body injury. Paulson (2009)

stated that safety is a subject to which most people are quite willing to pay

lip service, but to which a few are willing to do something about.

According to horn by (2006) safety is freedom from danger and this

conforms to Oranu’s(2008) and Nwabueze’s (2007) idea about safety as

freedom from injury or harzardous events. Generally, safety implies

attempts consciously made towards the avoidance of such situation that

can cause the disruption of operations by damaging machines as well as

hurting people. The high level of technology applied in the machines and

processes used required that precautions must be taken to protect the

workers on site. Workers on site should embrace the safety training

programmes as this will reduce the rate of accident on site, and it will

enhance their performance. Regular safety meeting for the entire workers

at least once a month is vital so as to create awareness on safety

consciousness. Also safety budgets are required in terms of purchasing

safety equipment to all the employers and employees. Workers should be

educated on the importance of protective equipment for their own safety.

Inspection on site is very crucial and safety of workers depends largely on

the inspection carried out during the construction stage by the construction

firms.

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Other safety measures are reliable contractor screening, pre-

construction meetings, and safety review and fire protection programmes.

Strategies for improving safety practices in building construction sites

requires that every contractor who employs more than 20 persons (not

necessarily on one site) to appoint in writing a suitable qualified and

experienced person to advise on safety matters, to supervise the safety

arrangements, and to promote the safe conduct of workers. Supervision on

site is paramount when handling materials on site. How

employers/employees mix cement, cut wood and poor construction of

ladders, account to site accident and building collapse. Therefore, it is the

supervisor who undertakes accidents investigation and reporting,

dissemination of safety information on sites. For example falls in

construction sites account for accidents on site. This is followed by injuries

due to mishandling, striking against objects, being struck by falling objects,

and encounter with hand tools, machinery and transport.

Nash (2008) found out that the major causes were fall 27 percent,

handling materials 26 percent, striking against an object 11 percent, being

struck by falling object 8 percent, machinery 8 percent, hand-tools 8

percent, transport 6 percent, others 6 percent. In order to check the

incidence of falls on sites, a well designed scaffold, equipped with statutory

safeguards can be used with comfort and a high level of safety. In the case

of ladders, it should be secured to the wall with bolts Cast into them during

fabrication.

Another aspect of building work that is associated with fall is floor

construction and dismantling of form-work from floors in storey buildings.

Great attention should be paid to the dismantling of form-work as well as

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assigning more workers for such purposes because of dangers on such

tasks. For taller storey buildings, cranes and other hoisting equipment

should be used to convey goods or workers. The safe use of cranes

depends on firm and accurate base fitting. The mounting of this equipment

should be done with strict adherence to the rules which makes them

reliable. A worker should be assigned the duty of directing the crane and

stopping others from venturing into the crane's operation area. In other

words, daily clean up of site and packing of debris, wood, blocks, concrete

and nails, will reduce the incidence of striking against an object on site. The

provision of road or pathway would also act as succor in this direction.

Foundation trenches soak away and cesspool pits are dangerous to

workers if dug in soil rather than rock because it is susceptible to

collapsing.

The wood-work industry is one of the construction units that are

accident prone and to avert such occurrences having a sound knowledge

of the right way to do job, and using the correct tools and machines will

reduce accident to a minimal level. According to Akintobi (2006) any act by

someone without due regards for his own safety and that of others is

described as an act capable of creating an unsafe situation or condition. In

the same vein, according to construction industry training Board (C.I.T.B,

2007) workers' health, safety and welfare at work are protected by law.

Otherwise known as safety laws. Employers have a duty to protect and to

keep workers free from injury through enlightenment and training on safety

consciousness. Hinze and Ganbatese (2008) stated that the concept of

safety as applicable to building construction site is an act of including the

necessity of taking precautions for the avoidance of accidents in order to

protect lives and properties. Strategies for improving safety practices on

23

building site according to Ganbatese (2008) include incorporating safety in

the design of project; ensure accident free on construction site. In the same

vein, Nwachukwu (2007) reported that workers on building sites should

embrace the safety training programmes as this will reduce accidents and

enhance workers performance. Hecker (2009) reported that best practice

sampling (BPS) was developed as crew-driven performance management

approach for safety onconstruction sites. Further Geller (2008) noted that

full employee participation is required in a team building manner. It is

important that safety is seen by employees to be part of their professional

competency and that it is rewarded with positive feedback and

encouragement by peers and management.

Motivation of workers is one of the strategies for improving safety in

building construction firms through the use of rewards and incentives to

workers who performed well in adhering to safety rules and practice (safety

codes) set by the construction industry. Those on building sites cannot

achieve the much desired safety habits unless they are taught and trained.

Elobuike (1999) described trained workers as those who work

cooperatively with their colleagues as well as willingly accepted safety

practices. The employers owe the biggest responsibility of security and

must ensure building site safety so that risk for injuries at the building site

can be reduced. Another important strategy for improving safety on site is

in teaching of safety through awareness campaign. Employers should be

made an integral part of the programme. This is because of the fact that

workers have to deal with a perilous nature of work including defective

scaffolding, falls from roof tops, broken and defective safety harnesses,

crane accidents etc. as a result workers come face to face with serious

injuries that may either lead to permanent incapacitation or even death.

24

Against this backdrop, the researcher felt the need to embark on this study:

strategies for improving safety practices in building construction sites in

PLACE State.

Statement of the Problem

Safety in building construction sites in PLACE State appeared not to have

been given adequate attention, and that necessitated the researcher to

look into the strategies for improving safety practices in building site. The

problem of this study centered on reported cases of falls striking against

objects and handling of materials, handling of equipment etc ,at some

constructing sites in the states, and that is a big worry knowing fully that

accidents don't just happen. They are usually caused by defective

construction projects and which may be caused by contractor handling the

work on site.

According to Okorie (2001) all the accidents that occur in building

sites can be traced to two major factors: human factor and work

environment factor. Human factor refers to the physical health,

psychological or personality traits and unsafe acts of the worker.The

human factor is not restricted to employees alone but includes: the attitude

of management (employers) regarding safety in a company's operations,

the quality of supervision that the workers receive, the skills or training that

regulate the workers action on the job, the workers attitude towards his

employers, and employer-employees relation policies and practices.

Explaining further on work environmental factor Okorie (2001) stated

that a working environment which is unsafe is a threat to the life of a worker

and a liability to every employer in the building industry. The nature of the

construction and type of construction, the grade level and other factors

25

determine the specific kind of safety regulation that is necessary. The

extent of contribution made by safety laws adherence, putting on proper

apparel, properly constructed scaffolding and other safety practices which

contribute immensely to the overall safety in building sites are however left

out in most of earlier researches. It is based on this fact that this research

on strategies for improving safety practices in building construction sites in

PLACE State tries to address the safety challenges through these

practices.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study is to determine the strategies for improving safety

practices in building construction sites in PLACE State, Specifically the

study intends to

- determine the extent to which laws guiding the safety of building

construction will improve safety practices in building

construction site in PLACE State,

- Determine the extent, to which the wearing of good working apparels will

improve safety practices of worker in building construction sites in PLACE

State,

- Determine the extent, to which properly constructed scaffold will improve

safety of workers in building construction site in PLACE State,

- Determine the extent to which correct handling of working

equipment will improve safety practices of workers in building construction

sites in PLACE State

– Determine the extent to which properly handling of building materials will

improve safety practices of workers in construction sites in PLACE State.

Significance of the Study

26

The following will benefit the findings of the study are implemented

are many. It is expected that different people and organizations such as

building construction companies, industries, students, teachers in technical

institutions, National Board for Technical Education (NBTE), research

students and the general public would benefit from the findings of this

study. The general public will benefit from the findings when there is

functional government policy and law on safety measures in construction

work, that is, safety act are duly followed and implemented by building

construction firms. In the same vein, National Board for Technical

Education (NBTE) will know from the findings what is really obtainable in

the constructions sites before accreditation of course in our tertiary

institutions and technical colleges because safety consciousness is vital in

all human endeavours.

The benefit of students, through the Construction Engineering and

Management faculty maintains strong ties to industry and to Illinois alumni

working on high- profile projects around the world. Students benefit from

this real-world perspective through opportunities for construction site visits,

internships and participation in research with immediate application, and

opportunities for entrepreneurship. Information technology tools, and

specifically Building Information Modeling (BIM), are of particular value to

the construction practitioners for planning, scheduling, fiscal control,

inventory, estimating and production rate forecasting. The Construction

Engineering and Management faculty includes world-class experts in

creating cutting-edge theories, methods and tools, and also devising

workflows on their use for greater efficiency and better collaboration during

construction projects. A unique feature of this area is the Global Leaders in

Construction Management program, a graduate degree program designed

27

to develop tomorrow’s industry leaders through rigorous study and

international experience.

The benefit of industries and companies, ONE of the biggest challenges

for any construction company is in estimating cost of construction, which in

turn helps it in containing overheads and expenses. Since the projects are

usually spread over many years, aligning the projected cost with the actual

cost becomes difficult. The challenge becomes manifold given that most

companies deal with large project and huge volumes. For example, one of

the major construction companies in India was also facing the same

challenge. For this company, at any given time there would be at least 50-

60 construction projects running concurrently. The departments were

maintaining the data in different files using different Excel charts. The

accounts department was maintaining a separate software package but

materials and purchase was not linked to these. Moreover, much of this

data was lying in site offices, which was not connected to the head office.

Whenever there was an enquiry, each department would have to pull out

the information and consolidate it for the report.

The entire process of collecting and collating information from various

departments was being done manually. This not only slowed down the

decision-making process but also create power centers within the

company. This made it very difficult to do real-time cost estimation of

different projects. eresource implemented an effective ERP system within a

short period after the company approached with the demand for a suitable

ERP solution which would connect all functions and projects to a centrally

maintained database system. In the first phase e resource implemented

several modules such as financial, material management, marketing,

28

project planning and control and so on. The solution was customized to

meet the needs of a large construction company. For instance there is a

module on the bill of quality that helps in project cost estimation, by

breaking down each project into activities. Each activity is then broken

down into till of materials of material, labour and equipment. Another

module helps in material requirement planning on the basis of the work

projection of a particular month/week. The marketing module enables the

company to send information to all its customers from its database

whenever they launched a new project. The module also helped the

company track all the pre-sale and sale activity, right from the time a

customer posts a query to the closure of the sale. The module helps to take

care of the company's all marketing. It has made the planning and

forecasting of demand extremely easy. It also creates ripple effects in the

company where all departments like purchase, materials and stores now

get aligned with the forecasts.

How it can benefit a teacher through a Table of Specifications is a two-

way chart which describes the topics to be covered by a test and the

number of items or points which will be associated with each topic.

Sometimes the types of items are described, as well.

The purpose of a Table of Specifications is to identify the achievement

domains being measured and to ensure that a fair and representative

sample of questions appear on the test. Teachers cannot measure every

topic or objective and cannot ask every question they might wish to ask. A

Table of Specifications allows the teacher to construct a test which focuses

on the key areas and weights those different areas based on their

importance. A Table of Specifications provides the teacher with evidence

29

that a test has content validity, that it covers what should be covered.

Designing a Table of Specifications Tables of Specification typically are

designed based on the list of course objectives, the topics covered in class,

the amount of time spent on those topics, textbook chapter topics, and the

emphasis and space provided in the text. In some cases a great weight will

be assigned to a concept that is extremely important, even if relatively little

class time was spent on the topic. Three steps are involved in creating a

Table of Specifications: 1) choosing the measurement goals and domain to

be covered, 2) breaking the domain into key or fairly independent parts-

concepts, terms, procedures, applications, and 3) constructing the table.

Teachers have already made decisions (or the district has decided for

them) about the broad areas that should be taught, so the choice of what

broad domains a test should cover has usually already been made. A bit

trickier is to outline the subject matter into smaller components, but most

teachers have already had to design teaching plans, strategies, and

schedules based on an outline of content. Lists of classroom objectives,

district curriculum guidelines, and textbook sections, and keywords are

other commonly used sources for identifying categories for Tables of

Specification. When actually constructing the table, teachers may only wish

to use a simple structure, as with the first example above, or they may be

interested in greater detail about the types of items, the cognitive levels for

items, the best mix of objectively scored items, open-ended and

constructed-response items, and so on, with even more guidance than is

provided in the second example.

In addition, the ultimate goals of every construction industry is to

maximize profit after execution of projects, the findings will concern itself

with strategies for improvement of safety facilities, organizing workshops

30

and seminars for its workers as vital tool for enhancing safety at the

construction sites.

Scope of the Study

The study specifically intends to limit itself to finding safety laws for safety

improvement, wearing of good working apparels for safety improvement,

use of properly constructed scaffolds for safety improvement, correct

handling of equipments, and proper handling of building materials for safety

improvement.

Research Question

The following research questions will guide the study;

To what extent do safety laws improve safety practice of workers in

building construction site in PLACE State?

To what extent does wearing of good apparel improve safety practice

of workers in building construction site in PLACE State?

To what extent does use of properly constructed scaffolding improve

the safety of workers in building construction sites in PLACE State?

To what extent does the correct handling of working equipment

improve safety practice of workers in building construction sites In PLACE

State?

To what extent does proper handling of building materials

Improves safety practices in construction sites in PLACE State?

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of

Significance

31

HO 1: There is no significant difference between the

mean Responses of supervisors and workers on whether /how the

observation of Safety laws in improving the safety practices of workers in

building construction site PLACE State.

H02: There is no significant difference between the mean responses

of supervisors and workers on how the wearing of correct working apparels

improve safety practices of workers in building construction sites in PLACE

State.

H03: There is no significant difference between the mean responses

of supervisors and workers on how the use of properly constructed

scaffolds improve the safety of workers in building construction sites in

PLACE State.

H04: A significant difference does not exist between the mean

responses of supervisor and workers on how the correct handling of

working equipment improve safety practices on handling of building

materials improve safety practice in building construction sites in PLACE

State.

H05: There is no significant difference between the mean responses

of supervisors and workers on how the correct handling of building

materials' improve safety practice in building construction sites in PLACE

State.

32