Chapter 2: American Experiments

I. Spain’s Tribute Colonies

A. The Spanish Empire and demographic catastrophe

1. By late sixteenth century, Spanish empires had emerged as system of direct colonial rule in Mexico and Peru2. Spanish took over and used existing systems of tribute 3. Utilized encomienda labor system that allowed for forced labor of an entire Indian district for a stated period of time4. Worked because it resembled the way the Aztecs and Incas had levied labor for their own public building and irrigation projects5. Eventually, tribute labor limited to projects that the Spanish Crown initiated6. Settlers adjusted by claiming land rather than labor7. Franciscan missionaries reacted harshly to religious lapses among Indians8. Spaniards brought deadly microbes with them that decimated native populations9. Any given region in Western Hemisphere probably lost 90 to 95 percent of its population within a century of sustained contact with Europeans10. Spain eventually established centralized administration over the Americas11. Council of the Indies administered the three viceroyalties of New Spain, Peru, and eventually New Granada12. Viceroyalties divided into smaller audiencias, executive and judicial jurisdictions supervised by viceroys

B. Columbian Exchange

1. American silver made the king of Spain the most powerful monarch in Christendom2. In 1580, Philip II claimed throne of Portugal3. United under his control Portugal’s Asian empire, Brazil, Spain’s American possessions, and the Philippines4. Empire sustained world’s first global economy, as Portuguese used Spain’s American silver to pay for silks and spices imported from Asia5. In 1640s, Portugal revolted and regained its independence

6. Great wealth extracted from empire, but maintaining and protecting it was costly

7. The Columbian Exchange was a vast intercontinental movement of plants, animals, and diseases that changed the course of historical development in the Americas, Europe, and Africa.

8. While there were many positive exchanges from the European standpoint, for the most part it was negative for Native American Indians and enslaved Africans.

C. Explanations: Patterns of Conquest, Submission, and Resistance

1. Early eighteenth-century thinking

a. Many believed that conquest of Americas had been a moral outrageb. Benefits of empire seemed small when compared to human costsc. Such ideas were quieted after success of American Revolution but have recently been revived

2. Modern historians searching for “why” explanations

a. Technological isolation of New World gave Europeans advantagesb. Biological consequences of isolation of Americas even more important

1. Devastation European microbes inflicted on Indian population is greatest tragedy in the history of mankind2. Indians died in appalling numbers after the Europeans arrived because they had almost no resistance to European diseases

3. European plants thrived at expense of native vegetation4. So did European animals5. Overall “Columbian exchange” ranks as one of the most important events of all time

D. The Protestant Reformation & challenge to Spain

1. Catholic Spain did its best to crush the Reformation2. The ideas of John Calvin influenced the founding of overseas European colonies.3. The Puritans brought Calvinist ideas to North America.4. The religious struggle to determine whether one had been saved (or not) was central to Puritanism .

E. European religious wars

1. France, the Netherlands, and England challenged Spanish power in Europe2. The Dutch rebellion, under the Spanish, resulted in creation of the Netherlands

F. The Challenge from the English Reformation

1. England was rapidly becoming a Protestant kingdom by time interest in America revived during reign of Elizabeth I.2. The Church of England under Elizabeth was an odd compromise.

a. It was Calvinist in doctrine and theologyb. But, it was also largely Catholic in structure, liturgy, and ritual

3. The Puritans demanded removal of all vestiges of Catholicism and wanted to reform and purify the Church of England from within.4. Separatists denied that the Church of England was the true church and began to establish independent congregations of their own.

G. Hawkins and Drake

1. Sir John Hawkins made three journeys to New Spain between 1562 and 15692. He became an importer of slaves but earned anger of local authorities.3. Francis Drake circumnavigated globe between 1577 and 1580 in order to escape Spanish prosecution for plundering Spanish possessions in Peru 4. After 1600, mass internal migration fueled overseas settlement

H. Gilbert, Ireland, and America (Read)

1. By 1560s, the idea of permanent colonization intrigued many Englishmen.2. Ireland served as model for those who talked of North American colonization.3. Interestingly, the English formed their preconceptions about American Indians largely from contact with the Irish.4. For 80 years after 1560, Northern Ireland attracted more English settlers than all American and Caribbean colonies combined.5. Only after 1641, when Irish rose up and killed thousands of English settlers, did Western Hemisphere replace Ireland as preferred site for English colonization.

I. Raleigh, Roanoke, and war with Spain

1. Sir Walter Raleigh tried twice to establish a colony in North America. (Including Roanoke in the 1585 “Lost Colony”)2. Neither effort was successful.3. English exploits in North America helped to touch off war between England and Spain that lasted until 1604.4. Beginning in the 1590s, England became increasingly involved in American affairs by launching privateering fleets against Spain.5. The marriage of London capital to West Country experience would permit Virginia to succeed where earlier settlements had failed.

II. Plantation Colonies

A. Brazil

1. Portuguese invasion led to displacement or enslavement of native societies2. Frontiersmen (bandeirantes) began heading into interior for slaves for coastal sugar plantations3. In time, Africans replaced Indians as dominant labor force4. Brazil was the major market for African slaves until 1640, when demand in West Indian sugar islands became even greater

B. The Chesapeake and West Indian Colonies

Virginia Company chartered in 1606

1. It was given authority to colonize North America between 34th and 45th parallels2. It had two headquarters one, Plymouth and London .

a. Plymouth Company

i. It had supervised most of the immigration to Ireland. ii. It raised little capital; but controlled northern portion of grantiii. It first established a failed colony at Sagadahoc on coast of Maine in 1607 .

b. London Company

i. Decided to colonize the Chesapeake Bay area.ii. They established the settlement of Jamestown in 1607iii. Settlers did not plan to work but planned to become rich quickly .

C. The Jamestown disaster

1. Only 38 of the original 104 colonists survived first year.2. John Smith tried to force settlers to farm for their own survival3. Smith did get the colonists to work, but was injured and went home in 1610 and the winter of 1610 was difficult, due to no leadership and little food stored.4. Colony engaged in war with Indians from 1609 to 16145. Martial law after 1610 helped to improve the colony’s prospects.6. Tobacco was first cultivated in 1613 and soon saved colony from ruin.

D. Reorganization, reform, and crisis in VA.

1. A new royal charter in 1609 extended Virginia’s boundaries to the Pacific.2. Third charter in 1612 made London Company a joint-stock company . 3. Company an adopted ambitious reform program for Virginia beginning in 1618. This reform program included the following:

a. Encouraged economic diversification b. English common law replaced martial lawc. Granted colonists some degree of self-government (i.e. House of Burgesses that first met in 1619).d. Settlers granted right to own land

4. Flood of immigrants arrived thereafter, straining food supply and souring relations with Indians. This included the first black African indentured servants/slaves in 1619 and two shiploads of unmarried women in 1620 & 1621. (The women helped save the colony).5. There was a new round of Indian wars in 1622 . Opechancanough’s massacre in 1622 threw the company into disarray, and Crown seized control of Virginia in 1624. (347 colonists were killed and most of the outlying settlements were destroyed).6. Also, wasteful company expenditures ensured that subsequent colonies would be organized differently.

E. Tobacco, servants, and survival

1. Population of Jamestown grew steadily between 1622 and the 1640s2. Peace with Indians was achieved in 1632, by which time all Indians had been expelled from the peninsula between the James and York Rivers below Jamestown.3. The area became secure for tobacco, and its export of financed importation of indentured servants and slaves.4. The colony needed steady flow of newcomers to survive because deaths continued to outnumber births.5. Until 1660, many former servants managed to acquire land6. Upward mobility became more difficult as tobacco prices fell after 1660.7. Colony becoming an oligarchy (i.e. rule by the few wealthiest)

F. Maryland

1. Maryland had different origins but became same kind of society as Virginia. (George Calvert, Lord Baltimore)2. It was established as proprietary colony in 1632 and became model for most other colonies thereafter. 3. First established as haven for Catholics, but most settlers were

Protestants.4. Toleration Act (1649) granted freedom of worship to all Christians.5. By 1660, the colony was raising tobacco, corn, and livestock.

G. Chesapeake Plantation Life

1. In 1620s, European men outnumbered women in Virginia by at least 5 to 1.2. The population became self-sustaining by about 1680, when live births finally began to outnumber deaths.3. Life expectancy improved, but remained much lower than in England, as well as the New England Colonies.4. Family loyalties tended to focus on other kin--on uncles, aunts, cousins, older stepbrothers and stepsisters, due to the high death rate.5. As a result, patriarchalism remained weak.

H. The West Indies and the transition to slavery (Read pp 65-68)

1. Before 1700, far more Englishmen went to the West Indies than to the Chesapeake2. They settled the Leeward Islands, Barbados, and Jamaica.3. Raised tobacco first, then sugar cane after 1645.4. Sugar became so valuable that planters imported food rather than divert land and labor from the cash crop5. Sugar required heavy investment in slaves and mills, and large planters with many slaves soon dominated the islands6. Observers were distressed at the moral climate of islands, where planters overworked and underfed slaves.7. The Islands generated enormous wealth for English empire, far more than the mainland colonies well into the eighteenth century.

I. Four types of exploration and colonies developed in the 1600s.1. Trading Company or Joint Stock Company Colony -

Hoping to find something of value to send back to the mother company, using individual investors.

(a) With the king's permission, a company was formed which often had exclusive rights of trade in a particular area or over a particular product.

(b) These company charters enabled the owners to sell stock or shares to private investors, who were hoping for dividends.

2. Covenant or Self-governing Colony - colonies created and governed by the settlers (as at Plymouth, Rhode Island and Connecticut).

3. Proprietary Colony - One individual or group was given by the crown the right to govern or to settle a specified area (as in Maryland). The government formed could be any type except that colonists had to be guaranteed basic English rights.

4. Royal Colony - remained under Crown control. For various reasons most English colonies lost their separate status and reverted to royal colonies by 1776.

III. Neo-European Colonies

A. Spanish Experiences

By 1600, the Spanish were established in their colonies in Central and South America, as well as in the Southwestern parts of North America. St. Augustine (in what is now Florida) was established as a mission and trading post by the Spanish in 1565 . New Mexico was established as a Spanish colony and mission and Sante Fe was established it’s capital by 1610. The Spanish will be in control of Florida until 1819, Texas until 1836, and New Mexico to California through 1848. The Spanish influence continues today with the language, food, and architecture being it’s most familiar lasting influences .

B. French Experiences

The French gained their claim on territory in North America through the voyages of Giovanni da Verrazano in 1524 to the east coast of North America and the exploration of Jacques Cartier between 1534 and 1543 to find a Northwest Passage around/through North America to Asia. Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River. The French mainly established trading posts for furs and missions to convert the Native American Indians to Catholic Christianity. Between 1600 and 1635, Samuel de Champlain made 11 voyages. During his 2nd voyage (1604-1606) he established a French Huguenot settlement on Acadia. On his 3 rd voyage in 1608, he founded Quebec . However, the French were never very interested in establishing permanent settlements for large scale migration. For over 150 years they established positive relationships with the Native American Indians and exploited the trade in furs and fish.

C. Dutch and Swedish influences

In the early 1600’s, Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing in the pay of the Dutch, explored the Hudson River and laid claim to that land for the Netherlands . In 1609, he founded New Amsterdam, which is modern day New York. The Dutch began to encourage settlers to move to the Hudson River Valley. They welcomed people from other countries as well and by the 1640’s over 18 different languages were spoken by the 450 inhabitants there. Some of the descendents of these original Dutch settlers would have an impact on future American history, such as, Presidents Martin Van Buren, Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Washington Irving made old Dutch folktales a part of our permanent heritage through his writings such as “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”.

In 1638, the Swedes were allowed by the Dutch to establish New Sweden and its capital, Fort Christina (Now Wilmington, Delaware). Both of these colonies were somewhat independent until the English took over in 1664. A lasting impact the Swedes had was that they brought the idea of building “log cabins” to America.

D. The New England Colonies - The Pilgrims and Plymouth

1 . Pilgrims were Separatists who left England for the Netherlands between 1607 and 16082. They became concerned that their children were growing up Dutch rather than English, so some decided to “emigrate” to North America.3. They set out for Virginia in 1620 but were “blown” off course and landed far north of Virginia.4. The settlers signed Mayflower Compact, which bound them all to obey decisions of the majority . 5. Supply shortages caused widespread hardships during first winter6. Friendly Indians helped colonists plant and harvest a good crop.7. The settlers paid off their debts to their London creditors and gained political autonomy and private ownership of their now-flourishing farms.8. They founded several new towns and sold surplus crop to other settlers during 1630s.

Covenant theology

1. Much larger Puritan exodus settled in Massachusetts Bay between 1630 and 16412. Puritans believed that God had made two covenants with humans:

a. Covenant of works promised that if men kept God’s laws they would never die. (i.e. go to heaven)b. Covenant of grace offered chance of salvation after Adam’s Fall

3. Puritans paired each personal covenant with a communal counterpart .

a. The social equivalent of covenant of grace was a church covenant , in which community promised that the Gospel would be properly preached and that discipline would be strictly maintained.b. Communal counterpart of covenant of works was national covenant , whereby New Englanders agreed to obey the law and to allow their leaders to punish sinners, so that the entire community would not be punished for the deeds of individuals .

4. Covenant became important social metaphor

5. They determined not repeat mistake of England, where government refused to accept a godly role.6. Some hoped to establish “city upon a hill” to inspire all mankind and show the world how “Godly” people ought to live .

Massachusetts Bay

1. Group of English Puritans established colony in Massachusetts Bay in 1629 . 2. New England settlers came from the broad middle range of English society.3. They founded numerous towns, each formed around a minister and a magistrate (judge/justice of the peace).4. Local congregations evolved into town meeting as settlers distinguished between religious and secular affairs.5. Conditions and prosperity improved after the first winter, just as they had at Plymouth.6. The long-term prosperity was based on exporting grain, lumber, and fish to West Indies.7. Shipbuilding eventually became a major industry8. Massachusetts Bay’s stability depended on the ability to ship food and lumber products to colonies that grew staple crops.9. However, the region’s economy came to challenge Puritan orthodoxy in several ways .

a. Few merchants or fishermen could meet religious standards of Puritan societyb. Because the colony needed these individuals, though, they had to be tolerated.c. Therefore, religious orthodoxy mostly a rural phenomenon .

Puritan family life

1. After first winter, settlers in New England enjoyed remarkably good health.2. Life expectancy far exceeded European norm3. Because people lived so long, society became intensely patriarchal4. Migration slowed to a crawl after 1645, and New England towns settled into tight communities.5. New England settlers became increasingly reluctant to admit strangers into their midst.6. They avoided slavery, (not because it was wrong), primarily to prevent outsiders from contaminating their religion.

Conversion, dissent, and expansion (Notes)

1. The long process of conversion to the Puritan church generated dissent and new colonies in New England.2. Thomas Hooker founded Connecticut in mid-1630s because he feared that Massachusetts was becoming too strict in certifying church members.3. Theophilus Eaton and John Davenport founded New Haven in 1639 because they feared Massachusetts Bay was being too lenient (easy) in admitting church members.4. Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson founded settlements that merged into Rhode Island in the 1630s and accepted both religious liberty and the separation of church and state.5. Founding of new settlements threatened neighboring Indians and led to conflicts.

Congregations, towns, and colony governments

1. Sermons became center of worship, and each congregation chose and ordained own minister2. Towns came to be distinct from congregations, and town meetings decided who got how much land, which was distributed broadly but never equally3. Patterns of political power distribution varied from town to town4. Massachusetts had bicameral legislature by 1640s5. Legal system defined in 1641 Body of Liberties, which may be history’s first bill of rights.

a. It sharply reduced number of capital offenses under English lawb. It explicitly recognized liberties of women, children, servants, foreigners, and even animals

6. New England colonies also transformed traditional English jury system.

a. They used juries to decide appeals, something that never happened in England.b. Criminal jury disappeared except for capital trials.c. Most offenders accepted their punishments, and acquittals were rare.

G. Infant baptism and new dissent

1. Children of New England founders had trouble becoming church members.2. Most never did, but later requested baptism for their children3. Their request prompted different answers from different segments of society.4. Baptists denounced idea of infant baptism and argued that only converted adults should receive that rite. (i.e. believers baptism) 5. Quaker immigrants found salvation within themselves.6. Puritan clergy solved by formulating “Half-Way Covenant”

a. Parents who had not yet experienced conversion could have their children baptized.b. Took hold after 1670s and 1680s and soon led to something like universal baptism.

7. Orthodox colonies were divided over whether or not to prosecute or ignore their Baptist and Quaker minorities

VIII. The English Civil Wars (Notes)

A. Charles I governed without Parliament from 1629 to 1640

1. He summoned in 1640 to raise money for war with Scotland2. Found many members, especially Puritans, sided with the Scots.

B. King and Parliament went to war in 1642

1. Parliament won and governed without king after beheading Charles I.2. Parliament proclaimed England a Commonwealth (or republic).3. Oliver Cromwell ruled for as “Lord Protector” of England4. Throne restored to Charles II in 1660 . 5. House of Lords was brought back and Church of England reestablished6. English state denied any right of dissent and persecuted both Catholics and Protestant dissenters (Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists, and Quakers)7. This persecution drove thousands of Quakers to Delaware valley after 1675 .

IV. Instability, War, and Rebellion

The situation- By the 1670s, most coastal tribes in regular contact with Europeans had been devastated by disease or soon would be.Indian losses increased the intensity of wars between them to replace tribal members. The Iroquois practiced “mourning wars” at behest of female family members. They integrated captives into confederacy so it could remain strong at expense of their rivals. In the South, the Creeks also assimilated adoptees from wide variety of ethnic backgrounds, including Africans. As Indians were exposed to European goods, they abandoned traditional skills and became dependent on trade with Europeans. The settlements dependent on Indian trade tried to cultivate good relations with native peoples. There were serious efforts in New England to convert Indians to Protestantism began in 1640s. They were most successful when they accepted traditional tribal structure. By 1675, about 2,300 Indians were in various stages of conversion to Christianity. Others resisted pressure to convert.

A. New England’s Pequot War- 1636-1637 1. The Pequot tribe of southern New England had made a trade

alliance with the Dutch in New Netherland. (The Pequots were the most powerful tribe in Southern New England at the time).

2. English trader, John Oldham was killed by the Pequot in July of 1636.

3. This set off a series of bloody skirmishes between New Englanders and the Pequot.

4. It all came to a head in May of 1637, when a group of New Englanders and their Indian Allies, (the Narragansett and Mohegan) attacked a large Pequot village near modern day Mystic, Connecticut and wiped out over 500 Pequot men, women, and children.

5. They surrounded the wooden palisade of the village, set it on fire, and killed anyone who tried to run out. Some of the native allies were so shocked by this that they stopped helping after they saw how it was to be done.

B. Metacom’s War 1675-1676- 1. By the 1670s, Puritan missionaries had converted a number

of Native Indian villages. These villages became known in New England as “praying towns”.

2. Not all the natives converted however and so New England was dotted with praying towns and non-praying towns all mixed together.

3. The son of Massasoit, named Metacom, wanted to resist Christianity and became increasingly angered by the New England colonies encroachment on Wampanoag land.

4. A small dispute let to a full-fledged war in 1675. 5. Wampanoags scored early and easy victories over

settlers . 6. The colonists attacked Narragansetts in Great

Swamp Fight of Dec 1675, driving survivors into alliance with Wampanoags. Atrocities were common on both sides

7. The settlers demanded annihilation of all nearby Indians, even Christian converts.

8. The war nearly tore New England apart, but settlers pulled together and won in 1676.

9. The settlers needed the aid of the Mohawks to destroy Metacom’s winter camp.

10. The Settlers then hunted down survivors, killing hundreds and selling rest into slavery in West Indies.

C. Virginia’s Indian war

1. An incident between Doegs (an Indian nation in the Potomac valley) and a local planter in Virginia turned, in 1675, to full-scale war over a cow.2. The colonists demanded that Governor Sir William Berkeley wage an aggressive campaign against the Indians using unpaid volunteers who would take their rewards by plundering and enslaving Indians.3. However, the Governor refused.

D. Bacon’s Rebellion (taking the law into their own hands)

1. Frontier settlers, under leadership of Nathanial Bacon, challenged Berkeley’s centralized control of Indian trade and Berkeley’s refusal to go after hostile Indian bands . 2. Bacon’s men massacred Occaneechees who had helped them murder a band of Susquehannocks, prompting Berkeley to declare Bacon’s men outlaws.3. Bacon remained incredibly popular on the frontier and was even elected to House of Burgesses4. Bacon’s rebels forced Governor Berkeley to abandon distinction between friendly and hostile Indians5. Bacon and his men seized control of the colony and forced Berkeley’s retreat to eastern shore of VA. 6. Royal government collapsed during summer of 1676 as hundreds of settlers set to murdering and plundering the Indian nations.7. Bacon burned Jamestown to ground, then laid plans for establishment of an independent Chesapeake republic.8. Instead, Bacon died of dysentery in October of 1676 and his Rebellion collapsed.9. Governor Berkeley eventually regained control of colony. 10. Bacon’s Rebellion was largest upheaval in colonies before 1775.11. It had little to do with liberty and a lot to do with class resentments and fear of neighboring Indians.