mt01910981.schoolwires.net · web viewintroduction to the shs/sjhs english guide

End Punctuation

All sentences must end with some kind of punctuation mark. The most common end punctuation marks are the period, the question mark, and the exclamation point. Use an end punctuation mark so the reader knows you have completed a thought.

Declarative sentences (those that make statements) end with periods. Imperative sentences (those that give commands or make requests) end

with periods. Interrogative sentences (those that ask questions) end with question marks. Exclamatory sentences (those that express strong feelings) end with exclamation marks. So, how are imperative sentences which make a request different from interrogative sentences?Imperative: Please lower the volume.Interrogative: Are you going to turn down the volume? There is also a difference between a statement containing an indirect question and a sentence which asks a direct question.Indirect question: Jake wants to know when the game starts. [Indirect question inside a statement. Use a period.]

Direct question: Jake, when does the game start?

Dialog requires a combination of end punctuation.

“That isn’t funny,” Jordan said. “May we go to the circus?” she asked. “Get away from me!” the little boy screamed.

Introduction to the SHS/SJHS English Guide

Students of Stevensville High School and Stevensville Junior High will use this guide throughout their junior high and high school years. The materials within this guide are intended to serve as quick references for grammar, punctuation, writing essays, and creating bibliographies and works cited pages. This guide does NOT replace in-class instruction but serves as a simple manual to get you through some of the tough spots you may face.

ContentsEnd punctuation………………………………………………….1Comma usage ……………………………………………………2Semicolons ………………………………………………………3Colons ………………………………………………………...…4Underlining and italics ………………………………………..…4Dashes ………………………………………………………...…4Quotation marks ……………………….………………….…..…5Hyphens……………………………………………………….…5Apostrophes ………………………………………………..……6Parentheses …………………………………………………....…7Usage rules/usage errors ……………………………..….……7 – 9Essay planning ………………………………………………….11Big 6 Problem solving ………………………………………….12Research planning ………………………………………………13MLA formatting …………………………………………...……14Plagiarism ……………………………….………………………16Essay writing strategies …………………………………………17Compare/Contrast essay…………………………………………18Cause/Effect essay ………………………………………………20Process analysis essay …………………………...………………21Division and classification essay…...……………………………22Narrative essay ……………………..……………………………22Essay help

Using definition …………………………………………23Describing ……….………………………………………23First draft/final draft………………………….………….23The CRT essay ……………….………………………….24

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Comma Usage

Rule #1: Use commas to separate items in a series. These items may be nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or even short phrases or clauses.

Examples: Ben, Terry, and Justin went to Missoula to buy wrenches, hammers, and drills.

Julie walked, ran, and skipped to get home on time.We walked, we talked, and we laughed.

Rule #2: Use commas after introductory material.1} Words such as well, no, yes, and why should be followed by a comma if they are introductory. Ex: Yes, I would like another cookie.

2} Introductory participial phrases require commas. Ex: Slipping on the ice, Tadd nearly broke his arm.

3} Introductory prepositional phrases or a series of phrases that are four or more words long. Ex: On the morning of April 5, my mother decided to move to a new home.

4} Introductory adverb clauses. Ex: While driving the tractor, Jesse prefers to think of life in the big city.

Rule #3: Use a comma between independent clauses if they are joined by a conjunction. An important note here is that the material on both sides of the conjunction must be an independent clause (ie., the material must have a subject, verb, and must be able to stand alone as a sentence).Ex: Monday's meeting went well, yet I feel some sort of trouble brewing.Tammy is confused about the game last night, but she's willing to forget the results.In some situations, the clauses may be too short to require a comma.

You go that way and I'll go this way.

Rule #4: Use a comma to set off nonessential material.Ex: Karla James, who is going to Hawaii next week, has not

finished her work yet. Be careful not to set off material which is critical to the

meaning of the sentence. Ex: New Orleans is the city which interests me the most.

New Orleans, the city which interests me the most, is in the deep South.

Rule #5: Use commas to set off material which interrupts the sentence.Appositives -- Ex: Bill Thomas, the famous potato fanner, will speak on Wednesday night.

Nouns of direct address -- Ex: Tracy, did you eat the entire cake?

Parenthetical expressions -- Ex: He will, I'm sure, be ready on time.

Rule #6: Conventional uses require commas.Addresses: His address is Butch Mills, 115 South Drive, Tornado, Oklahoma 65545,

Dates: We left for Brazil on Monday, June 3, 1995, and had a great trip.

Salutations in letters: Dear John,

Names that associate a title or degree: Tina Frost, Ph.D.Harry Dozier, III

With this last group, separate titles/degrees and follow it with a comma if in a sentence. Sarah Phelps, Ph.D., M.D., is a good friend of ours.

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The Semicolon

To help you better understand the following rules, remember that an independent clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb that can stand alone as a sentence (a complete idea). These are called independent clauses only when combined with additional clauses (either independent or subordinate) in a larger sentence.

Rule #1: Use a semicolon between independent clauses NOT joined by and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so. In this rule, the semicolon takes the

place of the comma and conjunction.

Ex: Four students are running for student body president; none of

them have leadership experience.Could have been written: Four students are running for

student body president, but none of them have leadership experience.

Rule #2: Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by such

words as instead, however, accordingly, otherwise, therefore, consequently, nevertheless, for instance, besides, for example.

Ex: The protestors and business owners saw little hope for asettlement; however, they agreed to meet again.

In both of these uses of the semicolon, the semicolon is used to combine sentences. In rule 1, the semicolon is used with no conjunction. The semicolon takes the place of a period. In rule 2, the semicolon is used with a conjunction. In either use of the semicolon, the two independent clauses being joined must be closely related.

Rule #3: Use semicolons between items in a series if the items contain commas.

Ex: Our most valuable athlete nominees are Ben Greene, the varsity quarterback; Vickie Staninger, the middle hitter on the

volleyball team; Sandy White, the state champion cross country

runner; and Paul Singleton, the goal keeper on the varsity lacrosseteam.

Rule #4: Use a semicolon (rather than a comma) should be used toseparate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction when there are commas within the clauses.

Ex: My favorite store in the world, Eddie’s Own, sells sportinggoods, strange items for tourists, small food items, and all sorts of

stationary goods; and the usual customers there, eccentric in many ways, are always worth watching.

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The Colon

Rule #1: Use a colon to introduce a list.

Ex: My pack held all I needed: books, pens and pencilsnotebooks, a calculator, several text books, and my phone.

Ex: You should know the answers to the following: Whois the President? Who is the Speaker of the House? Who are Montana’s senators and representative?

When a list comes immediately after a verb or preposition, do NOT use a colon.

Rule #2: Use a colon before along, formal statement or quotation.

Ex: The Senator made the following observation: Economiccompetition is vital to commerce here in the United States aswell as world-wide, so we must find ways remain competitive regardless of what it costs us.

Rule #3: Use a colon between independent clauses when the secondclause explains or restates the idea in the first.

Ex: Monte Dolack prints are incredibly popular: they are relatively cheap, they are whimsical, and they speak to peopleof many different ages.

Rule #4: Use colons in the following conventional situations:

A. Between the hour and minute when you write the time.B. Between chapter and verse in reference to the Bible.C. Between volume and number or between volume and page number when referring to a periodical.D. After the salutation of a business letter.

Underlining and Italics

Rule #1: Use italics, or underlining, for titles of books, periodicals, shipnames, works of art, etc.

Ex: The Old Man and the Sea the RMS Titanic Time magazine

Michelangelo’s David In using this rule, long works of fiction are italicized or underlined. For shorter works such as short stories, poems, and parts of publications (an article title within a National Geographic magazine, use quotation marks.

Rule #2: Use italics, or underlining, for words, letters and figuresreferred to as such and for foreign words not yet adopted into English.

Ex: The most common English word is the; the letters used mostfrequently are e and i; and the numbers most often confused are7 and 9.

Ex: The Latin saying ad astra per aspera (to the stars through adversity) gives me hope.

The Dash

Rule #1: Use a dash to indicate an abrupt break in thought.

Ex: The child will—if we make him—behave himself.

Rule #2: Use a dash to mean namely, in other words, or that is before an explanation (interchangeable with a semicolon, usually).

Ex: It was dangerous—the car careened down the road.To form a dash in Word, use two hyphens. When you type the next word and space, a dash (longer hyphen) will be formed.

4Quotation Marks

Rule #1: Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation – a person’s

The ApostropheRule #3: Use quotation marks to enclose titles of chapters, articles,

short stories, poems, songs, and other parts of books andperiodicals.

Quotation Marks

Rule #1: Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation – a person’s

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If you learn a few simple rules, apostrophes are easy to use. There are really only three rules, though rule #1 has some sub-rules.

Rule #1: Use an apostrophe to form the possessive case for most words. To form the possessive of a singular noun, ad an apostrophe

and an “s.”Ex: Bob’s shirt

the dog’s collar

You may form the singular possessive of a multi-syllabic word that ends in the s-sound by adding just the apostrophe.Ex: the Williams’ apartment

the sorceress’ magic pendant

Under this rule, note that adding an apostrophe s to a singular noun ending in an s is just as acceptable as just adding the sEx: Thomas’s poetry

Thomas’ poetry These would mean the same thing

To form the possessive case of a plural noun ending in s, add only the apostrophe.Ex: the girls’ basketball team (the basketball team belonging to

multiple girls)

the dogs’ bones (multiple dogs owning multiple bones)

Possessive personal pronouns do NOT take an apostrophe.his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, and whose (relative pronoun)Note: it’s is a contraction for it is

there is no such thing as plural possessive of it (its’)

Indefinite possessive pronouns require an apostrophe andan s .indefinite pronouns = one, everyone, everybody, etc.Ex: everyone’s opinions / one’s opinion / everyone else’s

Hyphenated words, names of organizations and businesses, and words showing joint possession show possession only on the last word.

Ex: my brother-in-law’s favorite sport the commander-in-chief’s orders

Black and Decker’s tools Bobby and Ray’s report on fishing Sean and Sara’s clarinet duet

When two or more persons possess something individually, each of their names is possessive in form.Ex: Jessica’s and Sandra’s jackets were hung on the pegs.

The words minute, hour, day, week, month, year, etc. require an apostrophe if they are used as possessive adjectives.Ex: a year’s time one day’s work three years’ employment

Words indicating an amount in cents or dollars, when used as possessive adjectives, require apostrophes.Ex: one dollar’s worth of candy

five cents’ worth

Rule #2: Use an apostrophe in contractions to show where a letter has been omitted.Ex: don’t (do not, with the o omitted from not) can’t (cannot, with the no omitted from not)

Rule #3: An apostrophe and s are used to form the plural of lettersnumbers, and signs as well as words referred to as words.

Ex: Hawaii is spelled with two i’s. Two 6’s should precede the decimal in that number. You do not need +’s in that equation. Don’t use so many like’s when you speak.

Rule #3: Use quotation marks to enclose titles of chapters, articles,short stories, poems, songs, and other parts of books andperiodicals.

6 Parentheses

Rule #1: Use parentheses to enclose incidental explanatory material that is added to a sentence but is not considered of major importance.

10. fewer/less – fewer is used in front of a plural nounEx: There are fewer people here than I expected.

Parentheses

Rule #1: Use parentheses to enclose incidental explanatory material that is added to a sentence but is not considered of major importance.

Some Basic Usage Errors

Standard English, the version of English you should use in academic and professional settings, has set rules. While the English language is ever-changing, the following are common errors you should avoid when standard English is required.

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less is used before a singular nounEx: less time ; less water ; less sand

11. affect/effect – this one takes some thinkingaffect – usually a verbeffect – usually a noun

Ex: The rain will not affect the game.Ex: The effect of the pain killer was immediate.

effective is an adjective – less effectiveaffect can be a noun when talking about emotionEx: That person has no affect. (a flat personality)

12. between/among – between is used when you are thinkingof two items at a time, regardless of whether they arepart of a group of more than twoEx: What is the difference between some and a few?

among – is used when thinking of a group rather than of separate individuals Ex: The candy was distributed among the students.

13. regardless/ irregardless – There is no such word as irregardless. Don’t use it!

14. occurred/ recurred – spell the first with two c’s and two r’sFor the second, note there is no “o.”

15. could of – Don’t use could of in place of could have. They are not the same. should of/would of/ might of must of etc. are also wrong

16. principal/principle – Use principal to mean the head of a school; or the main one of several things.Ex: The principal causes of ignorance are apathy and laziness. He was sent to the principal’s office.

Use principle to mean a rule of conduct or a main law or fact.Ex: Having no principles leads people to a life of crime. Understanding the general principles of grammar will improve

your writing.

17. whole/hole – Whole is used to suggest an entirety or completeness.Hole is used to mean empty space in a solid body; an aperture through or in something or an animal’s burrow.

18. allot/ a lot – To allot means to divide something. A lot is not a realword. DO NOT use it!Ex: We will allot the food supply equally.

19. sit/set – Use sit to mean to assume or to be in an upright position.The principal parts of sit are sit, sitting, sat, sat.

Set usually means to put, to place something. The principal partsof set are set, setting, set, set.Ex: Set that book on the table The book is setting on the table. That book set on the table for days. That book has set on my table before.

20. who/ that – Who refers to people. That refers to non-humans.Ex: She is the one who stole the painting. She is the dog that stole the bone. He is the person that ate the pie. WRONG!

21. who/whom – Whom is used in the objective case; that is, any timeit is in the place of a direct object, indirect object, or object of a preposition. Who is nominative (subject). This is a basic guide.

22. lie/lay – Lie means to assume a reclined position.Lie, (is) lying, lay, (have lain) Today I lie, yesterday I lay, in the past I have lain.

Lay means to place something Lay, (is laying), laid, (have) laidToday I lay it on the table, yesterday I laid it, I have laid it down

23. led/lead/lead – Led is the past tense of to lead.Ex: He led the horse to the water.

Some Basic Usage Errors

Standard English, the version of English you should use in academic and professional settings, has set rules. While the English language is ever-changing, the following are common errors you should avoid when standard English is required.

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Lead is used in one of two ways. One way we use lead is to meanthe heavy metal; an element of the Periodic Table. Pronouncedlĕd.

Lead (the present tense verb) means to go first.Ex: You may lead the way.

24. LIKE – This is a word that is WAY overused in the daily speech of many Americans. Like can be used as several different parts ofspeech. Often like is a preposition used to introduce a prepositional phrase. Paula runs like her brother.

In formal speech or writing, like should NOT be used as a conjunction. She plays as the pros do. NOT She plays like the pros do. You may use this in informal speech, however.

DO NOT use like in place of said, as in “So, she’s like,’Stopbothering me!’” Instead, use “So, she said, ‘Stop botheringme!’” (The same is true for “goes” in this situation.) “So,she goes, ‘Stop bothering me!’” is just as incorrect as usinglike.

Be aware of, and eliminate, like as an interrupter. Like, she usedto be like one of my best friends, like you know. Annoying, improper, and terribly limiting.

25. your/you’re – Your shows possession. This is your house.You’re is a contraction for you are.

26. to/too/two – Two is always a numberTo is a preposition or part of an infinitive. Let’s go to the store. (preposition)To jump that high will take training. (part of infinitive to jump)

27. proceed/precede – Precede means to come before.Proceed means to carry on or, with an “s,” it can meanmoney gained. The proceeds from the auction were huge.

28. the subjunctive case of were – The English language has fewer uses of the subjunctive case than some other languages. In English, usewere 1)when wishing or hoping OR 2)when speaking of somethingcontrary to fact.

Ex: contrary to fact --- If that horse were a sports car, we couldgo much faster.If my father were more friendly, you could come visit.

Ex: wishing or hoping --- I wish I were a professional athlete.I wish I were finished with school.

29. okay – Do not use okay, or OK in formal writing or speaking.

30. hanged / hung – Hanged is the correct past tense form of to hangwhen you are referring to a person.Ex: He was hanged by the neck until dead.

Hung is used when talking about non-human items.Ex: The coats were hung in the closet near the door.

31. dessert/desert – Dessert refers to the after-dinner sweets we eat.Desert is either a hot, dry place (first syllable accented), or it canmean to leave (pronounced like dessert, emphasis on second syllable).

32. drag/dragged/drug – Dragged is the correct form of to drag.Drug is NOT the past tense of drag.

33. than/then -- Than is a conjunction. I am smarter than she.Then is an adverb meaning at the time. We will eat dinner, then watch a movie.

9Writing Essays

The following materials are intended as guides for various aspects of the essay writing process. Realize essay writing is vastly different from other forms of writing. Teacher directives supersede the following.

Essay Format

Essay planning sheet

Use this guide to help plan your essay. A mixture of complete sentences and brief notes should help you plan a great essay.

Writing Essays

The following materials are intended as guides for various aspects of the essay writing process. Realize essay writing is vastly different from other forms of writing. Teacher directives supersede the following.

Essay Format

Introduction

1. General background information of an interesting nature to catch the

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Thesis statement:

Body ¶ one

Topic sentence 1:

Idea 1Quote/ProofDiscussion



Remember to conclude the paragraph

Body ¶ two

Topic sentence 2:




Remember to conclude the paragraph

Body ¶ three

Topic sentence 3:

Idea 1Quote/Proof

Discussion



Remember to conclude the paragraphConcluding sentence for essay (first of conclusion ¶ )

Any version of this planning guide will help you construct a better essay. By pre-planning the essay, you will be able to better determine areas of weakness as well as the overall flow of the essay. For some writers, an outline (formal or informal) works best. If you go that route, remember to include all the necessary parts of each paragraph. Another idea that works well for some is mind mapping. This is a visual-based model for organizing ideas.

Idea 1 Idea 2Topic 1 Topic 2

idea a idea 3 Idea 3idea 2

Main Idea(Thesis)

Topic 3

11 Big 6 Problem Solving Skills

One can go about solving problems in many ways. The Big 6 method walks the user through certain steps, each step designed to take the reader closer to an answer and a final product. The Big 6 also helps solve problems outside the academic setting. The following six steps and their explanations will assist you when tackling any project assigned. Realize that you may have to cycle back a

Introduction

1. General background information of an interesting nature to catch the

Research Planning

While starting out on a trip with no particular plan of a route to reach a final destination can be fun, this is not the most effective approach. Beginning a research project with no plan of attack is a bit like deciding to

Big 6 Problem Solving Skills

One can go about solving problems in many ways. The Big 6 method walks the user through certain steps, each step designed to take the reader closer to an answer and a final product. The Big 6 also helps solve problems outside the academic setting. The following six steps and their explanations will assist you when tackling any project assigned. Realize that you may have to cycle back a

Step 4: Use of informationEngage (e.g., read, hear, view) the information in the source.Extract relevant information from the source.

Evaluate the source and the information you have gathered to thispoint. Is the information relevant t the problem? Can you effectively use the information to solve the problem? Howmuch valuable information have you collected?

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drive from western Montana to Orlando with no plan, no map, and no time schedule. You may get there, but the trip may be circuitous. The following model is one way to plan your research trip. Following each part of the model is an explanation of what that part means as well as a some ideas of how to use each part of the model.

Research Planning Guide

Essential Question: _____________________________________________

This can work in two ways. First, it could be your thesis statement in question form. Second, it is a guide to what you need to accomplish during research. “What were the primary causes of World War I?”“What are the potential pitfalls of having and using a credit card?”“Who were the primary scientists working on the Manhattan Project and what were there roles?”

Key Words: (people, places, events, dates, organizations, terms)

______________ ______________ ______________

______________ ______________ ______________

______________ ______________ ______________

______________ ______________ ______________

The key word list is a living list. This means the list should be used throughout the research process and that the list will shrink and grow as you move forward. For example, using the last essential question listed – Manhattan Project scientists / roles – list everything you already know.

World War II, atomic bomb, Albert Einstein, nuclear weapons, Manhattan

Project,

Note: these should be terms you can actually place in a search bar on the Internet or in the library card catalog or find in the indexes of books. These are terms you can use to help you find more details and more specific information about your topic.

When you do a search for Manhattan Project, you will discover President Franklin D. Roosevelt was involved in starting the project. While not a scientist, you may wish to list his name in the key words. If you look under his name in relation to the topic, you may discover important details.

What I want to find out What I learned Where I found the information

1.

2.

3.

Column one is used for more detailed questions that fall under the essential question. This should be used before starting research AND during. Column two offers brief ideas that answer the questions. Column three helps keep track of your sources. List page numbers! This table may certainly be more than three questions long.

Without the explanations, your form would look like this:

Step 4: Use of informationEngage (e.g., read, hear, view) the information in the source.Extract relevant information from the source.

Evaluate the source and the information you have gathered to thispoint. Is the information relevant t the problem? Can you effectively use the information to solve the problem? Howmuch valuable information have you collected?




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½”1” Jones 1

1” 1” Katy Jones




MLA Formatting

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is one formatting style used to direct writers. The English teachers here at SHS will all direct you to use MLA style when writing. Other teachers in the school may ask you to use a different style. The following indicates how to set up the overall format of your paper.

Margins: 1 inch, all the way around

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Mrs. White

Chemistry 1

4 January 2015

The Chemistry of Bees

Humans have raised bees for hundreds of years, enjoying the honey they make as well as the work they do as plant pollinators.

Any changes to this formatting make it something other than MLA.

In-text citations: A citation marks a quote or a passage for the reader to indicate the material is not original. The citation directs the reader of the paper to the bibliography to find the exact source used. The material in the citation should be brief enough to lead the reader to the correct source. MLA formatting directs the writer to include the name of the author who is being quoted and the exact page number from which the material was taken (referring to the source in which the writer of the paper found the quote). Short quotes, those that take four or less lines of typing, begin with quotation marks, end with quotation marks, with the citation following the quote. The citation belongs in parentheses.

Example: After years of investigation, Schnelling and his team discovered only one ship wreck in the area. “Prior to our exploration, people familiar with shipping believed hundreds of ships may be on the ocean bottom. We have discovered otherwise. Only the Pilliard had sunk here (Cook 451). In this instance, Cook would be the author, 451 would be the exact page on which the quote was found. If the reader wanted to know the source, she would go to the bibliography page, look for Cook, and find the source listed after that.

In the case there is no author, the citation would include the first portion of the bibliographic entry. A magazine article may not have an author’s name listed. The bibliographic entry for this would be something like

“Cats: love them or hate them.” Animal Planet Magazine 20 Nov. 2000: 70-

71. Print.

Your citation, then, would be (“Cats” 71).

Note that the sentence period belongs outside the citation. If the end of the quote requires a question mark or exclamation point, you will use that end mark AND a period.

Example: Edwards had to ask, “If scientists had never looked at the heavens with telescopes, would man understand we are not at the center of the universe?” (Atwater 87). In this case, the question mark belongs inside the quotation marks, indicating it is part of the quote, and a period follows the citation, indicating the end of a sentence in the paper.

Long quotes: Long quotes, those taking more than four lines, are handled differently. The quote is indented 10 spaces from the left margin, the right margin is normal, no quotation marks are used, the citation still belongs at the end, and the quote is double spaced (as is the rest of the paper).

As explained in various medical texts, knee injuries can be debilitating . Even minor knee sprains (a mild stretching of the ligament) can Put an athlete out of practice for a week or more. If the injury is to The anterior cruciate ligament, the period of inactivity often Lengthens as the loss of proper function to that creates great instability. Second degree sprains may double the time needed for recovery. (Atwater 32)Note that the period in this case goes BEFORE the citation!

MLA Formatting

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is one formatting style used to direct writers. The English teachers here at SHS will all direct you to use MLA style when writing. Other teachers in the school may ask you to use a different style. The following indicates how to set up the overall format of your paper.

Margins: 1 inch, all the way around

If your bibliography contains entries with the same surname but different first names, you must use the authors’ first initials to differentiate them,(P. Jones 129) (S. Jones 35)

For other MLA formatting rules, check with your teacher! Try this site:http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/

PLAGIARISM

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Strategies for Writing Essays

Learning to write a good essay is not necessarily easy, but there are numerous strategies guaranteed to help you become a better writer. While the purpose of the essay and certain strategies change according to the type of essay, certain elements remain the same no matter what kind of essay you are writing. Consider the purpose: Considering the purpose of the essay is always important. Writers who don’t know what they are trying to accomplish generally write essays that go nowhere. Further, the purpose should not be to finish the assignment, to get a good grade, or to convince mom and dad you should be allowed to stay out longer on the weekend. If you are writing a persuasive essay, concentrate on truly persuading the reader. If writing a comparison or contrast essay, work hard to show clear comparisons or contrasts. The audience: Knowing your audience and what they already know, think, or feel is important. This knowledge will allow the writer to create an essay using appropriate diction, syntax, and emotion for the situation. Writing for a group of professionals will necessarily require different language than writing for a group of second grade students. Having some knowledge of what the audience already knows about the topic of the essay will allow the writer to vary the overall approach to the essay, the amount of background information, and the depth of the content.

The Persuasive Essay

One of the most common academic essays is the persuasive essay. This essay is used in various curricular areas, and persuasion is used in many venues outside school walls. Businessmen use persuasion to make sales or

If your bibliography contains entries with the same surname but different first names, you must use the authors’ first initials to differentiate them,(P. Jones 129) (S. Jones 35)

For other MLA formatting rules, check with your teacher! Try this site:http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/

PLAGIARISM

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recruit clients. Politicians use persuasion to garner votes or enact law. Lawyers use persuasion to convict criminals or free the wrongly accused. Teenagers use persuasion all the time. Part of the beauty of this essay type is you already know some of the strategies; you just need to learn to shape them. Purpose considerations: While you already understand the purpose is to persuade, you may need to think more carefully consider “persuade whom to do what?”

Most often, persuasive writing or speaking fits one of the following categories: You are attempting to persuade the audience to … 1. support a cause or make a commitment 2. take action (or not take action) 3. change a situation 4. change a behavior or attitude 5. refute a theory 6. arouse sympathy 7. stimulate concern 8. win an argument 9. provoke anger/peace/empathy

Audience considerations: Before you begin the persuasive essay, consider the following:

Generally speaking, the audience will fit into one of the following classes: 1. Those who already agree with the writer – so the purpose is to maintain, reinforce, or encourage the reader(s) to continue thinking/doing what they are. 2. Those who want to know more about the issue. They may or may not already agree with the writer. 3. Those who are neutral and want/need arguments to sway their thinking. 4. Those who are more skeptical and refuse to take a stand until convinced to “move.”

Consider what your audience may/does already know about the subject, their age, their background, and even their perceived intellect. All these can influence your approach as the writer.

Strategies: The strategies you use will change according to the purpose of the essay and the audience. As has been stated, know these before you begin. Technically speaking, people who practice this separate argument from persuasion. Argument is strictly rational, depending on logical explanations and appeals to intelligence. Persuasion tends to be emotional, depending on biased language and appeals to feelings and instincts.

17The Compare / Contrast Essay

To compare means to show or describe similarities. To contrast means to show or describe differences. These two terms should not be used interchangeably as they do not mean the same thing. If your teacher asks you to write a compare/contrast essay, make sure you know which he really means. While the existence of one implies the existence of the other (like and unlike), the teacher may want you to highlight, describe, or explain only one of the two. Purpose considerations: While the purpose may seem obvious, these essays can actually become rather complex. At times a writer may wish to simply show how two things are similar or different. At times, however, the writer may attempt to explain a difficult new concept by comparing that concept to something the reader already understands, even though the two things compared may be very different in nature. Study the strategy section for a clearer explanation. Just understand the writer must have a clearly defined purpose for writing the essay. Compare/contrast fall into two primary categories. Strict comparisons/contrasts explore two or more items in the same class. Fanciful comparisons/contrasts examine two or more items in different classes.

Purposes for strict compare/contrast• Provide similar information about items• Demonstrate similar things are different or different things are

similar• Present a conclusion or recommend a choice

Examples of strict compare/contrast• Teacher to teacher OR student to student, NOT teacher to student• Two siblings are very different OR

There are three basic strategies for this type of writing: emotional/non-logical, logical/rational, and ethical appeal.

Emotional/non-logicalsenses, and personal biases of the audience.

thinking (friendly, authoritative, ironic)

Rational/logicalcommon sense.

case (dogs are man’s best friend/teenagers are “night people”)

non-logical strategies)

unknown to the known.

Ethical appeal

authority.

worthy evidence.If you do not already have a good reputation, you may be able to build one by proving you are an expert and should be trusted.

Assertion:

Purposes for fanciful compare/contrast• Introduce something complex by comparing it to a simple, concrete

item• Add complexity and dimension to two unlike items• Used to discover hidden resemblances

Examples of fanciful compare/contrast• Complex to simple – the human heart works like a pump• Add complexity – astronauts landing on the moon were like Vikings

traveling to the new world• Ogres are like parfaits (or onions), they have many layers

Audience considerations: As always, think about what the audience may already know about the topic so you can better plan your essay. Generally, audiences can be divided into three main groups:

1. Those who know both items being compared or contrasted2. Those who know one of the two items but not both3. Those who know neither of the two items

If both items are known, the writer can shorten the demonstration and concentrate on why the comparison is being made.

If one item is known, writers need to remind the audience of the familiar before moving to the unfamiliar.

If neither item is known, much more time will be needed to explain the concepts.

Strategies: Two basic strategies are used to write compare/contrast essays. One is called subject-by-subject. As the name implies, the writer deals with all points of comparison (or contrast) of one item before

The Compare / Contrast Essay

To compare means to show or describe similarities. To contrast means to show or describe differences. These two terms should not be used interchangeably as they do not mean the same thing. If your teacher asks you to write a compare/contrast essay, make sure you know which he really means. While the existence of one implies the existence of the other (like and unlike), the teacher may want you to highlight, describe, or explain only one of the two. Purpose considerations: While the purpose may seem obvious, these essays can actually become rather complex. At times a writer may wish to simply show how two things are similar or different. At times, however, the writer may attempt to explain a difficult new concept by comparing that concept to something the reader already understands, even though the two things compared may be very different in nature. Study the strategy section for a clearer explanation. Just understand the writer must have a clearly defined purpose for writing the essay. Compare/contrast fall into two primary categories. Strict comparisons/contrasts explore two or more items in the same class. Fanciful comparisons/contrasts examine two or more items in different classes.

Purposes for strict compare/contrast• Provide similar information about items• Demonstrate similar things are different or different things are

similar• Present a conclusion or recommend a choice

Examples of strict compare/contrast• Teacher to teacher OR student to student, NOT teacher to student• Two siblings are very different OR

There are three basic strategies for this type of writing: emotional/non-logical, logical/rational, and ethical appeal.

Emotional/non-logicalsenses, and personal biases of the audience.

thinking (friendly, authoritative, ironic)

Rational/logicalcommon sense.

case (dogs are man’s best friend/teenagers are “night people”)

non-logical strategies)

unknown to the known.

Ethical appeal

authority.

worthy evidence.If you do not already have a good reputation, you may be able to build one by proving you are an expert and should be trusted.

Assertion:

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progressing to the second item. Important: When using this strategy, cover comparable (contrastable) points in the same order in the two paragraphs. For example, if you discuss the eating habits of animal A, then where it lives, then what animals prey on it, and then evolutionary traits that have kept the animal alive in one paragraph, you need to cover those same points, in the same order, for animal B. This allows the reader to look at these comparisons by finding them in the same relative places in each paragraph. In the following, A represents one item you will be comparing. B represents

the second item. The numbers represent the specific points of comparison. So, A = dolphin B = whale1 = eating habits2 = habitat3 = prey4 = evolutionary traits

The layout of your essay would be:

A1, A1, A1, A1 (however much you have to say) A1. A2, A2, A2, A2.A3, A3, A3, A3, A3. A4, A4, A4, A4, A4. B1, B1, B1, B1, B1. B2, B2, B2, B2, B2, B2. B3, B3, B3, B3, B3, B3, B3. B4, B4, B4, B4, B4, B4.

The subject by subject works best with longer comparisons, allowing the reader to get a holistic view. They see each individual subject as a unified whole. The second strategy for these essays is called point-by-point. This method requires the writer to show comparisons (contrasts) side by side, one at a time. Using the above example, the essay layout would be:

A1, B1. A2, B2 A3, B3. A4, B4.

This method works well for shorter comparisons/contrasts.

Regardless of which strategy you use, there are three rules to follow:

1.Balance the parts – equal in number and balanced by counterpart in parallel pattern

2.Offer reminders – use transitional statements to remind readers of connections to other essay parts

3.Supply reasons – tell the reader why the comparison is being made

{Most of this was gleaned from The Riverside Reader, vol. 1. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1985, Print.}

The Cause/Effect Essay

Cause and effect writing explains relationships of various kinds. Most humans wish to understand the world around them, and cause and effect relationships explain a great deal about our world. Reasoning and investigation help us better understand causes and effects. As always, first contemplate the purpose of the writing and the audience for whom the writing is intended. Purpose considerations: Most cause/effect relationships fit into one of three overall purpose statements. 1. To educate and inform: Gaining control over ourselves and our world

is dependent on us understanding causes. We can better control events if we better understand what causes those events to occur. Consider how this might be used to better understand the economy, science, natural forces, and even friendships.

2. To make an argument: A second purpose fits nicely with the persuasiveessay discussed above. Cause effect relationships lend themselves well to argument. One may argue change may be positive or negative, depending on the cause/effect relationship and how that is manipulated (killing all crows will remove a nuisance OR killing all crows will result in an upswing in bugs, carrion, and the overpopulation of other bird species).

3. To theorize: The third reason behind cause/effect writing is topostulate theories. This type of writing involves creating a theory and discussing the possible effects that may be rendered (what will happen if greenhouse gases are not con trolled?). This writing can work in the other direction as well: surmising what is causing a particular known effect (the causes of the increasing number of school shootings).

Audience considerations: Based on the purpose of your writing, the

The Process Analysis Essay

Process analysis writing involves breaking a process into smaller segments and explaining each segment and how that segment leads to the fulfillment of the whole (completing the process). A process is defined as a systematic series of actions directed to some end. The analysis portion of the writing, then, involves breaking down that process into smaller parts. Some processes are so natural or habitual that we rarely think of them in terms of segmented portions. Other processes are greatly involved and very technical in nature. Purpose considerations: Process analysis is a natural part of teaching. The process of making a sandwich can be broken down into steps for teaching purposes. Cleaning a firearm can be broken down into steps. One clear purpose of this type of writing, then, is to give directions. A second purpose is to provide some kind of information. Information may be a necessary part of giving directions, but the two can exist separately. Many readers read simply to gain information. Most people will never mine for rare earhts, but understanding the process can be valuable. According to Riverside Reader, writers may also use this process to show how a process that appears to be easy is actually quite difficult, or to show how a seemingly difficult process is quite simple. Both of these still fit into the first two purpose areas. Audience considerations: Thinking about the audience is very important in this kind of writing. The writer may be addressing readers who want information, which means the audience is already interested in the subject. Of course, the writer may be trying to capture the interest of certain readers. This is a bit like getting creating interest in people who did not know they

Strategies: As always, the strategies used are directly linked to the purpose and the audience. In cause/effect writing, the writer is really limited to about four strategies. Three of the four strategies require at least a modicum of theorizing (see Purpose considerations, #3).

1. The most straight forward strategy involves examining known actions or events, then discussing the consequences involved. One might choose to look at the overall consequences or more specific, more detailed consequences.The opposite approach may also be used. That is, look at knownconsequences and match them to previous events or actions that led to those consequences.

2. Strategy two is very similar. This involves examining a known consequence, then speculating about possible or probable causes.This strategy is different in that more speculation is involved. You are working from the premise that particular causes are not already known. In this format, the writer is charged with making intelligent, well-reasoned hypotheses, then defending that with arguments.

3. The third strategy involves far more theorizing. This strategyrequires the writer to examine two separate ideas, then examine possible cause/effect relations between the two. Note that this approach requires more thought, more detailing, and more work. The writer is charged with much possible speculation with less solid proof. Convincing the reader of your convictions requires much supportand much argument.


The Cause/Effect Essay

Cause and effect writing explains relationships of various kinds. Most humans wish to understand the world around them, and cause and effect relationships explain a great deal about our world. Reasoning and investigation help us better understand causes and effects. As always, first contemplate the purpose of the writing and the audience for whom the writing is intended. Purpose considerations: Most cause/effect relationships fit into one of three overall purpose statements. 1. To educate and inform: Gaining control over ourselves and our world

is dependent on us understanding causes. We can better control events if we better understand what causes those events to occur. Consider how this might be used to better understand the economy, science, natural forces, and even friendships.

2. To make an argument: A second purpose fits nicely with the persuasiveessay discussed above. Cause effect relationships lend themselves well to argument. One may argue change may be positive or negative, depending on the cause/effect relationship and how that is manipulated (killing all crows will remove a nuisance OR killing all crows will result in an upswing in bugs, carrion, and the overpopulation of other bird species).

3. To theorize: The third reason behind cause/effect writing is topostulate theories. This type of writing involves creating a theory and discussing the possible effects that may be rendered (what will happen if greenhouse gases are not con trolled?). This writing can work in the other direction as well: surmising what is causing a particular known effect (the causes of the increasing number of school shootings).

Audience considerations: Based on the purpose of your writing, the

20

might be interested in a particular subject. If the audience already knows something about the subject, your purpose may be to further their under-standing. When writing for an audience that does not know the subject, the writer must find a way to garner interest to pull the reader into the writing. Strategy considerations: A danger in writing process analysis lies in the fact the writer often knows the process very well. When writing for an audience with less knowledge of the subject, one must be careful to break the process into small enough parts. On the other hand, one must be careful not to insult the reader’s intelligence.

Most all sources that deal with writing process analysis break the writing process into five main categories. When writing process analysis, carefully consider including all these parts.

1. Overview – include an overall objective, the required number ofsteps with an emphasis on the most important or longest steps, and maybe a materials list.

2. Special terms – always include special terms and definitions for those. Beginners will be unfamiliar with these terms whilesome readers may need a reminder.

3. Sequence of steps – always work in chronological/process-basedorder. Writers often emphasize smaller steps imbedded inlarger steps, steps that need to be “set aside” temporarily, and an emphasis on NOT skipping or ignoring steps. Another step might offer some kind of variation.

4. Examples – these can be used to offer comparisons (describing how the unknown is similar to something the reader already knows) or to offer actual visual aids. A graph or picture might prove valuable, especially with particularly difficult steps in the process.

5. Results – this step lets the reader know when the process is finished. This step also allows the reader some form of feedback in terms of how “good” or “successful” the process has been. This is a good place for a picture or illustration of what the final product should look like. Of course, this is not always possible.

{Most of this was gleaned from The Riverside Reader, vol. 1. Boston,

Houghton Mifflin Company, 1985, Print.}

Strategies: As always, the strategies used are directly linked to the purpose and the audience. In cause/effect writing, the writer is really limited to about four strategies. Three of the four strategies require at least a modicum of theorizing (see Purpose considerations, #3).

1. The most straight forward strategy involves examining known actions or events, then discussing the consequences involved. One might choose to look at the overall consequences or more specific, more detailed consequences.The opposite approach may also be used. That is, look at knownconsequences and match them to previous events or actions that led to those consequences.

2. Strategy two is very similar. This involves examining a known consequence, then speculating about possible or probable causes.This strategy is different in that more speculation is involved. You are working from the premise that particular causes are not already known. In this format, the writer is charged with making intelligent, well-reasoned hypotheses, then defending that with arguments.

3. The third strategy involves far more theorizing. This strategyrequires the writer to examine two separate ideas, then examine possible cause/effect relations between the two. Note that this approach requires more thought, more detailing, and more work. The writer is charged with much possible speculation with less solid proof. Convincing the reader of your convictions requires much supportand much argument.


21

The Division and Classification Essay

Dividing involves separating something into sections. Division goes from large to small. Classification is to place items into a predetermined scheme of categories. Classification goes from small to large. These two kinds of writing may be entirely separate from one another, or they may be joined. Both parts of the process are generally used, even if the writing is dedicated to only one of the two. Purpose considerations: This style of writing is most often used to inform, persuade, or entertain (though this last one is not typically used in academic settings). Informing: When using this system to explain or inform, the division portion allows the reader to see the smaller, separated parts of the whole. When explaining why certain animals can survive in cold climates while others cannot, dividing animals by species may be a good place to start. Other times the writer may wish to explain how similar items all fit into one category. When discussing nutrition for athletes, placing foods in their appropriate food groups would be an appropriate exercise to help athletes determine which foods would be the best sources of protein. This essay style may also be used to persuade. Asking the reader to view something in smaller parts may help persuade the reader to move to a new way of thinking. For example, to combat the broad statement “all predators are bad,” one might break predators into smaller groups, then explain how some of the individuals in those smaller groups are in fact beneficial to farmers, ranchers, sportsmen, and other animal groups. Audience considerations: As always, knowing the audience is always beneficial. If the anticipated audience is highly knowledgeable about the topic, less time may be spent offering background information or giving definitions to terms. On the other hand, if the audience contains novices or if the topic is relatively new, the writer may need to spend considerable time creating the background information. Strategies: As the term suggests, one of the first steps in this essay is to divide a large group into smaller subsets. Plan carefully how to do this so the idea remains clear to the reader. The writer may have to do this division step several times to create groups that make the most sense and that can be discussed without confusing the reader. Be careful to make the divisions

A third purpose, which utilizes a shortened version of purpose two above, is to use a personal story to analyze a topic. In this case, the personal experience serves as the writer’s primary fodder for the argument. The final purpose actually serves as only a portion of a larger essay. Short personal narratives, usually called an anecdote, might serve as the introduction for an essay that approaches a deeper, more complicated topic. The anecdote serves here as a short illustration to help prove a point. Audience considerations: The writer must be careful to NOT include useless details. When reading to better understand a point, readers will quickly tire of long-winded, tedious details. Stick to what the reader needs to know. Strategies: The most important aspect of any story is the conflict. Choose a story with an appropriate conflict for the point you are trying to make. Make sure you develop that conflict significantly, and avoid adding details that will mislead or distract the reader. As with any good story, the writer needs an interesting plot, and the story needs to move at a rate that will keep the reader’s interest. Plot and conflict are inextricably linked, so make sure they work together. Also, good storyteller actually show the reader the story rather than tell the story. Include enough sensory detail to make the reader feel the story.


Using definition

As your English teachers may have explained to you by now, there are three kinds of definition. Denotation is the exact or direct definition of a word. A strict, dictionary definition is an example of denotation. Connotation is the second kind of definition. Connotative definitions are those with suggested meanings. People make emotional attachments with words. Christmas has a specific denotative definition, but most people

associate particular sights, sounds, tastes, and feelings with Christmas. These may or may not be directly linked to the dictionary definition. A third kind of definition allows the writer to stipulate limitations to the definition of a term. The main reason for doing this is to make certain the writer and reader are operating with the exact same definition. This technique lends itself to situations where a word may have different and possibly confusing

definitions. Choose your words wisely!

Describing

Good description is an art. Writers who utilize description must learn to be sensual. Sensual means tapping into the senses. Good writers can create descriptive passages that connect with all five senses. This is not an easy art to learn, but if you are going to use description in writing, take the time to do it correctly. Generally speaking, descriptions can be broken into the same two categories as definitions. Subjective definitions are those that tap into the overall sensual experiences of the writer and reader. This kind of writing attempts to recreate a life-like experience for the reader. Objective definitions stick to technical details, not worrying about including the various senses. Both serve their purpose. Writers will discover times when subjective descriptions are more appropriate than objective ones and vice versa. A brief essay to accompany a science fair project may not be the best place for a subjective passage about the wonders of the sights, sounds, and smells of a compost heap that was the center of the science project.

First draft, final draft, and revising

In short, the first draft of an essay should never be the final draft. This means the writer needs to plan ahead, write sections of an essay, read the essay, and edit the essay. Good writers often ask someone else to read the essay, then make corrections. Many good writers read the essay aloud to themselves. This may highlight weaknesses in meaning or flow. The beauty of the computer age is that writers rarely, if ever, have to rewrite entire essays. Having a working copy allows the writer to return to the essay for any number of corrections. Use the “review” tools in the word

The Division and Classification Essay

Dividing involves separating something into sections. Division goes from large to small. Classification is to place items into a predetermined scheme of categories. Classification goes from small to large. These two kinds of writing may be entirely separate from one another, or they may be joined. Both parts of the process are generally used, even if the writing is dedicated to only one of the two. Purpose considerations: This style of writing is most often used to inform, persuade, or entertain (though this last one is not typically used in academic settings). Informing: When using this system to explain or inform, the division portion allows the reader to see the smaller, separated parts of the whole. When explaining why certain animals can survive in cold climates while others cannot, dividing animals by species may be a good place to start. Other times the writer may wish to explain how similar items all fit into one category. When discussing nutrition for athletes, placing foods in their appropriate food groups would be an appropriate exercise to help athletes determine which foods would be the best sources of protein. This essay style may also be used to persuade. Asking the reader to view something in smaller parts may help persuade the reader to move to a new way of thinking. For example, to combat the broad statement “all predators are bad,” one might break predators into smaller groups, then explain how some of the individuals in those smaller groups are in fact beneficial to farmers, ranchers, sportsmen, and other animal groups. Audience considerations: As always, knowing the audience is always beneficial. If the anticipated audience is highly knowledgeable about the topic, less time may be spent offering background information or giving definitions to terms. On the other hand, if the audience contains novices or if the topic is relatively new, the writer may need to spend considerable time creating the background information. Strategies: As the term suggests, one of the first steps in this essay is to divide a large group into smaller subsets. Plan carefully how to do this so the idea remains clear to the reader. The writer may have to do this division step several times to create groups that make the most sense and that can be discussed without confusing the reader. Be careful to make the divisions

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processing program to aid your writing. Learning to write well is not easy, but the rewards are endless.

23

Writing the CRT Essay Some standardized test formats require a different form of essay than what has been covered above. This is a good format to follow.

What is a Constructed Response?A constructed response is a type of open-ended essay question that

demonstrates cognitive knowledge and reasoning. The answer must be provided using information that can be found in a particular text or other essay prompt (map, picture, graphic organizer, etc.) and is not meant to demonstrate opinion, but to show how you are able to extract information and use this as the basis for forming a complete answer. Constructed response essays are increasingly used on standardized tests ranging from the statewide assessments that usually begin in third grade all the way up to the college placement exams such as the SAT and ACT.

The easiest way to understand and answer the constructed response essay is to memorize the acronym “RACE.” This stands for Reword, Answer, Cite, and Explain. If you can do this well, you will probably score well on this portion of the test.

Rewording the question (the “R” in “RACE”)Rewording the question means you are to restate the question, making

it a statement as a part of the answer you provide. If you were asked, “What color is the sky?” you would not simply answer “blue.” Instead, change the question into “The color of the sky is blue,“ or words to that effect.

Answer the question (the “A” in “RACE”)In order to answer the question, you need to understand what

you are being asked. You then need to make sure to provide the answer to the specific question. The answer may come in the first sentence as you reword the question into a statement, but in an essay question you will need to show how you arrived at your answer.

Citing Evidence (the “C” in “RACE”)The constructed response question is designed to show how well

writers comprehend and are able to draw inferences from an essay prompt. Giving examples from the prompt will be critical to earning a good score. If the prompt concerns a story about a boy named Joe who loves to ski and the question is “Does Joe like the winter?”, you could answer “Joe likes the winter because the story tells us that he loves skiing, and skiing is a winter sport.” In your essay, you could provide specific details that tell you how much he enjoys skiing (and, by extension, winter), such as quoting a line that says, “Joe enjoyed the feel of the icy-cold air on his cheeks.”

The main idea here is to refer back to the prompt, adding information from that prompt to your essay.

Explain (the “E” in “RACE”)An important part of the essay is to explain yourself. Explain how

you arrived at the final answer you are writing, using textual evidence as support. This is very much like the discussion portion of the body paragraph of a five-paragraph essay.

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