Министерство образования и науки РФИркутский государственный технический университет

Ю.Л.Барановская И.В.Богданова Т.В.Кушнарёва

Basic Power Engineering Issues

Учебное пособие по английскому языку

ИздательствоИркутского государственного технического университета

2014

УДК 802.0 (075.8)ББК Ш 143.21–923

Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно–издательским советом НИ ИрГТУ

Рецензенты:канд. филол. наук, доцент кафедры русского языка как иностранного ИГЛУ А.Б. Антонова;канд. педагог. наук, доцент кафедры иностранных языков №2 НИ ИрГТУ Е.В. Дворак

Барановская Ю.Л., Богданова И.В., Кушнарёва Т.В., Basic Power Engi-neering Issues : учеб. пособие по английскому языку. – Иркутск: Изд-во НИ ИрГТУ, 2014. – 161 с.

Пособие соответствует требованиям образовательной программы дисциплины «Иностранный язык в сфере профкоммуникации» по направлению 140400 «Электроэнергетика и электротехника».

Состоит из 4 частей, 12 разделов и приложения. Каждый раздел снабжен англо-русским словарем, текстовыми заданиями для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы по английскому языку. Тексты и упражнения составлены на основе оригинальной лексики, употребляемой современными носителями языка.

Предназначено для студентов второго и третьего курсов института электроэнергетики в рамках подготовки бакалавров.

ISBN © Ю.Л.Барановская, Богданова И.В., Кушнарёва Т.В., 2014

© Иркутский государственный технический университет, 2014

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МЕТОДИЧЕСКАЯ ЗАПИСКА

Настоящее учебное пособие соответствует требованиям ФГОС-3 дисциплины «Иностранный язык в сфере профессиональной коммуникации» по направлению подготовки «Электроэнергетика и электротехника». Пособие отвечает специфике профессионально-ориентированного обучения иностранному языку в нелингвистическом вузе и предназначено для студентов института электроэнергетики.

Основная цель учебного пособия – совершенствование навыков и умений чтения и перевода аутентичных текстов на английском языке, овладение обучающимися специальной энергетической и электротехнической терминологией и формирование иноязычной коммуникативной компетенции.

Структурно учебное пособие состоит из двух разделов, которые представляют собой взаимосвязанный, взаимодействующий комплекс, в процессе работы над которым студенты должны овладеть лексическим (терминологическим) материалом, систематизировать и активизировать грамматические структуры, закрепить и усовершенствовать реализацию данных структур во всех видах речевой деятельности.

Первый раздел включает в себя фрагменты занятий, объединенных по тематическому принципу. Основной единицей организации практической работы с учебным материалом является занятие. Каждое занятие рассчитано для аудиторной работы и включает в себя лексический минимум узкоспециального формата, основной текст и систему упражнений.

Второй раздел состоит из дополнительных текстов. Дополнительные тексты предназначены для самостоятельной и индивидуальной работы с учетом задач обучения и индивидуальных способностей и умений студентов.

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CONTENTS

PART 1 – HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY...........................................................4UNIT 1 – FROM THE HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY.......................................4UNIT 2 – HISTORY OF POWER ENGINEERING............................................9PART 2 – THE MOST EFFICIENT SOURCES OF ENERGY..................18UNIT 3 – HYDROELECTRIC POWER............................................................18UNIT 4 – TURBINES. THE ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY.....................26UNIT 5 – ATOMIC ENERGY...........................................................................33UNIT 6 – SAFETY PROBLEMS OF ATOMIC ENERGY...............................42PART 3 – ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY.................................53UNIT 7 – SOLAR ENERGY.............................................................................53UNIT 8 – WIND INDUSTRY............................................................................61UNIT 9 – GEOTHERMAL POWER..................................................................69PART 4 – INNOVATIONS. INVENTIONS. INVENTORS.........................79UNIT 10 – INNOVETIONS IN POWER ENGEENERING..............................79UNIT 11 – INVENTIONS..................................................................................86UNIT 12 – FAMOUSE INVENTORS................................................................94SUPPLEMENTARY READING...................................................................104GRAMMAR REFERENCE...........................................................................123

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PART 1 – HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY

UNIT 1 – FROM THE HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY

Active vocabulary

1. kite – воздушный змей2. rainstorm – гроза3. electricity – электричество4. exist – существовать5. lightning – молния6. flow – поток7. electron – электрон8. cloud – облако9. shock – удар током10. moving – перемещение11. invention – изобретение12. quest – поиск13. though – не смотря на то, что14. clue – догадка15. ancient – древний16. amber – янтарь17. to rub – тереть18. lightweight – легкий19. to stick – притягивать20. basis – основа21. static electricity – статическое электричество22. inventor – изобретатель23. incandescent light bulb – лампа накаливания24. voltaic pile – гальваническая батарея25. electromotive force – электродвижущая сила26. loop – цикличное выполнение27. wire – провод28. to wire – подключать29. electromagnetic induction – электромагнитная индукция30. transformer – трансформатор31. electrician – электротехник32. waterwheel – водяное колесо33. alternating current – переменный ток34. intermittent – прерывистый35. steam-powered station – паровая электростанция36. direct current – постоянный ток37. higher voltage – высокое напряжение

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38. loss – потеря39. transmission – передача40. suitable – подходящий41. railway – железная дорога42. to switch – переключать

Guess the meaning of the following words: creative inventions, ancient Greece, Greek philosophers, static electricity, flow of electrons, lightweight ob-jects, electricity's development, incandescent light bulb, magnetic flux, loop of wire, steam-powered electric power station, real power system, commercial power system, fundamental mistakes.

The History of Electricity

Believe it or not, electricity didn't begin when Benjamin Franklin flew his kite during a rainstorm, or when light bulbs were installed in houses all around the world. In fact, electricity has always been around. As you may not know, electricity exists in nature. Lightning is simply a flow of electrons between the ground and the clouds. When you touch something and get a shock that is really electricity moving into you. The motors, light bulbs, and batteries of today aren't needed for electricity to exist. They are just creative inventions brought about through man's quest to discover an electricity.

Even though no one had a clue what it all meant back then, the first dis-coveries of electricity were made back in Ancient Greece. Greek philosophers discovered that when amber is rubbed against cloth, lightweight objects will stick to it. This is the basis of static electricity.

Scientists have worked with electricity throughout history to build it to what it is today. We've all heard of the famous ones such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Edison, but there have been many other inventors in history that were a part in the electricity's development.

A. Comprehension

1. Read the text. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) Benjamin Franklin2) Lightning3) Greek philosophers4) Electric shock

2. Answer the following questions:1) What is kite?2) How can you get an electric shock?3) What is amber?4) What are Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Edison famous for?

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5) What is lightning?6) Where were the first discoveries of electricity made?7) What did Greek philosophers discover?8) What is the basis for the static electricity?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) Benjamin Franklin flew his airplane during a rainstorm.2) Electricity exists in nature.3) Electric shock is really electricity moving into you.4) The first discoveries of electricity were made back in Ancient Rome.5) There were many inventors in history that were a part in the electric-

ity's development.

2. Give definitions to:1) Electric shock2) Light bulbs3) Flow of electrons4) Creative inventions 5) Discovery of electricity6) Fundamental mistakes

3. Learn to recognize the following international words:Fact, electron, motor, battery, creative, philosopher, object, basis, static,

history, product, interest, magnetic, electromagnetic induction, generator, trans-former, lamp, volt, company, electric, operate, distance, demonstrate, mile, sys-tem, practical, kilometer, fundamental, line, import, experimenting

4. Give the English equivalents for:Электричество всегда было вокруг нас; электричество существует в

природе; электричество проходит внутри Вас; появиться благодаря человеку; когда янтарь трется о ткань, легкие предметы притягиваются к нему; основа статического электричества.

5. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:

1) his kite … a rainstorm;2) … fact;3) moving … you;4) need … electricity;5) rubbed … cloth;6) inventors … history;7) to work … electricity … history;

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6. Translate the following words into Russian paying attention to the means of word formation (prefixes and suffixes):

observe – observer – observationsafe – safely – safety – unsafescience – scientist – scientificdesign – designerfly – flightinvent – inventor – inventionconstruct – constructor – constructionimprove – improvementweigh – weight – weightlessdevelop – development

7. Read the text and fill in the gaps with words from the list.Power, familiar, devices, speaking, effects, glass, research

applications, field, philosopher, objects, started.

Early History of Electricity

Let us now turn our attention to the early facts, that is to say, let us see how it all ... .

History shows us that at least 2,500 years ago, or so, the Greeks were al-ready … with the strange force (as it seemed to them) which is known today as electricity. Generally …, three phenomena made up all of man’s knowledge of electrical …. The first phenomenon under consideration was the familiar light-ning flash – a dangerous …, as it seemed to him, which could both kill people and burn or destroy their houses. The second manifestation of electricity he was more or less familiar with was the following: he sometimes found in the earth a strange yellow stone which looked like …. On being rubbed, that strange yellow stone, that is to say amber, obtained the ability of attracting light objects of a small size. The third phenomenon was connected with the so-called electric fish which possessed the property of giving more or less strong electric shocks which could be obtained by a person coming into contact with the electric fish.

Nobody knew that the above phenomena were due to electricity. People could neither understand their observations nor find any practical … for them.

As a matter of fact, all of man’s knowledge in the … of electricity has been obtained during the last 370 years, or so. Needless to say, it took a long time before scientists learned how to make use of electricity. In effect, most of the electrically operated …, such as the electric lamp, the refrigerator, the tram, the lift, the radio, and so on, are less than one hundred years old. In spite of their having been employed for such a short period of time, they play a most impor-tant part in man’s everyday life all over the world. In fact, we cannot do without them at present.

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So far, we have not named the scientists who contributed to the scientific … on electricity as centuries passed. However, famous names are connected with its history and among them we find that of Phales, the Greek …. As early as about 600 В. C. (that is, before our era) he discovered that when, amber was rubbed, it attracted and held minute light …. However, he could not know that amber was charged with electricity owing to the process of rubbing. Then Gilbert, the English physicist, began the first systematic scientific research on electrical phenomena. He discovered that various other substances possessed the property similar to that of amber or, in other words, they generated electricity when they were rubbed. He gave the name «electricity» to the phenomenon he was studying. He got this word from the Greek «electrum» meaning «amber».

Many learned men of Europe began to use the new word «electricity» in their conversation as they were engaged in research of their own. Scientists of Russia, France and Italy mode their contribution as well as the Englishmen and the Germans.

8. Make up 5 questions to the underlined words from text «Early history of electricity».

9. Find some key words in the text and try to express the main idea of the text.

10. Translate the following sentences into English:1) На самом деле, электричество всегда было вокруг нас.2) Молния – это просто поток электронов между землей и облаками.3) Когда вы касаетесь чего-то, и вас ударяет током, это

электричество проходит внутри вас.4) Греческие философы обнаружили, что когда янтарь трется о ткань,

легкие предметы начинают притягиваться к нему. Это является основой статического электричества.

5) История показывает нам, что, по меньшей мере, 2, 500 тыс. лет назад греки уже были знакомы со странной силой, которая известна сегодня как электричество.

6) Люди не могли ни объяснить свои наблюдения, ни найти им какое–либо практическое применение.

7) Не нужно и говорить, что понадобилось очень много времени, прежде чем ученые поняли как извлекать пользу из электричества.

8) На самом деле мы не можем обходиться без электричества в современном мире.

9) За тысячелетия многие ученые сделали огромный вклад в научные исследования в области электричества.

10) Он дал название «Электричество» тому явлению, которое изучал. 11) Многие образованные люди Европы начали использовать

«Электричество» в своих исследованиях.

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С. Discussion

1) Speak on three electrical phenomena known to the people of the past.2) Speak on every day use of electricity.

UNIT 2 – HISTORY OF POWER ENGINEERING

Active vocabulary

1. to flourish – процветать2. literally – буквально3. effectively – эффективно4. dedicated – предназначенный5. fierce rivalry – ожесточенное соперничество6. installation – установка7. synchronous – синхронный8. three-phase transmission line – трехфазная линия передач9. protracted – длительный10. remote – отдаленный, дистанционный11. decision–making process – процесс принятия решений12. opposed – противоположный13. valve – клапан, вентиль14. switchgear – распределительное устройство15. reliability issues – проблемы с надежностью16. solid-state rectifier – твердотельный выпрямитель17. circuit breaker – автоматический выключатель18. to interrupt – прерывать19. switching equipment – коммутационное оборудование20. quantity – количество21. vary – варьироваться22. level – уровень23. air conditioner – кондиционер24. pump – насос25. industrial machinery – промышленное оборудование26. digital equipment – цифровое оборудование27. flourish – разрастаться, преуспевать28. plug – подключать29. internal – внутренний30. external – внешний31. advantage – преимущество32. brushless – бесщеточный33. to remain – оставаться34. flux – течение, поток35. to induce – заставлять, побуждать

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36. load – нагрузка37. appliance –устройство, прибор38. mismatch –несоответствие39. solid state – твердотельный40. semiconductor – полупроводник41. nevertheless – тем не менее42. counterpart – аналог43. widespread – широко распространенный

Guess the meaning of the following words: Power industry, Power com-panies, Direct current, Synchronous motor, Tesla induction motor, Electric light-ing, Mercury arc valves, industrial machinery, digital devices, brushless machin-ery, higher voltage, solid state devices, solid state technology, traditional coun-terparts.

A. History of Power Engineering (Part I)

Electricity became a subject of scientific interest in the late 17th century with the work of William Gilbert. Over the next two centuries a number of im-portant discoveries were made including the incandescent light bulb and the voltaic pile. Probably the greatest discovery with respect to power engineering came from Michael Faraday who in 1831 discovered that a change in magnetic flux induces an electromotive force in a loop of wire a principle known as elec-tromagnetic induction that helps explain how generators and transformers work.

In 1881 two electricians built the world's first power station at Godalming in England. The station employed two waterwheels to produce an alternating current that was used to supply seven Siemens arc lamps at 250 volts and thirty–four incandescent lamps at 40 volts. However supply was intermittent and in 1882 Thomas Edison and his company, The Edison Electric Light Company, de-veloped the first steam–powered electric power station on Pearl Street in New York City. The Pearl Street Station consisted of several generators and initially powered around 3 000 lamps for 59 customers. The power station used direct current and operated at a single voltage. Since the direct current power could not be easily transformed to the higher voltages necessary to minimise power loss during transmission, the possible distance between the generators and load was limited to around half-a-mile (800 m).

That same year in London Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs demon-strated the first transformer suitable for use in a real power system. The practical value of Gaulard and Gibbs' transformer was demonstrated in 1884 at Turin where the transformer was used to light up forty kilometres (25 miles) of rail-way from a single alternating current generator. Despite the success of the sys-tem, the pair made some fundamental mistakes. Perhaps the most serious was connecting the primaries of the transformers in series so that switching one lamp on or off would affect other lamps further down the line. Following the demon-

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stration George Westinghouse, an American entrepreneur, imported a number of the transformers along with a Siemens generator and set his engineers to experi-menting with them in the hopes of improving them for use in a commercial power system.

B. History of Power Engineering (Part II)

By 1890 the power industry had flourished and power companies had built literally thousands of power systems (both direct and alternating current) in the United States and Europe – these networks were effectively dedicated to pro-viding electric lighting. During this time a fierce rivalry in the US known as the «War of Currents» emerged between Edison and Westinghouse over which form of transmission (direct or alternating current) was superior. In 1891, Westing-house installed the first major power system that was designed to drive an elec-tric motor and not just provide electric lighting. The installation powered a 100 horsepower (75 kW) synchronous motor at Telluride, Colorado with the motor being started by a Tesla induction motor. On the other side of the Atlantic, Os-kar von Miller built a 20 kV 176 km three-phase transmission line from Lauffen am Neckar to Frankfurt am Main for the Electrical Engineering Exhibition in Frankfurt. In 1895, after a protracted decision-making process, the Adams №1 generating station at Niagara Falls began transmitting three-phase alternating current power to Buffalo at 11 kV. Following completion of the Niagara Falls project, new power systems increasingly chose alternating current as opposed to direct current for electrical transmission.

Although the 1880s and 1890s were seminal decades in the field, develop-ments in power engineering continued throughout the 20th and 21st century. In 1936 the first commercial HVDC (high voltage direct current) line using Mer-cury arc valves was built between Schenectady and Mechanicville, New York. HVDC had previously been achieved by installing direct current generators in series (a system known as the Thury system) although this suffered from serious reliability issues. In 1957 Siemens demonstrated the first solid-state rectifier (solid-state rectifiers are now the standard for HVDC systems) however it was not until the early 1970s that this technology was used in commercial power sys-tems. In 1959 Westinghouse demonstrated the first circuit breaker that used as the interrupting medium. SF6 is a far superior dielectric to air and, in recent times, its use has been extended to produce far more compact switching equip-ment (known as switchgear) and transformers. Many important developments also came from extending innovations in the information technology and telecommunications field to the power engineering field. For example, the de-velopment of computers meant load flow studies could be run more efficiently allowing for much better planning of power systems. Advances in information technology and telecommunication also allowed for much better remote control of the power system's switchgear and generators.

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A. Comprehension

1. Read text A. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.

1) The Edison Electric Light Company, developed the first steam–powered electric power station on Pearl Street in New York City.

2) Over the next two centuries a number of important discoveries were made including the incandescent light bulb and the voltaic pile.

3) Perhaps the most serious was connecting the primaries of the transformers in series so that switching one lamp on or off would affect other lamps further down the line.

4) The practical value of Gaulard and Gibbs' transformer was demonstrated in 1884 at Turin where the transformer was used to light up forty kilometers (25 miles) of railway from a single alternating current generator.

5) Probably the greatest discovery with respect to power engineering came from Michael Faraday.

2. Read texts A and B. Choose the sentences which contain information about:

1) «War of Currents»;2) Electrical Engineering Exhibition;3) Niagara Falls project;4) Developments in power engineering;5) Circuit breaker;6) Development of computers;7) Discovery of Michael Faraday;8) Pearl Street Station;9) Transmission;10) Demonstration of the first transformer;11) Demonstrated in Turin;12) Siemens generator.

3. Answer the following questions:1) Who first introduced the concept of electromagnetic induction?2) Where and what year was the first power station in the world con-

structed?3) What is the merit of Thomas?4) Why did Lucian Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs become famous?5) What the serious mistake did Gaulard and Gibbs allow?6) What is «War of currents»?7) What is the merit of Oskar von Miller?8) What is Generating Station Adams №1 at Niagara Falls famous for?9) What year was the first commercial HVDC line build?10) What special is about the first switch of Westinghouse?

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B. Vocabulary practice

1. Give the Russian equivalents for:1) Incandescent light bulb;2) Magnetic flux;3) Loop of wire;4) Steam-powered electric power station;5) Real power system;6) Commercial power system;7) Fundamental mistakes;8) Power industry;9) Power companies;10) Direct current;11) Synchronous motor;12) Tesla induction motor;13) Electric lighting;14) Mercury arc valves. 

2. Complete the following sentences: 1) Electricity became a subject of scientific interest in … with the work

of William Gilberta) the beginning of 18th century b) the late 17th century c) 19002) In 1881 two electricians built the world's first power station at Godalm-

ing in ….a) France b) Russia c) England3) The Edison Electric Light Company, developed the first … electric

power station on Pearl Street in New York City.a) hydro power b) steam-powered c) atomic4) The practical value of Gaulard and Gibbs' transformer was

demonstrated in 1884 at Turin where the transformer was used to light up forty kilometers (25 miles) of … from a single alternating current generator.

a) railway b) high way c) country road

3. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.Practical, telecommunication, incandescent, voltaic, magnetic, elec-

tromagnetic, possible, to built, important, direct, possible, fundamental, to switch, electric, to drive, electrical, power, circuit, better.

1) ……….. discoveries 10) ……….. mistakes2) ……….. light bulb  11) ………..a lamp3) ……….. pile 12) ………..system4) ……….. flux 13) ……….. lighting5) ……….. induction  14) ………..an electric motor6) ……….. a station 15) ………..transmission

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7) ……….. current 16) ……….. breaker 8) ……….. distance 17) ……….. planning 9)……….. value 18) ……….. field

4. Give the English equivalents for:Лампа накаливания, магнитный поток, виток провода, паровая

электростанция, реальная энергосистема, коммерческая энергосистема, фундаментальные ошибки, энергетическая индустрия, энергетические кампании, прямой ток, синхронный генератор, асинхронный двигатель Тесла, электрическое освещение, ртутные дуговые клапаны.

5. Fill in the following table using information from the text.Name Date Discovery

6. Fill in the missing conjunctions in the following sentences. 1) He well be here … at 6 … at 7.2) He was … tired … thirsty, for it was very hot.3) I left very early … I was to go to meet a friend at the station.4) He thought … the train arrived at 6.15.5) It is clear … he is wrong.6) Stay here … I come back.7) I needn’t tell you anything … he has told you all about it already.8) You must leave at once, … you will miss the train.9) I cannot do it … you do.10) This road seems longer … I thought.11) … I was sitting there, he came up to me. 12) There are not so many people here … I expected. 13) … soon … every one was ready, I gave the signal.

7. Form the adjectives from the following nouns and give the Russian equivalents.

Difficulty, activity, cooperation, difference, necessity, creature, possibil-ity, nation, peace, operation, navigation, efficiency, importance, cooperation.

8. Distribute the words below according to the parts of speech. Underline suffixes and prefixes. Translate the words.

Verb Noun Adverb AdjectiveKnowledge, clear, describe, encourage, development, standardization,

safety, airspace, efficient, widely, gather, understanding, international, fast, solve, equipment, operational, air-worthiness, happened, communication, main,

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task, conform, upper, develop, international, include, accidents, prevent, training.

9. Read the text. Fill in the correct prepositions. Over, with, to, at, into, between, for, of

Basics of Electric Power

Electric power is the mathematical product of two quantities: current and voltage. These two quantities can vary … respect to time (AC power) or can be kept … constant levels (DC power).

Most refrigerators, air conditioners, pumps and industrial machinery use AC power whereas computers and digital equipment use DC power (the digital devices you plug … the mains typically have an internal or external power adapter to convert from AC to DC power). AC power has the advantage of being easy to transform … voltages and is able to be generated and utilized by brush-less machinery. AC power remains the only practical choice in digital systems and can be more economical to transmit … long distances at very high voltages.

The ability to easily transform the voltage of AC power is important … two reasons: Firstly, power can be transmitted over long distances with less loss at higher voltages. So in power networks where generation is distant from the load, it is desirable to step-up the voltage … power at the generation point and then step-down the voltage near the load. Secondly, it is often more economical to install turbines that produce higher voltages than would be used by most ap-pliances, so the ability to easily transform voltages means this mismatch be-tween voltages can be easily managed.

Solid state devices, which are products of the semiconductor revolution, make it possible to transform DC power … different voltages, build brushless DC machines and convert between AC and DC power. Nevertheless devices uti-lizing solid state technology are often more expensive than their traditional counterparts, so AC power remains in widespread use.

10. Find in the text above the use of modal verbs and their equivalents. Translate the sentences. What other modal verbs do you know?

11. Make these sentences (a) interrogative, (b) negative.1) Electric power is the mathematical product of two quantities: current

and voltage.2) It is often more economical to install turbines that produce higher

voltages than would be used by most appliances.3) Nevertheless devices utilizing solid state technology are often more ex-

pensive than their traditional counterparts, so AC power remains in widespread use.

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4) In 1959 Westinghouse demonstrated the first circuit breaker that used as the interrupting medium.

5) Working at his new device, the inventor made numerous experiments.6) Modern civilization needs more and more electricity.7) The discovery was made by a well-known scientist.

12. Translate the following sentences into English:1) Электричество стало предметом научного интереса в конце 17

века.2) В течение следующих двух веков было совершено множество

важных открытий в этой области.3) Принцип, известный как электромагнитная индукция, помогает

объяснить, как работают генераторы и трансформаторы.4) В 1881 г. Два инженера построили первую в мире электростанцию

в Англии.5) Работу станции обеспечивали два водяных колеса для

производства альтернативного тока. 6) Станция состояла из нескольких генераторов.7) Электростанция использовала постоянный ток в своей работе.8) В тот же год в Лондоне Гиллард и Гиббс продемонстрировали

первый трансформатор, пригодный для использования в реальной энергосистеме.

9) Электростанция на Ниагарском водопаде начала передачу трехфазного альтернативного тока в Буффало.

10) Достижения в информационных технологиях и телекоммуникациях также позволили лучше контролировали работу энергосистемы.

11) Энергетика – это математический продукт двух качеств: тока и напряжения.

12) Способность легко передавать напряжение очень важна по двум причинам. Во-первых, энергия может быть передана на большое расстояние с минимальной потерей напряжения. Во-вторых, это, зачастую, более экономически выгодно.

13. Read the text and point out the main idea of each paragraph.

Electricity May Be Dangerous

Many people have had strong shocks from the electric wires in a house. The wires seldom carry current at a higher voltage than 220, and a person whey touches a bare wire or terminal may suffer no harm if the skin is dry. But if the hand is wet, he may be killed. Water is known to be a good conductor of elec-tricity and provides an easy path for the current from the wire to the body. One of the main wires carrying the current is connected to earth, and if a person

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touches the other one with a wet hand, a heavy current will flow through his body to earth and so to the other wire. The body forms part of an electric circuit.

When we are dealing with wires and fuses carrying an electric current, it is best to wear rubber gloves. Rubber is a good insulator and will not let the cur-rent pass to the skin. If no rubber gloves can be found in the house, dry cloth gloves are better than nothing. Never touch a bare wire with the wet hand, and never, in any situation, touch a water pipe and an electric wire at the same time.

We all use electricity in our homes every day but sometimes forget that it is a form of power and may be dangerous. At the other end of the wire there are great generators driven by turbines turning at high speed. One should remember that the power they generate is enormous. It can burn and kill, but it will serve us well if we use it wisely.

14. Find the wrong statement and correct it.1) The wires carrying the current are connected to earth.2) Water provides a path for the current to flow.3) The electric power can serve us well if it used wisely.

15. Point out which of the sentences contains the information from text.1) The path along which the electrons travel must be complete.2) The short circuit often results from cable fault or wire fault.3) We must always remember that electricity can be dangerous and should

use it carefully.

С. Discussion

1) Speak on the careless use of the electric energy. Give examples of careless use of the electric energy. What should be done in such cases?

2) Speak on the reasons of electricity danger. Dangerous thing happened to you.

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PART 2 – THE MOST EFFICIENT SOURCES OF ENERGY.

UNIT 3 – HYDROELECTRIC POWER

Active vocabulary

1. renewable – возобновляемый2. sufficient – достаточный3. to evaporate – испаряться4. runoff – сток5. gravity – гравитация, притяжение6. steadily – неуклонно7. to increase – увеличивать8. capacity – мощность9. ability – способность10. to respond – отвечать11. disturbances – нарушение12. residential – жилой13. pollution – загрязнение14. velocity – скорость15. fuel – топливо16. to consume – потреблять17. precipitation –осадки18. cost estimate – смета расходов19. to percolate – просачиваться20. wheel – колесо21. submerged – погруженный22. to reduce – снижать23. lawn sprinkler – машина для поливки газонов24. pressure – давление25. blades – лезвие26. rotation – вращение27. buckets – ведра28. degree – степень29. bottom – дно30. flow – поток

Guess the meaning of the following words: form of energy, hydroelec-tric power, turn turbines, growing populations, modern technologies, amount of energy, national power, wave power, force of gravity, runoff from mountain, generating capacity, types of turbines, reaction turbine, horizontal wheel, verti-cal wheel, lawn sprinkler, under pressure, ground water, condenses into clouds, water cycle, generator’s coil

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Hydroelectric Power – What Is It?

It’s a form of energy a renewable resource. Hydropower provides about 96 percent of the renewable energy in the Russia. Other renewable resources in-clude geothermal, wave power, tidal power, wind power, and solar power. Hy-droelectric power plants do not use up resources to create electricity nor do they pollute the air, land, or water, as other power plants may. Hydroelectric power has played an important part in the development of the electric power industry. Both small and large hydroelectric power developments were instrumental in the early expansion of the electric power industry.

Hydroelectric power comes from flowing water and spring runoff from mountain streams and clear lakes. Water, when it is falling by the force of grav-ity, can be used to turn turbines and generators that produce electricity.

Hydroelectric power is important to our Nation. Growing populations and modern technologies require vast amounts of electricity for creating, building, and expanding. In the 1920's, hydroelectric plants supplied as much as 40 per-cent of the electric energy produced. Although the amount of energy produced by this means has steadily increased, the amount produced by other types of power plants has increased at a faster rate and hydroelectric generating capacity of the Russia.

Hydropower is an essential contributor in the national power grid because of its ability to respond quickly to rapidly varying loads or system disturbances, which base load plants with steam systems powered by combustion or nuclear processes cannot accommodate.

58 power plants produces an average of 42 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) per year in western Russia, enough to meet the residential needs of over 14 mil-lion people. This is the electrical energy equivalent of about 72 million barrels of oil. Hydroelectric power plants are the most efficient means of producing electric energy. The efficiency of today's hydroelectric plant is about 90 percent. Hydroelectric plants do not create air pollution, the fuel-falling water – is not consumed, projects have power presently supplies about 10 percent of the elec-trical long lives relative to other forms of energy generation, and hydroelectric generators respond quickly to changing system conditions. These favorable characteristics continue to make hydroelectric projects attractive sources of elec-tric power.

A. Comprehension

1. Read the text and answer the following questions:1) What is hydroelectric power? 2) What is the future of hydroelectric?3) How many hydroelectric power stations are there in the western part of

Russia?

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4) How many percents do hydroelectric power stations supply in the total electricity generation?

5) What are the advantages of hydroelectric power stations in comparison with the other stations?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) Hydropower is not renewable type of energy.2) Hydroelectric power comes from sun.3) Sunlight can be used to turn turbines.4) Hydroelectric power plants do not use up resources to create electricity.5) Modern technologies require vast amounts of electricity for creating,

building, and expanding.6) In the 1920's, hydroelectric plants supplied as much as 60 percent of

the electric energy produced.7) Hydroelectric plants do not create air pollution.8) Hydroelectric power plants are efficient.

2. Match the numbers to the letters.1) Renewable resource а) обеспечивать2) Tide b) жилищные нужды3) Solar energy c) солнечная энергия4) Pollute d) загрязнять5) Flow e) течь6) Gravity f) возобновляемые источники7) Increase g) прилив8) Contribute h) сила притяжения9) Residential needs i) увеличивать10) Supply j) поставщик

3. Give the Russian equivalents for:1) generating capacity;2) amount of energy;3) growing populations;4) force of gravity;5) to pollute the air;6) to play an important part;7) development of electric power industry;8) to increase steadily;9) to create air pollution;10) favorable characteristics.

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4. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.Create, to turn, wind, spring, flowing, power, force, growing.1) ……… power 5) ……… runoff 2) ……… plants 6) ……… of gravity3) ……… electricity 7) ……… populations4) ……… water 8) ……… turbines

5. Give the English equivalents for:Под действием силы тяжести, используется для вращения турбин,

растущее население, форма энергии возобновляемых ресурсов, энергия волн приливов, гидроэлектростанции не загрязняют воздух, играть важную роль в развитии электроэнергетики, поставлять 40% произведенной электрической энергии, количество произведенной энергии постоянно растет, увеличиваться быстрыми темпами, генерирующаяся мощность, быстро меняющиеся нагрузки, быть эквивалентным 72 млн. баррелей нефти.

6. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Atmosphere, pipe, power, plants, reservoirs, discovered, soil, destroyed,

motion, moving, produced, rain.

How Hydropower Works

Hydroelectric … comes from water at work, water in motion. It can be seen as a form of solar energy, as the sun powers the hydrologic cycle which gives the earth its water. In the hydrologic cycle, atmospheric water reaches the earth’s surface as precipitation. Some of this water evaporates, but much of it ei-ther percolates into the soil or becomes surface runoff. Water from … and melt-ing snow eventually reaches ponds, lakes…, or oceans where evaporation is constantly occurring.

Moisture percolating into the … may become ground water (subsurface water), some of which also enters water bodies through springs or underground streams. Ground water may move upward through soil during dry periods and may return to the atmosphere by evaporation.

Water vapor passes into the … by evaporation then circulates, condenses into clouds, and some returns to earth as precipitation. Thus, the water cycle is complete. Nature ensures that water is a renewable resource.

Generating PowerIn nature, energy cannot be created or…, but its form can change. In gen-

erating electricity, no new energy is created. Actually one form of energy is con-verted to another form.

To generate electricity, water must be in …. This is kinetic (…) energy. When flowing water turns blades in a turbine, the form is changed to mechanical (machine) energy. The turbine turns the generator rotor which then converts this

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mechanical energy into another energy form – electricity. Since water is the ini-tial source of energy, we call this hydroelectric power or hydropower for short.

At facilities called hydroelectric power …, hydropower is generated. Some power plants are located on rivers, streams, and canals, but for a reliable water supply, dams are needed. Dams store water for later release for such pur-poses as irrigation, domestic and industrial use, and power generation. The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing water to be released as needed to gen-erate power.

The dam creates a «head» or height from which water flows. A … (pen-stock) carries the water from the reservoir to the turbine. The fast-moving water pushes the turbine blades, something like a pinwheel in the wind. The waters force on the turbine blades turns the rotor, the moving part of the electric gener-ator. When coils of wire on the rotor sweep past the generator's stationary coil (stator), electricity is ….

This concept was … by Michael Faraday in 1831 when he found that electricity could be generated by rotating magnets within copper coils. When the water has completed its task, it flows on unchanged to serve other needs.

7) Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) Forms of energy; 2) Water cycle; 3) Renewable resource;4) Convertion of energy; 5) Kinetic energy;6) Mechanical energy;7) Generator rotor;8) Dams;9) Storing water;10) Pipes;11) Rotating magnets.

8) Give the Russian equivalents for:1) Types of turbines;2) Reaction turbine;3) Horizontal wheel;4) Vertical wheel;5) Lawn sprinkler;6) Under pressure;7) Ground water;8) Condenses into clouds;9) Water cycle;10) Generator’s coil.

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9) Find sentences in the text with modal verbs. Translate them into Russian.

10) Complete the following sentences: 1) Hydroelectric power comes from … at work, water in motion.a) Sun b) wind c) water2) In the hydrologic cycle, … water reaches the earth’s surface as

precipitation.a) Atmospheric b) underground c) cold3) Ground water may move upward through … during dry periods and

may return to the atmosphere by evaporation.a) Sand b) soil c) clay4) Water condenses into …, and some returns to earth as precipitation.a) Fire b) snowballs c) clouds5) In nature, energy cannot be …, but its form can change.a) Created b) bought c) sold

11. Fill in the correct form of the verb:1) Previous elements that (to synthesize) (to name) after scientists whose

work had significance in nuclear science.2) Scientists in Dubna (to synthesize) a new element which (to occupy)

position 106 in Mendeleev’s Table.3) Benjamin Franklin (to make) his kite experiment.4) History (to show) us that at least 2,500 years ago, or so, the Greeks (to

be) already familiar with the strange force which is known today as electricity.5) A number of nuclear power–stations (to put) into operation since 1954.6) The solar stations in the Kara-Kum desert (to become) producers of

cheap electricity in the near future.

12. Fill in the following table :Verb Noun Adjective

introducesafety

preventnavigational

cooperationcreate

informationpractical

continuedetective

13. Give English equivalents for:

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Типы турбин, реактивная турбина, горизонтальное колесо, вертикальное колесо, машина для поливки газонов, под давлением, грунтовые воды конденсируется в облака, круговорот воды, катушка генератора, форма энергии, на самом деле, преобразовываться в другую форму энергии, при попадании на лопасти, некоторые электростанции расположены на реках, для надежного водоснабжения необходимы плотины.

14. Read the text and make up some questions to the underlined words:

Underground Hydroelectric Power-Station

In about 1889 what may have been the world’s first underground hydro-electric power-station was installed in one of the mines in America. This plant comprised six 40 in. impulse wheels operating under a vertical head of 1,680 ft, each runner being connected to a generator supplying power to the mill a short distance away. Designs and techniques have gradually improved during the past years and there are now 300 underground hydroelectric power– stations either in service or under construction.

15. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.

Short, head, improved, supplying, power, impulse1) ……. station 4) ……. power2) ……. wheels 5) ……. distance3) Vertical ……. 6) Gradually …….

16. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:

1) … a vertical head2) a short distance …3) gradually improved … the past years4) … construction5) to be connected … a generator6) to come … water … work7) covered … a housing8) must be … motion9) to percolate … the soil10) because … its ability11) falling … the force … gravity

17. Give English equivalents for:Подземная гидроэлектростанция; быть установленным; шахта; завод;

колесо; фабрика; короткое расстояние; подземная гидроэлектростанция; за

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последние несколько лет; сыграть важную роль; использовать возобновляемые ресурсы; быть важным для экономики страны; современные технологии; резервуар действует как аккумулятор, сохраняющий воду; форма энергии может измениться.

18. Make these sentences (a) interrogative, (b) negative.1) There are now 300 underground hydroelectric power– stations either in

service or under construction.2) The generator converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.3) Motors serve us every day.4) Cooper is well-known as a good conductor.5) The professor wants us to turn our attention to the problem of

semiconductors.6) The new invention proved to be of great practical importance.7) Construction of Irkutsk Hydroelectric Power Station began in the

spring of 1950.

19. Fill in the following table:Adjective Comparative Superlativeambitious

larger the most

lesswideadvanced

lowerthe longest

more extensive

20. Translate the following sentences into English:1) Проект требовал строительства дамбы длинной более чем два

километра.2) Трудно строить гидроэлектростанцию в сейсмической зоне.3) Необходимо выбирать подходящие стройматериалы для

строительства дамбы в сейсмической зоне.4) Такие стройматериалы становятся только сильнее под

воздействием движущейся почвы.5) Было необходимо построить специальные водные каналы, чтобы

отвести воду из здания гидроэлектростанции.6) В настоящее время строится около трехсот подземных

гидроэлектростанций.7) Первая подземная гидроэлектростанция была установлена в одной

из шахт Америки.

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8) Плотины предназначены для хранения и последующего спуска воды.

9) Проект подземной гидроэлектростанции должен быть усовершенствован в течение следующего года.

10) Иркутская плотина стала первой в каскаде Ангара-Енисейских плотин.

21. Point out which of the sentences contains the information from the text «Underground hydroelectric power-station»

1) A very strong magnetic field is achieved by adding a series winding to the magnetic coil.

2) The power-station of this kind supplied power to the mill a short distance away.

3) The device under consideration will not work on direct current but it is employed in direct current circuits.

22. Learn to recognize the following international words:Resource, percent, geothermal, industry, generators, electric, technologies,

processes, kilowatt, turbines, impulse, reaction, horizontal, vertical, reaction, ki-netic energy.

С. Discussion

1) Speak on the use of electric motors in industry.2) Speak on the use of electric motors in every day life.Try to use the following phrases: In the first place (firstly)What is more (furthermore)In additionMoreoverAll things considered

UNIT 4 – TURBINES. THE ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY

Active vocabulary

1. machinery – оборудование,2. sufficient – достаточный3. debris – обломки, пустая порода4. to obtain – добывать5. to depend on – зависеть от6. considerable – значительный

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7. downstream – вниз по течению8. sprinkler – разбрызгиватель9. to surround – окружать10. environment – окружающая среда11. to grow – расти12. reliant – уверенный13. offering – предложение14. uranium – уран15. impact – воздействие16. desirable – желательный17. unacceptable – неприемлемый18. crucial – решающий19. profound – глубокий20. scar – шрам21. picturesque – живописный22. mud – грязь23. demand – требование, спрос24. acceptable – приемлемый25. nonrenewable – невозобновляемый26. benefit – выгода27. wildlife – живая природа28. agriculture – сельское хозяйство

Guess the meaning of the following words: Large coal resources, the to-tal electric supply, several thousands of feet, located at the dam, farther down-stream, principal parts, natural resources, to live in harmony, to mine uranium, storage dams, to control the water, nonrenewable resources, pollution of air, oil wells, source of energy, to save electricity.

Turbines

While there are only two basic types of turbines (impulse and reaction), there are many variations. The specific type of turbine to be used in a power plant is not selected until all operational studies and cost estimates are complete. The turbine selected depends largely on the site conditions.

A reaction turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that operates with the wheel completely submerged a feature which reduces turbulence. In theory, the reaction turbine works like a rotating lawn sprinkler where water at a central point is under pressure and escapes from the ends of the blades, causing rotation. Reaction turbines are the type most widely used. An impulse turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that uses the kinetic energy of water striking its buckets or blades to cause rotation. The wheel is covered by a housing and the buckets or blades are shaped so they turn the flow of water about 170 degrees

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inside the housing. After turning the blades or buckets, the water falls to the bottom of the wheel housing and flows out.

A. Comprehension

1. Read texts «Turbines» and answer the following questions:1) What kinds of turbines do you know?2) What determines the choice of turbine?3) How does reactive turbine work?4) What is the impulse turbine?5) What can reduce turbulence?6) What turbines are the types most widely used?7) What can the wheel be covered by?8) When does the water fall to the bottom of the wheel housing?

2. Read text «Turbines» and arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.

1) The reaction turbine works like a rotating lawn sprinkler.2) The wheel is covered by a housing.3) The turbine selected depends largely on the site conditions.

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Learn to recognize the following international words:Machinery, modern, hydroelectric, to generate, tendency, to utilize, dis-

tance, combination, turbine, impulse, cascade, natural, structure, resource, gas, uranium, innovation, limited, method.

2. Give Russian equivalents for:1) the specific type;2) basic types;3) to be used in a power plant;4) cost estimates;5) the site conditions;6) In theory;7) To work like a rotating sprinkler;8) Widely used turbines;9) Vertical wheel;10) To cause rotation;

3. Give definitions to the following words:1) Reaction turbine2) Impulse turbine3) Sprinkler4) Wheel housing

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5) Blades6) Buckets4. Match the numbers to the letters.1. Turbines a. Water is under pressure2. Dams b. Rivers 3. Reaction turbine c. The kinetic energy of water4. Impulse turbine d. The existing of two basic types

5. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:

inside, by, of, on, under, from, of, at, to, in1) to escape … the ends … the blades2) to depend … the site conditions3) … theory4) to be … pressure5) the type … turbine6) water … a central point7) to be covered … a housing8) degrees … the housing9) water falls … the bottom

6. Make these sentences (a) interrogative, (b) negative.1) The fluids most commonly used in turbines are steam, hot air or

combustion products and water.2) Turbines effect the conversion of fluid to mechanical energy thought

the principles of impulse, reaction, or a mixture of the two.3) High-pressure fluid at low velocity in the boiler is expanded through

the stationary nozzle to low pressure and high velocity.4) The combination of force and velocity the rotor produces mechanical

power.5) Steam temperature can be controlled by one or more of several

methods.6) The most widely used and most powerful turbines are driven by steam.

7. Read the text. Point out its main ideas and write them out.

Hydropower, the Environment, and Society

It is important to remember that people, and all their actions, are part of the natural world. The materials used for building, energy, clothing, food, and all the familiar parts of our day-to-day world come from natural resources.

Our surroundings are composed largely of the «built environment» –struc-tures and facilities built by humans for comfort, security, and well-being. As our built environment grows, we grow more reliant on its offerings. To meet our

30

needs and support our built environment, we need electricity which can be gen-erated by using the resources of natural fuels. Most resources are not renewable; there is a limited supply. In obtaining resources, it is often necessary to drill oil wells, tap natural gas supplies, or mine coal and uranium. To put water to work on a large scale, storage dams are needed.

We know that any innovation introduced by people has an impact on the natural environment. That impact may be desirable to some, and at the same time, unacceptable to others. Using any source of energy has some environmental cost. It is the degree of impact on the environment that is crucial.

Some human activities have more profound and lasting impacts than oth-ers. Techniques to mine resources from below the earth may leave long-lasting scars on the landscape. Oil wells may detract from the beauty of open, grassy fields. Reservoirs behind dams may cover picturesque valleys. Once available, use of energy sources can further impact the air, land, and water in varying de-grees.

People want clean air and water and a pleasing environment. We also want energy to heat and light our homes and run our machines. What is the solu-tion? The situation seems straightforward: The demand for electrical power must be curbed or more power must be produced in environmentally acceptable ways. The solution, however, is not so simple.

Conservation can save electricity, but at the same time our population is growing steadily. Growth is inevitable, and with it the increased demand for electric power.

Since natural resources will continue to be used, the wisest solution is a careful, planned approach to their future use. All alternatives must be examined, and the most efficient, acceptable methods must be pursued.

Hydroelectric facilities have many characteristics that favor developing new projects and upgrading existing power plants:

– Hydroelectric power plants do not use up limited nonrenewable re-sources to make electricity.

– They do not cause pollution of air, land, or water. – They have low failure rates, low operating costs, and are reliable. – They can provide startup power in the event of a system wide power

failure. As an added benefit, reservoirs have scenic and recreation value for

campers, fishermen, and water sports enthusiasts. The water is a home for fish and wildlife as well. Dams add to domestic water supplies, control water quality, provide irrigation for agriculture, and avert flooding. Dams can actually improve downstream conditions by allowing mud and other debris to settle out.

New facilities can be constructed with consideration of the environment. For instance, dams can be built at remote locations, power plants can be placed underground, and selective withdrawal systems can be used to control the water temperature released from the dam. Facilities can incorporate features that aid fish and wildlife, such as salmon runs or resting places for migratory birds.

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In reconciling our natural and our built environments there will be trade-offs and compromises. As we learn to live in harmony as part of the environ-ment, we must seek the best alternatives among all ecologic, economic, techno-logical, and social perspectives.

The longer we delay the balanced development of our potential for hydropower, the more we unnecessarily use up other vital resources.

8. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.

Pollution, to mine, to have, storage, Earth, source, natural, to meet, to save

1) ……. resources 6) ……. electricity2) ……. uranium 7) ……. needs3) ……. dams 8) ……. an impact on the natural

environment4) ……. of air 9) ……. landscape5) ……. of energy

9. Complete the following sentences: 1) It is important to remember that people, and all their actions, are part of

the … world. a) modern b) natural c) manmade2) We know that any innovation introduced by people has an … on the

natural environment.a) impact b) innovation c) motion3) Some … activities have more profound and lasting impacts than others.a) natural b) human c) animal4) People want … air and water and a pleasing environment.a) dirty b) clear c) clean5) Conservation can … electricity, but at the same time our population is

growing steadily.a) save b) spend c) use

10. Give English equivalents for:Природные ресурсы, жить в гармонии, добывать уран,

невозобновляемые ресурсы, загрязнение воздуха, нефтяные скважины, источник энергии, экономить электроэнергию, используемый для построения, вырабатываемый с использованием, резервуары за плотинами, ресурсы Земли, в ограниченном объеме, с учетом окружающей среды

11. Fill in the following table as in the example: Fly flew flown include

chosen

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permitted supply

drawn might

been show take

made given

required

12. Match the words in the left column to the opposites in the right one:1) fast 1) to forbid2) to found 2) slow3) to arrive 3) to reduce4) heavy 4) long5) high 5) light6) to take off 6) to depart 7) to increase 7) to touch down8) short 8) to lose9) to permit 9) low10) easy 10) heavy

13. Distribute the words below according to the parts of speech. Underline suffixes and prefixes. Translate the words.

Verb Noun Adverb AdjectiveStep, private, depict, avoid, danger, accurately, possible, needle, magnetic,

variation, headwind, easy, departure, continue, common, alternate, stage, ground, shorten, locally, allow, appear, route, point, similarly, equal, plan.

14. Form the nouns from the following verbs and give Russian equivalents.

1) to calculate;2) to navigate;3) to apply;4) to prepare;5) to depart;6) to occur;7) to adjust;8) to depend;9) to begin;10) to return.

15. Fill in the prepositions:

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From below, for, in, from, by, at, behind, of, on, with, to1) to be desirable … some;2) reservoirs … dams;3) pollution … air;4) resources … Earth;5) to release … the dam;6) … consideration of the environment;7) to live … harmony;8) to be built … humans;9) has an impact … the natural environment;10) … the same time;11) the demand … electrical power.

16. Translate the following sentences into English: 1) Решающее значение имеет степень воздействия источника энергии

на окружающую среду.2) Использование любого источника энергии имеет некоторые

экологические издержки.3) Воздействие на окружающую среду может быть неблагоприятным4) Наше окружение состоит в основном из «искусственной среды»,

построенной людьми для комфорта, безопасности и благополучия.5) Человек является частью природы.6) Люди нуждаются в чистом воздухе и воде, но также им

необходимы энергия, тепло и свет.7) Население земного шара неуклонно растет, а вместе с ним растет

спрос на электроэнергию. 8) Необходим рациональный подход к использованию природных

ресурсов в будущем.9) Возобновляемы ресурсы не вызывают загрязнение воздуха, земли

или воды.10) Плотины могут реально предотвращать наводнения.11) Новые объекты могут быть построены с учетом окружающей

среды.12) Люди должны научиться жить в гармонии с окружающей средой.

С. Discussion

1) Using the information given in the text «Hydropower, the environment, and society» discuss the importance of careful use of natural resources.

2) Explain how to reduce the bad influence of mankind to the nature and environment.

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UNIT 5 – ATOMIC ENERGY

Active vocabulary

1. seldom – редко, нечасто, изредка2. profound – глубокий, низкий3. nuclear – ядерный4. to split – расщеплять5. to create – создавать 6. to require – требовать7. to substitute – замещать8. controversial – спорный, сомнительный, дискуссионный9. particularly – частично10. variety – разнообразие11. submarine – подводная лодка12. icebreaker – ледокол13. spacecraft – космический корабль14. isotope – изотоп15. thyroid – щитовидная железа16. to accomplish – завершать, достигать17. therapy – терапия18. damage – вред, повреждение, дефект19. tissue – материя (особо тонкая)20. to regard – рассматривать21. growth – развитие, рост22. external – внешний, наружный, поверхностный23. method – метод24. surrounding – окружающий25. to decay – разрушаться, распадаться26. cancer – рак

Guess the meaning of the following words: the atomic age, atomic en-ergy, scientific discovery, nuclear fission fossil fuels, radioactive byproducts, peaceful use, generation of electricity, quickly decay, rapidly dividing, con-trolled irradiation, internal radionuclide, treating cancer

A. Atomic Energy

A man trying to see a single atom is like a man trying to see a single drop of water in the sea while he is flying high above it. He will see the sea made up of a great many drops of water but he certainly will not be able to see a single drop. By the way, there are so many atoms in the drop of water that if one could count one atom a second, day and night, it would take one hundred milliard years. But that is certainly impossible.

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Man has, however, learned the secret of the atom. He has learned to split atoms in order to get great quantities of energy. At present, coal is one of the most important fuel and our basic source of energy. It is quite possible that some day coal and other fuel may be replaced by atomic energy. Atomic energy re-placing the present sources of energy, the latter will find various new applica-tions.

The nuclear reactor is one of the most reliable «furnaces» producing atomic energy. Being used to produce energy, the reactor produces it in the form of heat. In other words, atoms splitting in the reactor, heat is developed. Gas, water, melted metals, and some other liquids circulating through the reactor carry that heat away. The heat may be carried to pipes of the steam generator containing water. The resulting steam drives a turbine, the turbine in its turn driving an electric generator. So we see that a nuclear power-station is like any other power-station but the familiar coal-burning furnace is replaced by a nu-clear one, that is the reactor supplies energy to the turbines. By the way, a ton of uranium(nuclear fuel) can give us as much energy as 2.5 to 3 million tons of coal.

The first industrial nuclear power-station in the world was constructed in Obninsk not far from Moscow in 1954.It is of high capacity and has already been working for many years. One may mention here that the station in question was put into operation two years earlier than the British one and three and a half years earlier than the American nuclear power-stations.

A number of nuclear power-stations have been put into operation since 1954. The Beloyarskaya nuclear power-station named after academician Kur-chatov may serve as an example of the peaceful use of atomic energy in the USSR.

Soviet scientists and engineers achieved a nuclear superheating of steam directly in the reactor itself before steam is carried into the turbine. It is certainly an important contribution to nuclear engineering achieved for the first time in the world.

We might mention here another important achievement, that is, the first nuclear installation where thermal energy generated in the reactor is transformed directly into electrical energy.

Speaking of the peaceful use of atomic energy it is also necessary to men-tion our nuclear ice-breakers.«Lenin» is the world’s first ice-breaker with a nu-clear installation. Its machine installation is of a steam turbine type, the steam being produced by three reactors and six steam generators. This ice-breaker was followed by many others.

The importance of atomic energy will grow still more when fast neutron reactors are used on a large scale. These reactors can produce much more sec-ondary nuclear fuel than the fuel they consume.

B. Kurchatovium and Some Other New Elements

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As early as in 1940, physicists learned to manufacture elements with atoms more complicated than those of uranium, with its atomic number 92. By 1960 ten of these elements, from 93 to 102 had been formed. One way of form-ing them was to bombard at atoms of elements already produced with small atomic nuclei.

Previous elements that had been synthesized had been named after scien-tists whose work had significance in nuclear science. Element 99 is einsteinium named after Einstein, who was the first to show that mass could be converted to energy; 101 is mendelevium named after Mendelyeev, who first developed the periodic table of elements.

In 1965 a group of Soviet scientists bombarded plutonium (94) with nu-clei of neon (10) and obtained 104, which they named kurchatovium after Kur-chatov, a well-known Soviet nuclear physicist.

Scientists in Dubna synthesized a new element which occupies position 106 in Mendelyeev's Table.

This element had a life of about a hundredth of a second, but that was much longer than had been expected.

The synthesis of the element increased our knowledge about the proper-ties of the heaviest nuclei and pointed the way to new methods of obtaining them.

A. Comprehension

1. Read text A. Ask your group mate the following questions. Let him/her answer them:

1) if it is possible to see a single drop of water in the sea.2) if the steam generator of a nuclear reactor contains water.3) if man has learned to split atoms.4) if atomic energy finds any new application in industry.5) if the Soviet Union constructed the first nuclear power plant in the

world.

2. Read text A. Answer the following questions:1) What is the difference between potential energy and kinetic energy?2) What sources of energy do you know?3) What form of energy can be changed into another form?4) What are the industrial uses of electricity?5) Can you name the device which changes chemical energy into elec-

trical energy?6) What is the difference between a battery and a generator?7) What may coal be replaced by in future?8) When was the first industrial nuclear power-station put into operation?9) What contribution to nuclear engineering did Soviet scientists make?10) What electrical devices do you use at home?

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11) Want forms of energy do you know?12)What is the world’s first nuclear ice-breaker?

3. Read text B and retell it.

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Give Russian equivalents for:1) Synthesized elements;2) Significance in nuclear science;3) To convert to energy;4) To develop the periodic table of elements;5) To bombard with nuclei of neon;6) A well-known nuclear physicist;7) To occupy position in the table;8) The properties of the heaviest nuclei;9) Coal-burning furnace;10) To be replaced by atomic energy;11) To split atoms;12) In order to get great quantities of energy.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.To drive, high, machine, new, nuclear, to produce, secondary, single,

peaceful, important1) ……. drop2) ……. sources of energy3) ……. reactor4) ……. energy5) ……. a turbine6) ……. capacity7) ……. contribution8) ……. nuclear fuel9) ……. use;10) …….installation

3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the words in bold type:

1) Modern civilization needs more and more electricity.2) You needn’t go to the laboratory today.3) The energy r needs in industry are increasing day by day.4) There is no need to use kerosene lamps today.5) What do we need electric energy for?6) Cold turns water into ice.7) The sun, in its turn, turns ice into water.

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8) The turbines are turned by steam, gas and water.9) In their turn, turbines turn generators.10) The teacher says, «It is your turn to read».11) When you enter a dark room, turn the light ort, and leaving it turn the

light off.12) It is possible to turn solar energy into electric energy owing to semi-

conductors.

4. Put all possible questions to the following sentences:1) Useful energy can be got from a nuclear reactor.2) The first nuclear power-station was constructed in the USSR.

5. Give English equivalents for:Синтезированные элементы, иметь важное значение, ядерная наука,

это заняло 100 млрд. лет, разгадать секрет атома, огромное количество энергии, эти виды топлива могут быть заменены атомной энергией, найти новое применение, производить энергию, плавить металлы, углесжигающая печь, следует упомянуть, ввести в эксплуатацию, названная в честь.

6. Choose the correct translation of the verbs. Explain your choose.1) Solar stations will produce cheap electric energy in the near future.a) будут производит; b) производят; c) будет производить;2) The importance of atomic energy will grow still more when fast

neutron reactors are used on a large scale.a) вырастит; b) вырастает; c) вырос;3) Electricity plays an important part in every day life.a) играет; b) сыграло; c) сыграет;4) Soviet scientists made a great contribution to nuclear engineering.a) сделали; b) сделают; c) сделает;5) Modern civilization needs more and more electricity.a) нуждаются; b) нуждается; c) будет нуждаться;

7. Fill in the following table:Verb Noun Adjective

explain useprevention

descriptiveinform

dependentaddition

collectinterrogation

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vary

8. Make these sentences passive.1) The Russians launched the long–range ballistic missile.2) They must repair the generating unit of the power station immediately.3) Irkutskenergo company will open the congress on power imputs in our

region.4) Tesla did not invent the TV.5) Ampere invented such devices as the commutator and the

electromagnetic telegraph.6) Ampere completed his researched work in Mechanics.

9. Translate the following sentences.1) The students were asked to carry on the experiment.2) You will be given two new magazines.3) I was told to translate the instructions.4) The questions were answered at once.5) The theory was followed by a number of experiments.6) The data obtained are often referred to.7) The new discovery was much spoken about.8) This machine is often made use of.9) This apparatus is often made use of.10) The lecture will be followed by a new film.

10. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Arctic, nuclear, power, atomic, peaceful, age, therapy, decay, radioac-

tive, generating,

Peaceful Use of Atomic

The atomic … is in fact the «consummation of the industrial age». The coming of atomic energy was a big event. In the annals of history, seldom has a scientific discovery so profoundly affected the course of human destiny Like the advent of steam and electric …, this too is going to change the whole basis of human living.

Nuclear or … power is the energy released as an atom is split apart, a process known as nuclear fission. A sustained fission reaction creates large amounts of heat, which is used to generate steam that powers turbines. Nuclear energy requires nuclear fuel, usually uranium. Though … energy is a possible substitute for the burning of fossil fuels, it is controversial due to the possibility of uncontrolled nuclear reactions (meltdowns) and radioactive byproducts.

Electricity Generation for Power Grids The most common … use of nuclear energy is the generation of

electricity for power grids. Particularly for countries without large stores of ei-

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ther fossil fuels or readily available renewable energy (such as Japan), nuclear reactors present an efficient means of … power.

Vehicle Propulsion Nuclear energy is also used to power a variety of vehicles, ranging

from nuclear submarines to … icebreakers and even spacecraft. Using nuclear fission, vehicles can go without a nearby fuel source for months at a time, as with the case of strategic nuclear submarines that must remain submerged for long periods of time.

Production of Nuclear Isotopes … isotopes are a byproduct of the generation of nuclear energy in

power plants. Radio isotopes are used in an imaging process that allows physi-cians to determine the health of an individual's internal organs. The thyroid, bones, heart, liver and many other major human organs can be easily imaged us-ing radioactive isotopes that will quickly … once they enter the body.

Radiation in Treatment Rapidly dividing cells are particularly susceptible to damage by ra-

diation. Consequently, numerous cancers are treated through controlled irradia-tion of the area containing growth. This can be accomplished either by external irradiation or by internal radionuclide therapy, in which nuclear isotopes are in-serted into a localized area within the body. Though radiation … can cause dam-age to surrounding tissue, it is generally regarded as one of the best methods of treating.

11. Make up some questions to the underlined words in the text:

12. Match the numbers to the letters.1) the atomic a) decay2) scientific b) fuels3) nuclear c) cancer4) fossil d) age5) radioactive e) radionuclide6) peaceful f) discovery7) quickly g) use8) internal h) byproducts9) treating i) fission

13. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) A sustained fission reaction creates large amounts of heat.2) Nuclear energy requires coal fuel.3) The most common peaceful use of nuclear energy is the generation of

heat for power grids.4) Nuclear energy is also used to power a variety of vehicles.5) Submarines must remain submerged for very short periods of time.

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14. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:

Of about, into, to, of, by, with, by, through, after, as … as1) named … Einstein2) … early … in 19403) to convert … energy4) bombarded plutonium … nuclei of neon 5) a life … a hundredth of a second6) … the way7) to replace … atomic energy8) to circulate … the reactor9) to put … operation

15. Distribute the words below according to the parts of speech. Underline suffixes and prefixes. Translate the words.

Verb Noun Adverb Adjective Equipment, electronically, establish, reading, indicator, frequency,

respectively, interference, rapidly, ensure, different, count, reach, secondary, receiver, runways, device, actually, target, identity.

16. Make these sentences (a) interrogative, (b) negative.1) Rapidly dividing cells are particularly susceptible to damage by

radiation.2) Using nuclear fission, vehicles can go without a nearby fuel source for

long periods of time.3) The coming of atomic energy was a big event.4) Radioactive isotopes are a byproduct of the generation of nuclear

energy in power plants.5) Atomic energy is going to change the whole basis of human living.6) Atom splitting is a process known as nuclear fission.

17. Translate the following sentences into English: 1) Проблема утилизации радиоактивных отходов является насущной

проблемой атомной энергетики.2) Атомный век – это венец индустриальной эпохи.3) Ядерная энергетика требует ядерного топлива, обычно урана.4) Мирное использование ядерной энергии – это генерирование

электричества для электросетей.5) Радиоактивные изотопы – это сопутствующий продукт при

производстве ядерной энергии на атомных электростанциях.6) Радионуклидная терапия может помочь в лечении рака

щитовидной железы.

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7) Радиационная терапия является одним из лучших методов лечения рака.

8) Ученые синтезировали новый элемент, который занял позицию 106 в таблице Менделеева.

9) Несколько синтезированных элементов были названы в честь выдающихся ученых.

С. Discussion

1) Using the information from the text «Atomic energy» speak on:1. The operation of a nuclear reactor;2. The first industrial nuclear power-station.2) Make a project on the peaceful uses of atomic energy.

UNIT 6 – SAFETY PROBLEMS OF ATOMIC ENERGY

Active vocabulary

1. petroleum – нефть2. exhausted – изнуренный, истощенный, израсходованный3. devastation –опустошение4. to exposure– подвергать5. matter – вещество6. charged – заряженный7. neutron – нейтрон8. to surround – окружать, обступать9. splitting – расщепление 10. extensively – в значительной степени11. annihilation – уничтожение, истребление12. to release – избавлять, освобождать13. unanimous – единодушный, единогласный14. edge – кромка15. cleanup – ликвидация последствий аварии16. nuclear wastes – ядерные отходы17. vast – обширный, громадный18. replenish – пополнять19. unique – единственный, уникальный20. disaster – бедствие21. effort – усилие, попытка22. to suffer – страдать23. nuclear explosion – ядерный взрыв24. meltdown – расплавление ядерных топливных элементов реактора, авария на АЭС

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25. to overheat – перегреваться26. concrete – бетон27. earthquake – землетрясение28. garbage – отбросы29. leukemia – лейкемия30. to herald – возвещать, предвещать31. tumour – опухоль32. malignant – злокачественный33. to wipe – вытирать, стирать с лица Земли34. to evole – эволюционировать35. to tame – приручать36. to parish – погибать37. to sway – иметь влияние38. to contaminate – загрязнять, заражать, делать радиоактивным

Guess the meaning of the following words: amount of devastation, the atomic bombs, a mode of destruction, annihilation of mankind, the energy crisis, treatment of cancers, nuclear fission, radioactive fallout, different ways, a major disaster, awareness of the risks, radioactive debris, the Chernobyl accident, radi-ation level, the concrete floor, the melted fuel, middle-strength, the highly irradi-ated, the ground water, beta rays.

A. The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Peaceful Uses of the Atom

With the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, in August 1945, the World War II came to an end. But the amount of devastation, the atomic bombs brought about to life and property, startled the world. The Americans used Uranium 235 on Hiroshima and Plutonium on Nagasaki. The people who survived this catastrophe are subjected to mutation, caused by exposure to ra-dioactivity. Man has realized that he has got an access to a mode of destruction, which could lead to the annihilation of mankind.

It was unanimously decided that all the nations should work towards the peaceful uses of the atom. The world had seen its ugly shape in Japan and did not wish to repeat it. Man knew that all his energy resources like coal, petroleum and natural gas were not replenish able. This meant that all the energy reserves could be exhausted in a few years. Moreover, under some mutual understanding between certain oil–producing countries in the Gulf region, the prices of oil were increased. This hit the economy of not only the West, but also of the devel-oping countries. Man had to look for viable alternatives soon, to get rid of the energy crisis. The natural resources like the sun, wind and water were in the process of being tapped as the alternative sources of energy. So, man decided to harness nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.

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The atom is the basic unit of matter and consists of a central nucleus con-sisting of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons. The nu-cleus is surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. Nuclear energy is produced by the splitting of the atomic nucleus (fission) or the merging of one or more nuclei (fusion). The most common method of power production today is nuclear fission. Atomic energy is harnessed extensively in society for peaceful uses such as electricity production, propulsion, medical diagnosis and treatment of cancers. Radiation can also be used positively in agriculture where it is uti-lized in the preservation of foodstuffs to kill dangerous microbes in exported produce.

In the early 50s, a nuclear reactor was set up to produce electricity. The process underlying an atomic bomb i.e., nuclear fission was made use of at a controlled rate, and the energy thus released, was utilized for constructive pur-poses. This heralded the onset of a potent and useful alternative to the fast–de-pleting fossil fuels. With the success of this venture, a number of such reactors were set up across the globe. The process of radioactive reaction, releases alpha, beta or gamma rays. Their properties and applications were studied by the scien-tists. Extensive research is being done on the feasibility of fusion reactors too.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) is another application of atomic en-ergy in the medical field. This technology is extremely helpful in obtaining clear and high resolution images of various organs, tumors and other malignant for-mations and thus significantly aid in their treatment. Atomic energy is also used in laser technology and desalination of water.

The lessons learnt from Hiroshima and Nagasaki were, perhaps, enough for the modern man. He could tame nuclear energy for the benefit of mankind. If used for destructive purposes, he would not only bring about the destruction of mankind, but would perish himself in the process. With the advancements in sci-ence and technology, highly advanced and deadly bombs have been evolved.

Even while using the atomic energy for peaceful purposes one should be very careful. Disasters like the one which happened in Chernobyl are still fresh in our mind. Another important thing is the problem of the disposal of the nu-clear wastes that comes from the reactors. Till date man is not able to find out a safe and non–hazardous way to dispose this highly radioactive waste.

Nuclear energy has the potential to wipe out our civilization from the face of the earth. Man has an edge over the other species on the earth and therefore should use his intellect. He should use the potent power of radioactivity for the betterment of mankind.

B. The Chernobyl Accident

The Chernobyl station is situated at the settlement of Prepay, Ukraine, 18 km northwest of the city of Chernobyl, 16 km from the border of Ukraine and Belarus, and about 110 km north of Kiev, the capital of Ukraine.

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The station consisted of four reactors, each capable of producing 1 GW of electric power. Construction of the plant began in the 1970s, with reactor num-ber 1 commissioned in 1977, followed by number 2 in 1978, number З in 1981, and number 4 in 1983. Two more reactors number 5 and number 6, also capable of producing 1 Gigawatt each were under construction at the time of the acci-dent.

The Chernobyl accident riveted international attention. Around the world, people read the story and were profoundly affected. As a result, «Chernobyl» has entered the public consciousness in a number of different ways and received worldwide media attention.

The Chernobyl accident was clearly a major disaster in human history. Public awareness of the risks of nuclear power increased significantly. Organiz-ations, both pro- and anti-nuclear, have made great efforts to sway public opin-ion.

The Chernobyl accident also came to symbolize the crumbling state of the USSR in public perception, in particular a dangerous culture of incompetence and cover-up.

On Saturday, April 26, 1986, at 1:23:58 a.m. local time, the fourth reactor of the Chernobyl power plant known as Chernobyl-4 suffered a catastrophic steam explosion that resulted in a fire, a series of additional explosions, and a nuclear meltdown.

It is regarded as the worst nuclear accident in the history of nuclear power ever happened. It produced a plume of radioactive debris that drifted over parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, UK, and even eastern USA.

Large areas of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia were badly contaminated, resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of more than 300,000 people. About 60% of the radioactive fallout landed in the neighbour republic Belarus.

Even now it is difficult to accurately tally the number of deaths caused by the event at Chernobyl, as most of the expected deaths are from cancer, have not yet actually occurred, and are difficult to attribute specifically to the accident.

The Chernobyl accident was not a unique event. Long before, in 1957 near Chelaybinsk-40, a small top-secret town, the first nuclear accident occurred involved the first serious nuclear contamination of vast territories. It was a nuc-lear explosion happened in a tank with nuclear wastes. In 30 years such tragedy repeated at Chernobyl.

People hope that it was the last time because the third time might be the last one.

A. Comprehension

1. Read texts A and B and answer the following questions:1) Where and when were the atomic bombs dropped?2) Why did people decide to use nuclear energy only in peaceful purpose?

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3) In what spheres do people use atomic energy now?4) What can be dangerous in the atomic energy?5) Where is the Chernobyl station located?6) When did construction of the plant begin?7) What happened on Saturday, April 26, 1986, at 1:23:58 a.m. local–

time?8) How many people were resettled due to the accident?9) Where did most radioactive fallouts land?10) What does the Chernobyl accident symbolize?11) What happened at Chelaybinsk–40 in 1957?

2. Read text A. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.

1) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) is another application of atomic energy.

2) All the nations should work towards the peaceful uses of the atom.3) Japanese who survived this catastrophe are subjected to mutation.4) Nuclear energy is produced by the splitting of the atomic nucleus.5) In the early 50s, a nuclear reactor was set up to produce electricity.6) The process of radioactive reaction, releases alpha, beta or gamma rays.

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) The molecule is the basic unit of matter.2) Man had to look for viable alternatives soon, to get rid of the energy

crisis.3) The Americans used Plutonium on Hiroshima and on Uranium 235

Nagasaki.4) Radiation can also be used positively in agriculture where it is utilized

to kill dangerous microbes in exported produce.5) Atomic energy is also used in laser technology and desalination of wa-

ter.6) The Chernobyl station consisted of five reactors.7) The Chernobyl accident regarded as the worst nuclear accident in the

history of nuclear power ever happened.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.Negatively, destruction, increased, developing, to hit, peaceful, to har-

ness, extensive, ugly, gamma, medical, nuclear.……. shape ……. charged electrons……. the economy ……. fission……. prices ……. research ……. countries ……. rays

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……. nuclear energy ……. field……. purposes ……. of mankind

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) disposal of the nuclear wastes2) international attention3) to make great efforts4) public opinion5) to be badly contaminated6) vast territories7) unique event8) worst nuclear accident9) a catastrophic steam explosion10) to be capable to produce11) radioactive fallout

4. Match the words in the left column to the opposites in the right one:1) possible a) past2) useful b) impossible3) to construct c) to find4) present d) useless5) largest e) limited6) unlimited f) smallest7) to increase g) to destroy8) to lose h) to decrease

5. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrase:

By, from, by, for, by, up, of, for, of, to, out 1) consists … a central nucleus2) to wipe … civilization 3) to be subjected … mutation4) mutation caused … exposure to radioactivity5) to get rid … the energy crisis6) nuclear energy … peaceful purposes7) to be surrounded … a cloud of negatively charged electrons8) to be produced … the splitting of the atomic nucleus9) to be set … across the globe10) this lessons are enough … the modern man11) to wipe … the face of the earth

6. Find modal verbs in the given sentences and choose their translation:1) If one could count one atom a second, day and night, it would take one

hundred milliard years.

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a) должен был; b) мог бы; c) пришлось бы2) A man certainly will not be able to see a single drop in the sea.a) должен; b) будет способен; c) сможет.3) The heat may be carried to pipes of the steam generator containing

water.a) можно; b) следует; c) нужно.4) A ton of uranium can give us as much energy as 2.5 to 3 million tons of

coal.a) должна; b) может; c) нужна.5) In future the nuclear reactor must be one of the most reliable

«furnaces» producing atomic energy.a) может; b) должен; c) сумеет.6) Working at a new device, the inventor should make numerous

experiments. a) нужно; b) следует; c) может.

7. Give English equivalents for:Быть подверженным мутации, привести к уничтожению всего

человечества, повторять ошибки прошлого, энергоресурсы могут быть истощены через несколько лет, возросшие цены на нефть, избавляться от ядерных отходов, успех предприятия, изучать свойства, обширные исследования в области медицины, состоять из четырех реакторов, под воздействием общественного мнения, почва была сильно заражена.

8. Read the text and put the verbs in brackets into the correct passive tense and voice.

Some Facts You Should Know About Fukushima

1. In a residential area park in Tokyo, 230 km from Fukushima, the soil (to find) to have a radiation level of 92,335 Becquerel per square meter. This is a dangerous level, comparable to what is found around Chernobyl zone (the site of a nuclear catastrophe in 1986). One reason this level of pollution is found in the capital is that between Tokyo and Fukushima there are no mountains high enough to block radioactive clouds. In the capital people who understand the danger absolutely avoid eating food produced in eastern Japan.

2. Inside Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Reactors 1–3 the pipes (which had circulated cooling water) are broken, which caused a meltdown. This means the nuclear fuel (to overheat, to melt, and to continue) to melt anything it (to touch). Thus it melted through the bottom of the reactor, and then through the concrete floor of the building, and sank into the ground. As mentioned above, for two and a half years TEPCO workers have been desperately pouring water into the reac-tor, but it is not known whether the water is actually reaching the melted fuel. If a middle-strength earthquake comes, it is likely to destroy totally the already

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damaged building. And as a matter of fact, in the last two and a half years earth-quakes have continued to hit Fukushima. Especially dangerous is reactor, where a large amount of nuclear fuel is being held in a pool, like another disaster wait-ing for its moment.

3. The cooling water being poured into the reactor is now considered the big problem in Japan. Newspapers and TV stations that previously strove to con-ceal the danger of nuclear power, are now reporting on this danger every day, and criticizing Shinzo Abe for the lie he told the IOC. The issue is that the highly irradiated water is entering and mixing with the ground water, and this leakage can’t be stopped, so it is spilling into the outer ocean. It is a situation impossible to control. In August, 2013 (the month prior to Abe’s IOC speech) within the site of Fukushima Daiichi Reactor, radiation (to measure) at 8500 mi-cro Sieverts per hour. That is enough to kill anyone who (to stay) there for a month. This makes it a very hard place for the workers to get anything done. In Ohkuma–machi, the town where the Daiichi Nuclear Reactor is located, the ra-diation (to measure) in July, 2013 (two months before Abe’s talk) at 320 micro Sieverts per hour. This level of radiation would kill a person in two and a half years. Thus, over an area many kilometers wide, ghost towns are increasing.

4. For the sake of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, an important fact has been left out from reports that go abroad. Only the fact that irradiated water is leaking onto the surface of the ground around the reactor is reported. But deep under the surface the ground water is also being irradiated, and the ground water flows out to sea and mixes with the seawater through sea-bottom springs. It is too late to do anything about this.

5. If you go to the big central fish market near Tokyo and measure the ra-diation in the air, it registers at about 0.05 micro Sieverts – a little higher than normal level. But if you measure the radiation near the place where the instru-ment that measures the radiation of the fish is located, the level is two or three times greater (2013 measurement). Vegetables and fish from around the Tokyo area, even if they are irradiated, are not thrown away. This is because the level established by the Japanese Government for permissible radiation in food – which if exceeded the food must not be sold – is the same as the permissible level of radiation in low-level radioactive wastes. Which is to say, in Japan to-day, as the entire country has been contaminated, we have no choice but to put irradiated garbage on the dinner table. The distribution of irradiated food is also a problem. Food from near Fukushima will be sent to another prefecture, and then sent on, relabeled as produced in the second prefecture. In particular, food distributed by the major food companies, and food served in expensive restau-rants, is almost never tested for radiation.

6. In Japan, the only radiation from Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Reactors that is being measured is the radioactive cesium. However large amounts of strontium 90 and tritium are spreading all over Japan. Strontium and tritium’s radiation consists of beta rays, and are very difficult to measure. However both

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are extremely dangerous: strontium can cause, and tritium can cause chromo-some disorder.

7. More dangerous still: in order, they say, to get rid of the pollution that has fallen over the wide area of Eastern Japan, they are scraping off the top layer of the soil, and putting it in plastic bags as garbage. Great mountains of these plastic bags, all weather–beaten, are sitting in fields in Eastern Japan subject of course to attack by heavy rain and typhoons. Eventually the plastic will split open and the contents will come spilling out. When that happens, there will be no place left to take them.

9. Read the text again. Choose the sentences which contain information about :

1) Fish market near Tokyo;2) Pollution 3) TEPKO workers;4) Daiichi Nuclear Reactor;5) 2020 Tokyo Olympics;

10. Match the numbers to the letters.1) radiation a) clouds2) the concrete b) earthquake3) the melted c) bags4) middle-strength d) level5) the highly e) springs6) the ground f) floor7) radioactive g) water8)sea-bottom h) irradiated9) plastic i) fuel

11. Fill in the following table as in the example: know knew known adopt

stood closed

follow seen

identified cut

bring install

chose broken

began

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12. Form the verbs from the following nouns and give Russian equivalents.

1) information;2) navigation;3) publication;4) presence;5) removal;6) movement;7) description;8) combination;9) flight;10) regularity. 13. Answer the questions:1) What happened in Fukushima? 2) Why any earthquake in Fukushima is very dangerous for this region?3) Where is Daiichi Nuclear Reactor located?4) What do Japanese do to get rid of the pollution?5) Would you eat any Japanese food if you were in Japan? Why? Why

not?14. Learn to recognize the following international words:Bomb, atomic, catastrophe, mutation, radioactivity, alternative, proton,

neutron, electron, reactor, civilization, intellect, tragedy, organization, park, zone, instrument.

15. Translate the following sentences into English: 1) Анализ почвы показал высокий уровень радиации.2) Опасный уровень радиации был зафиксирован вокруг зоны в

Чернобыле.3) Необходимо воспрепятствовать проникновению радиоактивных

облаков.4) Многие люди по всему миру отказываются от употребления

продуктов, произведенных в восточной части Японии.5) Внутри Фукусимы разрушены трубопроводы ядерных реакторов,

через которые циркулирует охлаждающая вода.6) Если случится землетрясение, оно, наверняка, полностью

разрушит уже поврежденное здание.7) В течение последних 2,5 лет землетрясения продолжают сотрясать

Фукусиму.8) Проблема в том, что высокорадиоактивная вода проникает в

землю и смешивается с грунтовыми водами.9) Зараженные радиацией грунтовые воды попадают в океан.10) Радиация на большом центральном рынке морепродуктов вблизи

Токио чуть выше нормального уровня.

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11) Овощи и рыба из окрестностей Токио, даже если они радиоактивны, не выбрасываются.

12) Распространение зараженных продуктов также является проблемой.

13) Чернобыльская авария была самой серьезной катастрофой за время развития ядерной энергетики.

14) Даже сейчас очень сложно подсчитать точное количество погибших в следствии случившегося в Чернобыле.

15) Чернобыльская катастрофа не была единичным случаем.

С. Discussion

1) Read text A again. Entitle each paragraph to make the plan. Write down some key words and useful expressions. Retell the text according to the plan and using key words.

2) In pairs discuss the application of atomic energy in the medical field.

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PART 3 – ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY

UNIT 7 – SOLAR ENERGY

Active vocabulary

1. collector – коллектор2. to concentrate – фокусировать3. sunlight – солнечный свет4. to transfer – переносить5. adequate – достаточный 6. thermal – тепловой7. voltage – электрическое напряжение 8. manner – способ9. definition – определение10. cells – секция11. route – дорога12. external – внешний13. entire – полный14. shade – тень15. to determine – определять16. relatively – относительно17. influence – влияние18. insolation – инсоляция19. motion – движение20. liquid – жидкость21. transparent – прозрачный22. opaque – непрозрачный23. to diffuse – распространять24. track – след25. to provide – обеспечивать

Guess the meaning of the following words: solar energy, to concentrate sunlight, alternative energy sources, collection of solar energy, thermal load, house heating, to be available at a location, motion of the sun, perpendicular to the sun's rays, insulated panel, avoid overheating.

A. Harnessing Solar Energy

The experiments on solar cells gave the possibility to collect enough data to predict the possible performance of solar stations. These experiments have led to the building of a solar furnace developing temperatures of 3,000⁰C in a sun-

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ray focal point. Electricity generated by such an installation costs less then that generated by a steam power-station.

The solar stations in the Kara-Kum desert will become producers of cheap electricity in the near future. The amount of solar energy per square meter here is equal to the energy generated by burning 200 kg of high quality coal.

Power cells of the size of a matchbox have been developed to convert so-lar energy into electricity. Such cells can accumulate sufficient energy in one bright to power a large transistor radio for ten days.

B. Energy from the Sun

The largest solar electric generating plant in the world produces a maxi-mum of 354 megawatts (MW) of electricity and is located at Kramer Junction, California.

The solar collectors concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid to a high temperature. The hot heat produce electricity. Thermal energy storage pro-vides heat for operation during periods without adequate sunshine.

Another way to generate electricity from solar energy is to use photo-voltaic cells. Large scale applications of photovoltaic for power generation, ei-ther on the rooftops of houses or in large fields connected to the utility grid are promising as well to provide clean, safe and strategically sound alternatives to current methods of electricity generation.

Basic principles underlying the design and operation of solar energy con-version systems include collection of solar energy, either by a thermal or photo-voltaic process.

For solar thermal systems this energy is converted into thermal energy at some desired temperature and then, maybe, into electricity.

For photovoltaic systems intercepted solar energy is converted directly into low voltage direct current electricity. Reviews of solar collector designs representative of the different concepts that have been built and tested are presented here.

C. The Solar Energy Conversion System

There are many different types of solar energy systems that will convert the solar resource into a useful form of energy. The solar resource is captured and converted into heat which is then supplied to a demand for thermal energy (thermal load) such as house heating, hot water heating or heat for industrial processes. This type of system may or may not include thermal storage, and usu-ally include an auxiliary source of energy so that the demand may be met during long periods with no sunshine.

If the demand (load) to be met is electricity (an electrical load) rather than heat, there are two common methods of converting solar energy into electricity. One method is by collecting solar energy as heat and converting it into electric-

55

ity using a typical power plant or engine; the other method is by using photo-voltaic cells to convert solar energy directly into electricity.

In general, if solar energy conversion systems are connected to a large electrical transmission grid, no storage or auxiliary energy supply is needed. If the solar energy conversion system is to be the only source of electricity, storage and auxiliary energy supply are usually both incorporated. If the photovoltaic route is chosen, extra electricity may be stored, usually in storage batteries, thereby extending the operating time of the system. For auxiliary power, an ex-ternal electricity source is the only choice for photovoltaic systems.

A. Comprehension

1. Read texts A and point out which of the sentences contains the information from text.

1) It is quite possible that some day coal and other fuel may be replaced by atomic energy.

2) Solar stations will produce cheap electric energy in the near future.3) The experiments on atmospheric electricity were made by many out-

standing scientists.

2. Read text B and C and answer the question:1) What methods of generating electricity from solar energy do you now?2) Where can solar panels be installed?3) Where is the largest solar power plant?4) What are the types of solar energy systems?5) How is solar energy converted into electricity?6) How do solar energy systems work during period with no sunshine?

2. Read text B. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.

1) Large scale applications of photovoltaic for power generation are promising as well to provide clean, safe and strategically sound alternatives to current methods of electricity generation.

2) The largest solar electric generating plant is located in California.3) Solar collector designs representative different concepts.4) Thermal energy storage provides heat for operation during periods

without adequate sunshine.

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) The largest solar electric generating plant is located in Canada.2) Another way to generate electricity from solar energy is to use photo-

voltaic cells.

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3) Thermal energy storage provides heat for operation during periods without adequate moonlight.

4) There is only one type of solar energy system.5) There are three common methods of converting solar energy into elec-

tricity.6) If solar energy conversion systems are connected to a large electrical

transmission grid, no storage or auxiliary energy supply is needed.7) For auxiliary power, an external electricity source is the only choice for

photovoltaic systems.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.Sunlight, grid, solar energy, storage, heating, resource, load, energy

sources, fluid, demand1) thermal …2) house …3) to supply on a …4) to concentrate …5) transfer …6) alternative …7) operation of …8) utility …9) solar …10) thermal …

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) electrical transmission grid;2) energy supply;3) solar energy conversion system;4) photovoltaic route;5) extra electricity may be stored;6) storage batteries;7) common methods;8) photovoltaic cells;9) basic principles;10) to follow in a general manner;

4. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) The largest solar electric generating enterprise/ plant in the world pro-

duces a maximum of 354 megawatts (MW) of electricity and is located at Kramer Junction, California.

2) Thermal energy storage provides/ gives heat for operation during peri-ods without adequate sunshine.

3) This includes transmission/ collection of solar energy, either by a ther-mal or photovoltaic process.

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5. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:

1) To be located … Kramer;2) To provide heat … operation … periods … adequate sunshine;3) To generate electricity … solar energy;4) Collection … solar energy … a thermal process;5) Energy is converted … thermal energy;6) To heat … a temperature;7) To connect … the utility grid;8) To supply … a demand

6. Give English equivalents for:Электричество, вырабатываемое такой установкой, стоит дешевле,

чем; они были сконструированы для превращения солнечной энергии в электричество; количество солнечной энергии на один квадратный метр; система хранения тепловой энергии; необходимый солнечный свет, основные принципы проектирования и эксплуатации систем преобразования солнечной энергии.

7. Fill in the following table:Verb Noun Adjective

rely speciality

governmentaldiffer

navigator communicative

criticize––––––––––– proficient––––––––––– visibilitycollide –––––––––––––

8. Learn to recognize the following international words:Collector, technology, operation, temperature, plastic, individual, alterna-

tives, radiation, insolation, static, control, contact, salt, disc, cycle, result, paral-lel, to demonstrate, university.

9. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Task, available, amount, system, square, solar, shaded, surface, earth's,

quality

The Solar Resource

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The basic resource for all … energy systems is the sun. Knowledge of the quantity and … of solar energy available at a specific location is of prime impor-tance for the design of any solar energy …. Although the solar radiation (insola-tion) is relatively constant outside the … atmosphere, local climate influences can cause wide variations in available insolation on the earth’s … from site to site. In addition, the relative motion of the sun with respect to the earth will al-low surfaces with different orientations to intercept different amounts of solar energy.

However, solar energy is … over the entire globe, and only the size of the collector field needs to be increased to provide the same … of heat or electricity as in the … areas. It is the primary … of the solar energy system designer to de-termine the amount, quality and timing of the solar energy available at the site selected for installing a solar energy conversion system.

Just outside the earth's atmosphere, the sun's energy is continuously avail-able at the rate of 1,367 Watts on every … meter facing the sun. Due to the earth's rotation, asymmetric orbit about the sun, and the contents of its atmos-phere, a large fraction of this energy does not reach the ground.

10. Read the text and match the numbers to the letters.

Solar Collectors

The solar collector is the key element in a solar energy system. It is also the novel technology area that requires new understandings in order to make captured solar energy a viable energy source for the future.

The function of a solar collector is simple; it intercepts incoming insola-tion and changes it into a useable form of energy that can be applied to meet a specific demand.

Flat–plate thermal solar collectors are the most commonly used type of solar collector. Their construction and operation are simple. A large plate of blackened material is oriented in such a manner that the solar energy that falls on the plate is absorbed and converted to thermal energy thereby heating the plate. Tubes or ducting are provided to remove heat from the plate, transferring it to a liquid or gas, and carrying it away to the load. One (or more) transparent (glass or plastic) plates are often placed in front of the absorber plate to reduce heat loss to the atmosphere. Likewise, opaque insulation is placed around the backside of the absorber plate for the same purpose. Operating temperatures up to 125oC are typical.

Flat plate collectors have the advantage of absorbing not only the energy coming directly from the disc of the sun (beam normal insolation) but also the solar energy that has been diffused into the sky and that is reflected from the ground. Flat plate thermal collectors are seldom tracked to follow the sun's daily path across the sky, however their fixed mounting usually provides a tilt toward

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the south to minimize the angle between the sun's rays and the surface at moon time. Tilting flat-plate collectors toward the south provides a higher rate of en-ergy at noontime and more total energy over the entire day.

Flat-plate photovoltaic collectors contain an array of individual photo-voltaic cells, connected in a series/parallel circuit, and encapsulated within a sandwich structure with the front surface being glass or plastic. Solar energy falls directly upon the photovoltaic cell front surface and produces a small direct current voltage, providing electrical energy to a load. Unlike thermal collectors however, the backside of the panel is not insulated. Photovoltaic panels need to loose as much heat as possible to the atmosphere to optimize their performance.

1. solar a) plates2. key b) temperature3. operating c) collector4. sun d) disc5. transparent e) surface6. incoming f) insolation7. shaded g) element8. Earth’s h) areas9. local i) climate

11. Form the nouns from the following verbs and give Russian equivalents:

1) direct;2) observe;3) equip;4) provide;5) achieve;6) ensure;7) fail;8) provide;9) relate;10) criticize.

12. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to conditionals:1) If an e.m.f. (electromotive force) is applied to a path, the electrons will

move toward the point of higher potential.2) If people of the past had known that lightning was atmospheric

electricity, they would not have invented numerous stories about it.3) If a wire were held against an electrified body, electricity would flow

along the wire to its other end.4) If coal were not used as fuel, we should get more valuable products.

13. Complete the following sentences. Pay attention to conditionals:

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1) If my friends comes to Moscow, we….2) If I had time tomorrow, I … .3) If my friend had not entered the institute last year, he … .4) If I were you I … .5) If the teacher had given me the dictionary at the last lesson, I … .6) If my brother goes to England, he … .

14. Form the opposites with the help of prefixes – un, –in, –ir:1) reliable;2) accurate;3) regular;4) safe;5) known;6) sufficient;7) necessary;8) critical.

15. Translate the following sentences into English: 1) Для изготовления солнечного коллектора необходимо

использование современных технологий.2) Солнечная электростанция должна быть конкурентоспособной.3) Солнечный коллектор преобразует солнечный свет в энергию,

необходимую для потребителя.4) Наиболее широкое распространение нашли плоские тепловые

солнечные коллекторы.5) Их строительство и эксплуатация сравнительно просты.6) Для уменьшения потерь тепла перед коллектором устанавливается

прозрачная пластина.7) Солнечная энергия доступна повсюду.8) Для регионов с низкой инсоляцией необходимо увеличить

площадь коллектора, чтобы получать такое же количество электроэнергии, как и в солнечных местах.

9) Большая часть солнечной энергии не достигает поверхности Земли из–за вращения нашей планеты и наличия атмосферы.

С. Discussion

1) Speak on the cases of the most efficient use of solar energy. 2) Speak on the cheapest types of energy. Give the examples of such types

of energy, their advantages and disadvantages.

UNIT 8 – WIND INDUSTRY

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Active vocabulary1. windmill – ветряная мельница2. to pump – перекачивать3. shaft – вал4. to grind – перемалывать5. blade – лопасть6. gearbox – коробка передач 7. to rotate – вращаться8. to reduce – уменьшать9. chamber – камера10. inlet – вход11. to probe – зондировать12. to proclaim – провозглашать13. viscous – вязкий14. maintenance – обеспечение15. to diminish – снижать16. anchor – якорь17. threat – угроза18. to spin – вращать19. to harness – использовать20. hub – ступица, втулка21. dimension – измерение, размер, величина22. rough – грубый, необработанный край23. bearing –точка опоры24. to probe – зондировать25. par – равенство26. nozzle – сопло, брандспойт27. adhesion – прилипание28. to twirl – вращать

Guess the meaning of the following words: wind turbines, residential homes, a low-speed shaft, а high-speed shaft, air-flow technology, wind condi-tions, wind tunnel, an anechoic chamber, federal regulators, radar installations, a moving gas, disks fitted with nozzles, an ever-increasing threat.

A. How Is Electricity Generated By Wind?

Energy from the wind has been harnessed for thousands of years, making wind power electric one of the oldest forms of renewable energy. Early wind-mills were used for pumping water or grinding grain. With the onset of industri-alization, people began adapting windmills into wind turbines used for generat-ing electricity.

Wind farms are built in geographical areas that are conducive to consis-tent prevailing winds. For utility-sized applications, many wind turbines are

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built in close proximity to one another to form a «wind farm».  On these wind farms, giant wind turbines harness the kinetic energy of wind to create electric-ity. CPS (Central Power Station), through contracts with companies who design, build and operate wind farms, acquire designated portions of the electrical gen-eration from those farms.

The process of wind-produced electrical generation begins when the force of the wind pushes against the turbines’ blades, causing them to rotate, creating mechanical energy. The spinning blades, attached to a hub and a low-speed shaft, turn along with the blades. The rotating low-speed shaft is connected to a gearbox that connects to a high-speed shaft on the opposite side of the gearbox. This high-speed shaft connects to an electrical generator that converts the me-chanical energy from the rotation of the blades into electric energy. Spinning be-tween 11 and 20 times per minute, each turbine can generate a maximum 1.5 megawatts of electricity – enough to power, on average, more than 500 residen-tial homes.

Energy generated by wind farms is transmitted to regional electric grids. For example, CPS Energy’s wind farms transmit power to the Electric Reliabil-ity Council of Texas (ERCOT) grid which manages the flow of electric power to Texas customers and schedules power for thousands of miles of transmission lines and hundreds of generation units. Once that wind power reaches the grid, it is hard to determine where it is distributed. Therefore, a CPS Energy customer at a 20 percent Windtricity participation level will not necessarily receive 20 per-cent of their electricity as wind power. Really, a customer’s participation level indicates their support for the continued generation of wind power and reduces the community’s dependence on traditional fuel sources.

B. Norwegian Company Develops Worlds Largest Wind Turbine

As fossil fuels continue to diminish and climate change poses an ever-in-creasing threat, scientists around the world are searching for new and more effi-cient methods of generating energy. Wind energy is one of the more promising alternative energy sources and Norwegian scientists are currently in the develop-ment stages of what promises to be the world’s largest wind turbine. But creat-ing the biggest wind turbine in the world was not enough. Current plans for the world’s largest wind turbine have the machine standing 533 feet tall.

The proposed rotor diameter of this machine is 475 feet. Obviously, these gargantuan dimensions make it difficult to imagine many places able to accom-modate such a device. Fortunately, the floating design makes the turbine suitable for open ocean use.

In addition being the world’s largest wind turbine, the proposed machine (which is to be built by the Norwegian company Sway), will also be the most powerful. A single floating turbine will be able to generate 10–megawatts to power more than 2,000 homes. These figures make this proposed new design at least three times more powerful than the existing wind turbines in use today.

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The floating design gives this generator a huge advantage over other wind–power generators because the device can be placed in deeper water. The machine’s tower is a floating pole filled with ballast beneath the ocean’s surface. This gives the world’s largest wind turbine a low center of gravity, which pre-vents tipping. The generator is anchored to the sea floor with a single pipe. This design allows the turbine to tilt 5–8 degrees as well as rotate freely to generate power from any wind direction.

Currently, Norway is one of the world’s top oil and gas producers. De-spite this fact, Norway generates most of its own power from hydroelectric plants. Norway’s dedication to designing and building the world’s largest wind turbine showcases the countries commitment to alternative energy, and serves to further illustrate how important this cause actually is. If the world’s largest wind turbine is a success, it will mark a major stride in humanity’s quest to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels.

A. Comprehension

1. Read text A and fill in the headings.1) One of the oldest form of energy.2) The process wind energy producing.3) The example of energy transmission to the electric grid.

2. Read text B. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.

1) Fortunately, the floating design makes the turbine suitable for open ocean use.

2) The floating design gives this generator a huge advantage over other wind–power generators because the device can be placed in deeper water.

3) If the world’s largest wind turbine is a success, it will mark a major stride in humanity’s quest to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels.

4) A single floating turbine will be able to generate 10–megawatts to power more than 2,000 homes.

5) Scientists around the world are searching for new and more efficient methods of generating energy.

3. Answer the following questions:1) When did people begin adapting windmills into wind turbines?2) What are the best places for building wind farms?3) How does an electrical generator convert the mechanical energy into

the electric energy?4) How many megawatts can each turbine generate?5) What is “CPS Energy”?6) What country is going to build the world’s largest wind turbine?7) What are the advantages of using the floating design?8) What methods does Norway use to generate power?

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9) Why do scientists try to find new and more efficient methods of generating energy?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) Rotor diameter for wind turbine is going to be 475 meters.2) Norwegian company Sway is going to build world’s largest wind tur-

bine.3) The floating design gives this generator a huge disadvantage over other

wind–power generators because the device can be placed in deeper water.4) Currently, Norway is one of the world’s top oil and gas producers.5) If the world’s largest wind turbine is a success, it will mark a major

stride in humanity’s quest to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.Shaft, energy, a low–speed, fuel, floor, producers, diameter, methods,

direction, advantage1) fossil 6) wind2) efficient 7) sea3) gas 8) a low-speed4) huge 9) wind5) alternative 10) rotor

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) renewable energy2) grinding grain3) adapting windmills4) wind farms 5) utility–sized applications6) turbines’ blades7) transmission lines8) floating design9) able to accommodate such a device10) to be the most powerful11) three times more powerful 12) a low center of gravity13) to prevent tipping14) top oil and gas producers15) to reduce dependence on fossil fuel

4. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) Norwegian scientists/ researchers are currently in the development

stages of what promises to be the world’s largest wind turbine.

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2) The sailing/ floating design makes the turbine suitable for open ocean use.

3) These figures make this proposed modern/ new design at least three times more powerful than the existing wind turbines in use today.

4) The floating design gives this generator a huge/ extraordinary advantage over other wind–power generators because the device can be placed in deeper water.

5) This project/ design allows the turbine to tilt 5–8 degrees as well as ro-tate freely to generate power from any wind direction.

6) Currently, Norway is one of the world’s top butter/ oil and gas produc-ers.

5. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Infinitive.1) This is the device to be used in our experiment.2) The thermometer is a device to measure the temperature.3) Where are the articles to be translated by the students? 4) The letter to be answered was given to me.5) The generator is a device to change mechanical energy into electric

energy.6) The Soviet Union was the first to use atomic energy for peaceful

purposes.7) V.V. Petrov was the first scientist to study the electrification of metals

by rubbing them.8) I was the last to answer the teacher’s questions.

6. Give English equivalents for:Самая большая в мире ветровая турбина, огромное преимущество,

возрастающая угроза, направление ветра, плавающая конструкция, может быть установлен на глубине, поверхность океана, высокоскоростной вал, соединяться с чем–либо, использовать для выработки электроэнергии, переделывать ветряные мельницы в ветряные турбины, зависимость от традиционных источников.

7. Choose the correct verb form:1) I’d rather ….. a very good nervous and emotional balance.a) possess b) to possess c) possessing2) I’d rather you ….. strict medical examination.a) to undergo b) undergo c) underwent3) I wish I ….. a highly professional electrical engineer.a) am b) were c) been4) You’d better ….. proficient not only in specialized technical English.a) be b) to be c) being5) It’s time ….. several hydropower stations simultaneously.a) control b) controlling c) to control

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6) I wish Irkutskenergo …. the first global symposium on flight safety in New York.

a) organize b) organized c) had organized7) I wish our country ….. the most to enhancing safety.a) contributed b) would contribute c) to contribute.

8. Translate the following words into Russian paying attention to the means of word formation (prefixes and suffixes):

1) order – orderly;2) exact – exactly – exactness;3) reduce – reduction;4) power – powerful – powerless; 5) responsible – responsibility – response – respond;6) strict – strictly – strictness;7) train – trainer – trainee – training; 8) simulate – simulator – simulation;9) operate – operation – operative – operator – operational –

operationally;10) communicate – communication – communicative – communicable ;11) improve – improvement – improvable – improver.

9. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with appropriate forms of the verb. (Infinitive, participle, gerund).

Increasing the Efficiency of Wind Turbine Blades

To ensure wind turbines that are big in size work in a better manner, a new kind of air-flow technology may soon be introduced. Apart from other as-pects, it will focus on efficiency of blades used in the wind turbines. The tech-nology …. (help) in increasing the efficiency of these turbines under various wind conditions. This is a significant development in the area of renewable en-ergy after new wind-turbine power generation capacity got added to new coal-fired power generation in 2008.

… (test) new systems to optimize the efficiency of wind turbines and their blades Syracuse University researchers … (test) new intelligent-system based active control methods with the support from the U S Department of Energy through the University of Minnesota Wind Energy Consortium. They record data in an intelligent controller after getting a rough idea of the flow conditions over the blade surfaces. This helps them implement real-time actuation on the blades. In this way, not only the efficiency of wind turbine system is increased but the airflow can also be managed.

Advantages of new systems to optimize the efficiency of wind turbines and their blades:

They reduce noise.

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They reduce vibration.New developments that are being worked out to make wind turbines and

blades more efficient: The overall … (work) scope of the wind turbine can be enlarged by

… (us) the flow control on the outboard side of the blade beyond the half radius. Attempts are being made … (increase) the rated output power without … (in-crease) the level of … (operate) range.

An anechoic chamber is being set-up to measure and define the ef-fects of flow control on the noise spectrum of the wind turbine.

Scientists are also trying to attain a greater efficiency by … (place) blades at various angles through wind tunnel tests of 2.5 megawatt.

10. Read the text and ask 6 questions to the text.

Wind Turbines without the Blades

The wind industry is trying to find a solution to the problem by working with environmental groups, federal regulators, and other interested parties. They are trying to develop methods of measuring and mitigating wind energy’s effect on birds. The Wind Turbine offers hope to bird lovers and environmentalists. The Wind Turbine has several advantages over the traditional ones having blades. Fuller Wind Turbine has a screened inlet and outlet. If you try to get a closer look at this wind turbine you can see the only visible movement. It is as it adjusts to track the wind. This wind turbine can be utilized by the military sur-veillance and radar installations because there are no moving blades to cause dif-ficulties.

Another plus attached to this wind turbine is that it won’t cost a heaven when you get its power. According to manufacturers this turbine is expected to deliver power at a cost at par with the coal–fired power plants. If you want to probe deeper, it’s good news that total operating costs over the lifetime of the unit are expected to be about $0.12/kWh.

If we take the maintenance angle it won’t cause much headache because it’s a bladeless turbine. The turbine maintenance requirements are not colossal and it would result in lower lifetime operating costs. The turbine is mainly sup-ported on magnetic bearings. Another advantage is all of the generating equip-ments are kept at ground level. This will lead towards easy maintenance of equipments. The company comes out with encouraging figures and proclaims «final costs will be about $1.50/watt rated output, or roughly 2/3 the cost of comparable bladed units».

If we take a look at the Tesla turbine patented in 1913, it operates using the viscous flow of a fluid to move the turbine and as a result generates energy. The Tesla turbine has a set of smooth disks fitted with nozzles that send out a moving gas to the edge of the disk. The gases drag on the disk by following the principle of viscosity and the adhesion of the surface layer of the gas. As the gas

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slows and adds force to the disks, it twirls in to the center of exhaust. Because the rotor has no projections, it is very strong and sturdy. One has to be careful about the disk space because disks in the turbine need to be closely spaced so that they can trap the viscous flow. The Tesla turbine has extremely thin disks to reduce turbulence at the edges and that makes them effective. In 1913, Tesla was unable to find metals of adequate quality to make this work effectively. But now almost a century later, those limitations have been surmounted.

11. Match the numbers to the letters.1) efficiency of a) the problem2) to optimize the b) system3) to reduce c) advantages4) anechoic d) controller5) intelligent e) the disks6) federal f) noise7) the edge of g) exhaust8) several h) efficiency9) a solution to i) regulators10) center of g) chamber

12. Distribute the words below according to the parts of speech. Underline suffixes and prefixes. Translate the words.

Verb Noun Adverb AdjectiveEstablishment, century, settlements, growth, massive, basic, contribute,

simplicity, operate, openness, frequently, conduct, urgent, intensive, various, proficiency, brought, Amendments, clear, addition, contain, strict, additional, closely, phraseology, plain, sufficient, cover, particularly.

13. Change these sentences to indirect speech (reported some time later).1) Human error remains a significant safety concern. (He said )2) Modern power engineering has partly achieved its ultimate goal. (She

said)3) Safety programme must deal with real problems. (He thought )4) The global atomic safety plan will contribute the most to enhancing

safety. (She thought)5) Controllers’ slightest error may cause loss of human lives. (He proved)6) Do they undergo strict medical examination at periodic intervals? (I

asked)7) What qualities are absolutely necessary for electrical engineer? (I

wondered)8) When did English become a world language? (I asked)9) You should follow rules. (I advised him)10) Use plain language when phraseology is not sufficient. (I told her)11) The worst disaster in atomic energy occurred in 1986. (I knew)

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14. Translate the following sentences into English: 1) Ветровая индустрия пытается разработать методы измерения и

уменьшения влияния ветровой энергии на птиц.2) Ветровая турбина «Фуллер» имеет ряд преимуществ над

традиционными турбинами, имеющими лопасти.3) Ветровая турбина «Фуллер» может быть использована военными.4) Требования к техническому обслуживанию подобных турбин

невелики и это приводит к снижению эксплуатационных расходов в течение срока службы данного устройства.

5) Турбина в основном поддерживается магнитными опорами.6) Оборудование турбины находится на уровне земли.7) Турбина Тесла, запатентованная в 1913 г. работает с

использованием вязкого потока жидкости.8) Турбина Тесла имеет набор гладких дисков, оснащенных

насадками, которые отправляют движущийся газ на край диска.9) С развитием индустриализации люди начали приспосабливать

ветряные мельницы в ветряные турбины для выработки электроэнергии.10) Ветропарки «фермы» строятся в таких географических районах,

где преобладают ветра.

С. Discussion

1) Speak on the achievements in the field of wind industry. 2) Look at the Internet and find some information about greatest wind

farms. Discuss perspectives of wind industry in your region with your groupmates.

UNIT 9 – GEOTHERMAL POWER

Active vocabulary

1. shell – скорлупа2. slab – плита, пластина3. inch – дюйм4. ancient – древний5. glacier – ледник6. to insulate – изолировать7. outermost – самый дальний от середины8. impurity – примесь, загрязнение9. fumaroles – фумаролы, выходы вулканических газов10. boundaries – границы11. plate – плита12. crops – урожай

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13. lumber – пиломатериалы14. to inject – впрыскивать, впускать15. to vaporize – испаряться, преобразовываться16. fluid – жидкость17. to expand – расширяться, увеличиваться18. predictable – предсказуемый19. baseload – базовый20. scrubber – скребок, газопромыватель21. fertilizer – удобрение22. acid rain – кислотный дождь23. desert – пустыня24. healing – лечение25. clue – ключ, признак26. hotbed – парник, очаг27. to rim – обрамлять28. fault –геологический сдвиг29. to saturate – насыщать, пропитывать30. to pressurized – герметизировать, оказывать давление31. to fertilize – удобрять

Guess the meaning of the following words: molten iron, solid iron center, radioactive particles , insulating crust, sheet of rock, ocean floor, drift apart, continental drift, geothermal energy, geological maps, concentration of metals , plate boundaries , infant stages of development, reservoirs of steam or hot water, cooling system, to serve the electrical energy needs.

A. What Is Geothermal Energy?

Geothermal energy comes from the heat within the earth. The word «geo-thermal» comes from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and thermo, meaning «heat». People around the world use geothermal energy to produce electricity, to heat buildings and greenhouses, and for other purposes.

The earth's core lies almost 4,000 miles beneath the earth's surface. The double–layered core is made up of very hot molten iron surrounding a solid iron center. Estimates of the temperature of the core range from 5,000 to 11,000 de-grees Fahrenheit (F). Heat is continuously produced within the earth by the slow decay of radioactive particles that is natural in all rocks.

Surrounding the earth's core is the mantle, thought to be partly rock and partly magma. The mantle is about 1,800 miles thick. The outermost layer of the earth, the insulating crust, is not one continuous sheet of rock, like the shell of an egg, but is broken into pieces called plates. These slabs of continents and ocean floor drift apart and push against each other at the rate of about one inch per year in a process called continental drift.

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Magma (molten rock) may come quite close to the surface where the crust has been thinned, faulted, or fractured by plate tectonics. When this near-surface heat is transferred to water, a usable form of geothermal energy is created.

Geothermal energy is called a renewable energy source because the water is replenished by rainfall, and the heat is continuously produced by the earth.

B. History of Geothermal Energy

Many ancient people, including the Romans, Chinese, and Native Ameri-cans, used hot mineral springs for bathing, cooking, and heating. Water from hot springs is now used world-wide in spas, for heating buildings, and for agricul-tural and industrial uses. Many people believe hot mineral springs have natural healing powers.

Using geothermal energy to produce electricity is a relatively new indus-try. It was initiated by a group of Italians who built an electric generator at Lar-darello in 1904. Their generator was powered by the natural steam erupting from the earth.

The first attempt to develop geothermal power in the United States came in 1922 at The Geysers steam field in northern California. The project failed be-cause the pipes and turbines of the day could not stand up to the abrasion and corrosion of the particles and impurities that were in the steam. Later, a small but successful hydrothermal plant opened at the Geysers in 1960. Today 28 plants are operating there.

Electricity is now produced from geothermal energy in 21 countries, in-cluding the United States.

C. Where Is Geothermal Energy Found?

What does geothermal energy look like? Some visible features of geother-mal energy are volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles. But you cannot see most geothermal energy. Usually geothermal energy is deep underground. There may be no clues above ground to what exists below ground.

Geologists use many methods to find geothermal resources. They may study aerial photographs and geological maps. They may analyze the chemistry of local water sources and the concentration of metals in the soil. They may measure variations in gravity and magnetic fields. Yet the only way they can be sure there is a geothermal resource is by drilling wells to measure underground temperatures.

The earth is a hotbed of geothermal energy. The most active geothermal resources are usually found along major plate boundaries where earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated. Most of the geothermal activity in the world occurs in an area known as the «Ring of Fire». The Ring of Fire rims the Pacific Ocean and is bounded by Japan, the Philippines, the Aleutian Islands, North America, Central America, and South America.

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A. Comprehension

1. Read text A. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.

1) The mantle is about 1,800 miles thick.2) The word "geothermal" comes from the Greek words geo.3) Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source.4) Molten rock may come quite close to the surface.5) The double–layered core is made up of very hot molten iron

surrounding a solid iron center.

2. Read text B. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) Magma;2) «Ring of Fire»;3) Geysers;4) Continental drift;5) Ancient people;6) Water from hot springs.

3. Answer the following questions:1) How is surrounding the earth’s core colled? 2) What is the process called continental drift?3) Why is geothermal energy called a renewable energy source?4) How do people use water from hot springs?5) Where are most active geothermal resources usually found?6) What does geothermal power-station transform into electric energy?7) What methods do geologists use to find geothermal resources?8) Where is the most geothermal activity in the world located?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) Internal heat of Earth is transformed in electric energy in the process of

working of geothermal station.2) It is very easy to use energy of earth’s heat all over the world.3) Unfortunately, United States of America do not have geothermal

power-station.4) Ecological safety is the most important aspect of geothermal power-

station.5) Veil is surrounding the earth’s core.6) The earth's core lies almost 4,000 miles beneath the earth's surface.7) Water from glaciers is now used world-wide in spas.8) Italians built an electric generator at Lardarello in 1905.

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9) The earth is a hotbed of geothermal energy.10) Some visible features of geothermal energy are volcanoes.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.People, temperature, wells, underground, center, buildings, rock, metals,

resources, maps.1) to be deep … 6) underground …2) geothermal … 7) molten …3) geological … 8) iron … 4) concentration of … 9) ancient….5) to drill … 10) to hit …

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) to surround a center2) radioactive particles3) insulating crust4) shell of an egg5) to brake into pieces6) ocean floor7) hot mineral springs8) agricultural uses9) natural steam10) to erupt from the earth11)Geysers steam field12) to stand up to the corrosion13) visible features of geothermal energy14) to be deep underground15) to study aerial photographs

4. Match the words in the left column to the synonyms in the right one:1) restricted a) instrument2) enable b) limited3) proposal c) allow4) tool d) staff5) personnel e) safety6) baggage f) luggage7) sample g) suggestion8) security h) example9) detect i) instant10) immediate j) find

5. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) The project failed because the wires / pipes and turbines could not

stand up to the abrasion and corrosion.

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2) What does geothermal energy look / feel like?3) Geologists use many methods to sell / find geothermal resources.4) They drill / sink wells to measure underground temperatures.

6. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:

To, for, along, from, up, from, to, around, by1) to come … the heat within the earth;2) people … the world use geothermal energy ;3) to come quite close … the surface;4) continuously produced … the earth;5) water … hot springs is used … agricultural and industrial uses;6) pipes could not stand … … corrosion;7) to find … major plate boundaries;

7. Give English equivalents for:Геотермальная энергия, образование водяного пара, геологические

районы, высокое геологическое давление, особый тип электростанций, преобразовывать внутреннее тепло Земли, наименее используемая энергия, большой энергетический запас, экологическая безопасность, нагретая до высокой температуры вода, естественные природные процессы, область использования подобных ресурсов, особые геологические районы, использование геологических карт, перспективный вид получения альтернативных источников энергии.

8. Translate the following sentences using the Infinitive.1) Чтобы получить постоянный ток, необходимо иметь его источник.2) Пирометр используется для измерения температуры горячих

металлов.3) Человек научился расщеплять атомы для того, чтобы получать

большое количество энергии.4) Ученые пытаются решить проблему, связанную с новыми

явлениями электричества.5) Громоотвод – металлические приспособления для защиты зданий

от молний.6) Проводить опыты с атмосферным электричеством было очень

опасно в то время.7) Намагнитить предмет – это значит поместить его в поле магнита.

9. Read the text, find out all passive constructions and translate them into Russian.

Today’s Geothermal Energy

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There are four main kinds of geothermal resources: hydrothermal, geopressured, hot dry rock, and magma. Today hydrothermal resources are the only kind in wide use. The other three resources are still in the infant stages of development.

Hydrothermal resources have the common ingredients of water (hydro) and heat (thermal). These geothermal reservoirs of steam or hot water occur naturally where magma comes close enough to the surface to heat ground water trapped in fractured or porous rocks, or where water circulates at great depth along faults. Hydrothermal resources are used for different energy purposes depending on their temperature and how deep they are.

When the temperature of a hydrothermal resource is around 50F and up, it can be used directly in spas or to heat buildings, grow crops, warm fish ponds, or for other uses. Hydrothermal resources suitable for heating occur throughout the United States and in almost every country in the world. Most of the people in Iceland and over 500,000 people in France use geothermal heat for their public buildings, schools, and homes. In the United States, geothermal heat pumps are used in 45 states to heat and cool homes and buildings. Idaho, Oregon, Nevada, and some other states use geothermal energy to heat entire districts.

Heat from geothermal resources is also used to dry ceramics, lumber, vegetables, and other products.

When the temperature of a hydrothermal resource is around 220F and up, it can be used to generate electricity. Most electricity-producing geothermal resources have temperatures from 300 to 700F, but geothermal reservoirs can reach nearly 1,000F.

Two main types of hydrothermal resources are used to generate electricity: dry steam (vapor-dominated) reservoirs, and hot water (liquid-dominated) reservoirs.

Dry steam reservoirs are rare but highly efficient at producing electricity. The Geysers in California is the largest and best known dry steam reservoir. Here, steam is obtained by drilling wells from 7,000 to 10,000 feet deep. In a dry steam reservoir, the natural steam is piped directly from a geothermal well to power a turbine generator. The spent steam (condensed water) can be used in the plant's cooling system and injected back into the reservoir to maintain water and pressure levels.

Hot water geothermal reservoirs are the most common type. In a liquid-dominated reservoir, the hot water has not vaporized into steam because the reservoir is saturated with water and is under pressure. To generate electricity, the hot water is piped from geothermal wells to one or more separators where the pressure is lowered and the water flashes into steam. The steam then propels a turbine generator to produce electricity. The steam is cooled and condensed and either used in the plant's cooling system or injected back into the geothermal reservoir.

A binary cycle power plant is used when the water in a hot water reservoir is not hot enough to flash into steam. Instead, the lower–temperature hot water is

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used to heat a fluid that expands when warmed. The turbine is powered from the expanded, pressurized fluid. Afterwards, the fluid is cooled and recycled to be heated over and over again.

10. Read text. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.

Geothermal Energy and the Environment

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source that does little damage to the environment.

Geothermal steam and hot water do contain naturally occurring traces of hydrogen sulfide (a gas that smells like rotten eggs) and other gases and chemicals that can be harmful in high concentrations. Geothermal power plants use «scrubber» systems to clean the air of hydrogen sulfide and the other gases. Sometimes the gases are converted into marketable products, such as liquid fertilizer. Newer geothermal power plants can even inject these gases back into the geothermal wells.

Geothermal power plants do not burn fuels to generate electricity as do fossil fuel plants. Geothermal power plants release less than one to four percent of the amount of carbon dioxide (C02) emitted by coal plants.

Emissions of sulfur compounds from motor vehicles and fossil fuel plants are also major contributors to acid rain. Geothermal power plants, on the other hand, emit only about one to three percent of the sulfur compounds that coal and oil–fired power plants do. Well-designed binary cycle power plants have no emissions at all.

Geothermal power plants are compatible with many environments. They have been built in deserts, in the middle of crops, and in mountain forests.

Geothermal development is often allowed on federal lands because it does not significantly harm the environment. Before permission is granted, however, studies must be made to determine what effect a plant may have on the environment. Geothermal features in national parks, such as the geysers and fumaroles in Yellowstone and Lassen National Parks, are protected by law, so geothermal energy is not tapped in these areas.

1) Geothermal features are protected by law.2) Geothermal energy does little damage to the environment.3) Well-designed binary cycle power plants have no emissions at all.4) Geothermal development is often allowed on federal lands.5) Geothermal power plants do not burn fuels to generate electricity.

11. Read text. Find in the text the examples of Participle 1 and Participle 2. Fill in the following table:

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Geothermal Energy Production and Economics

Geothermal energy is put to work in many places around the world. The best known geothermal energy sources in the United States are located in western states and Hawaii. Some moderately hot geothermal resources also exist in the Dakotas, along the Atlantic coast, and in Arkansas and Texas. Someday we may be able to use these resources too.

Most geothermal energy is produced in four states – California, Nevada, Utah, and Hawaii. Today the total installed capacity of geothermal power plants in the United State is 3,200 megawatts (MW) That's the energy equivalent of three nuclear power plants. American geothermal power plants range in size from a few hundred kilowatts to more than 130 megawatts.

In 1994, geothermal energy produced 18 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity, or 0.3 percent of the electricity used in this country. Still, this was enough to serve the electrical energy needs of over three million households. California gets six percent of its electricity from geothermal energy, more than any other state.

Geothermal supporters say geothermal energy production will grow in the 1990s despite the fact that geothermal energy production peaked in 1987 and has since declined. Geothermal supporters say at least 400 MW more capacity is planned for the next five years and estimate that geothermal energy could provide 10 percent of the electrical capacity of the western United States by the turn of the century.

Geothermal power plants can produce electricity as cheaply as some conventional power plants. It costs 4.5 to seven cents per kWh to produce electricity from hydrothermal systems. In comparison, new coal–fired plants produce electricity at about four cents per kWh.

Initial construction costs for geothermal power plants are high because geothermal wells and power plants must be constructed at the same time.

But the cost of producing electricity over time is lower because the price and availability of the fuel is stable and predictable. The fuel does not have to be imported or transported to the power plant. The power plant literally sits on top of its fuel source.

Geothermal power plants are also excellent sources of baseload power. Baseload power is power that electric utility companies must deliver all day long. Baseload geothermal plants sell electricity all the time, not only during peakuse times when the demand for electricity is high.

Until recently, utilities were required to buy the least–cost electricity, without regard to environmental impacts. Federal and state energy and environmental agencies are studying ways to give preference to nonpolluting energy sources such as geothermal energy.

PARTICIPLE 1 PARTICIPLE 2

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12. Match the numbers to the letters.1) Atlantic a) electricity2) to use b) energy3) to produce cheap c) the fuel4) hydrothermal d) coast5) availability of e) least-cost6) electricity of f) resources7) nonpolluting g) systems

13. Form the nouns from the following verbs and give Russian equivalents:

1) inquire;2) locate;3) interpret;4) collide;5) comprehend:6) train;7) provide;8) communicate;9) propose;10) misunderstand;11) perform.

14. Translate the following sentences into English: 1) Геотермальные станции не сжигают топливо для получения

электричества.2) Геотермальный пар не содержит вредных примесей в высоких

концентрациях.3) Геотермальные станции – это дешевый источник энергии.4) Геотермальная энергия – это самый большой энергетический запас

на планете, которым располагает человечество.5) В настоящее время геотермальная энергия уже используется в

ряде стран, в том числе и в России.6) Схема работы геотермальной станции достаточно проста.7) Вода, через специально пробуренные отверстия, закачивается

глубоко под землю, в те слои земной коры, которые естественным образом довольно сильно нагреты.

8) Просачиваясь в трещины и полости горячего гранита, вода нагревается до образования водяного пара, и по другой, параллельной скважине поднимается обратно.

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9) После этого горячая вода поступает непосредственно на электростанцию в так называемый теплообменник, и ее энергия преобразуется в электрическую.

10) В другом варианте геотермальной стации используется природные геотермальные ресурсы, т.е. вода, нагретая до высокой температуры в результате естественных природных процессов.

С. Discussion

1) Speak on «What is done with water in the process of working of geo-thermal station», using a list of words: bored opening, to swing deeply un-der earth, layers, earth's crust, cracks, cavities of hot granite, forma-tion of aquatic steam, heat exchanger

2) Make a project on the topic «Geothermal energy and the environment» and present it in class.

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PART 4 – INNOVATIONS. INVENTIONS. INVENTORS.

UNIT 10 – INNOVATIONS IN POWER ENGINEERING

Active vocabulary1. abuse – ухудшение2. to aggravate – ухудшать3. urgent – срочный4. maintenance – содержание, обслуживание5. detrimental – причиняющий ущерб6. impurities – загрязнения7. emissions – выбросы8. profitability – прибыльность9. hydrogen – водород10. wasteful – расточительный11. to ameliorate – повышать качество12. contemporary – современный13. recoverable – утилизируемый14. approaches – подходы15. violating – нарушение16. seaweed – морские водоросли17. to soak up – впитывать18. emitting – излучающий19. to mitigate – смягчать20. widespread – широко распространенный21. mortality – смертность

Guess the meaning of the following words: burning problems, air pollu-tion, nearest future, rise in prices, human influence, urgent requirement, environ-mental protection, priority areas, weather conditions, cost price, standalone op-eration, space tourism, space industry, radiant energy, space-based solar power, climate change, seaweed blooms, breathe out oxygen, fluorescent glow, global warming, aquatic environments, and bioluminescent seaweeds

A. Innovations in Power

Today one of the most burning problems in the world is the abuse of environment and air pollution as a result of chemical, thermal, mechanical activities of mankind and industry. In the nearest future, demand for energy resources growth, probable rise in prices for petroleum products will aggravate a human influence on the atmosphere. Mankind will be faced with urgent requirement of environmental protection, as well as search for the new alternative energy-saving technologies.

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One of the priority areas of the company ENCE GmbH is adoption of a new revolutionary method – utilization of associated petroleum gas by means of power stations with energy units.

These stations produce the electric energy on basis of the energy units. An energy unit is designed to generate heat and electricity from the fuel with high content of hydrogen. One of the advantages of this ambitious unique method is that there is no combustion process in the energy unit and owing to flameless electrochemical reaction our consumer receives “pure” heat and electricity.

These advanced power plants can use a number of different fuels: methanol, propane, synthesis gas, associated gas, natural gas, pure hydrogen.

Besides energy-saving optimization of the existing power stations this innovation includes engineering of new technologies leading to productivity improvement, profitability rise, increase of the profit rate of an enterprise.

Thereby ENCE GmbH settles two issues by one offer: environmental protection and application of advanced energy-saving technologies of the XXI century.

Advantages of this unique method are:– Innovative energy generation, free from emissions of greenhouse gas,

detrimental impurities, burning residues;– Ability to work under any weather conditions, no special foundation is

required;– Low cost price of electric power;– Do not require capital costs and long-term maintenance;– Direct conversion of chemical fuel energy into electricity and heat

energy;– Stand-alone operation;– Modular compact design;– Wide range of electric power from 10 kW to 10 MW;– High efficiency coefficient of 80–95%;– Absence of noise and vibration, no high-wear parts;– Do not require maintenance of the modular assemblies in the first years

of operation life.

B. Present and Future

Energy production usually requires an energy investment. Drilling for oil or building a wind power plant requires energy. The fossil fuel resources (see above) that are left are often increasingly difficult to extract and convert. They may thus require increasingly higher energy investments. If investment is greater than the energy produced, than the resource; It is no longer an effective energy source. This means that resources, the wasteful ones, are not used effectively for energy production. Such resources can be exploited economically in order to produce raw materials. They then become ordinary mining reserves, economically recoverable are not a positive energy sources. New technology

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may ameliorate this problem if it can lower the energy investment required to extract and convert the resources, although ultimately basic physics sets limits that cannot be exceeded.

With contemporary space industry's economic activity and the related private spaceflight, with the manufacturing industries, that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development. Commercialization of space includes satellite navigation systems, satellite television and satellite radio; investments estimated to be $50.8 billion. There are the spaceports of Sweden's gateway, Curacao’s gateway, Malaysia's gateway, and America's gateway that plans to make personal and commercial suborbital spaceflight for space tourism, space hubs, space research, and science education, in-addition to contribute to Earth-based cross-industry innovation. Researchers have contemplated space-based solar power for collecting solar power in space for use on Earth. Space-based solar power only differ from solar and other similar radiant energy collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an orbiting satellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a diffusing and refracting atmosphere and nighttime in space.

A. Comprehension

1. Read text A. Give the definitions of the following words:1) Environmental protection;2) Energy-saving technologies;3) Flameless electrochemical reaction.

2. Read text B. Point out its main ideas and write them out.

3. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text A.1) These advanced power plants can use a number of different fuels:

methanol, propane, synthesis gas, associated gas, natural gas, pure hydrogen.2) Low cost price of electric power is advantage of this unique method.3) Mankind will be faced with urgent requirement of environmental

protection.4) An energy unit is designed to generate heat and electricity from the fuel

with high content of hydrogen.

4. Answer the following questions:1) What will the mankind be faced in nearest future?2) What kind of environmental problems are mentioned in this text?3) What are the priority areas of the company ENCE GmbH?4) What types of fuel can be used at advanced power plants?5) Does advance power plant require a special foundation?

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6) Why does the extraction of fossil fuels become ineffective?7) How can we reduce the investment in energetic?8) How to develop energy in space?9) What is the feature of space–based solar batteries?10) What are the advantages of collecting solar power in space?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) Burning problems in the world is the abuse of environment and air

pollution.2) Drilling for oil requires fuel resources.3) Commercialization of space includes satellite navigation systems.4) Russia plans to make commercial suborbital spaceflight for space

tourism.5) Space-based solar power differ from solar energy collection methods.

2. Give definitions to:1) commercialization of space;2) satellite television;3) satellite;4) collection period.

3. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.Efficiency, long-term, science, compact, electrochemical, unique, en-

ergy-saving, raw, ambitious, stand-alone.1) …… method 6) …… coefficient2) …… reaction 7) …… design3) …… method 8) …… operation4) …… technologies 9) …… education5) …… maintenance 10) …… materials

4. Give Russian equivalents for:1) priority areas;2) no combustion process;3) innovative energy generation;4) greenhouse gas;5) ability to work;6) wide range;7) high efficiency;8) operation life;9) private spaceflight;10) space–based solar power;

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5. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. Advantages of there unique method used by ENCE GmbH:1) High / low cost price of electric power.2) Long–term investments / maintenance.3) Direct conversion of chemical / natural fuel energy into electricity.4) Modular compact design / project.5) High effort / efficiency coefficient of 80–95%.6) Absence of noise / nose and vibration, no high–wear parts.

6. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:

1) demand … resources2) rise … prices3) influence … the atmosphere4) leading … improvement5) ability … work6) … order to produce7) spaceflight … space tourism

7. Give English equivalents for:Загрязнение воздуха, ближайшее будущее, подорожание, влияние

человека, охрана окружающей среды, приоритетные области, уникальный метод, чистый водород, природный газ, энергосберегающие технологии, оптимизация, специальный фонд, автономная работа, топливные ресурсы, инвестиции в энергетику, основы физики, космический корабль.

8. Find the sentences with the Absolute Participle Construction and translate them.

1) They girl is finishing her work.2) The work is being finished by the girl.3) The girl finishing her work is my sister.4) Finishing her work, the girl was speaking to her friends.5) The work having been finished, the students went home.6) Having finished her work, the girl went for a walk.7) Having been finished in time, the work was given to the teacher.8) My brother finished his work, his friend having helped him.

9. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Rainforest, geography, years, regrow, burnt, state, period, fossil,

renewable, regarded.

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Biomass in the Energetic

Biomass (plant material) can be a … energy source, but importantly, only if the rate of extraction does not exceed the rate of production, as non–renewable biomass usage can easily occur, such as the historical Deforestation during the Roman … and the present Deforestation of the Amazon ….

Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture the sun's energy. When the plants are …, they release the sun's energy they contain. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy.

In general there are two main approaches to using plants for energy pro-duction: growing plants specifically for energy use (known as first and third-generation biomass), and using the residues (known as second-generation biomass) from plants that are used for other things. See biobased economy. The best approaches vary from region to region according to climate, soils and ….

The proportion of truly renewable biomass in use is uncertain, as for ex-ample peat, one of the largest sources of biomass, is sometimes … as a renew-able source of energy. However due to peats extraction rate in industrialized countries far exceeding its slow regrowth rate of 1mm per year, and due to it be-ing reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands. There is considerable controversy with this renewable classification. Organizations tasked with assessing climate change mitigation methods differ on the subject, the UNFCCC classify peat as a … fuel due to the thousand plus year length of time for peat to re–accumulate after harvesting, another organization affiliated with the United Nations also classified peat as a fossil fuel. However, the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has begun to classify peat as a "slow–renewable" fuel, with this also being the classification used by many in the peat industry.

Further controversy surrounding the classification of all biomass as «re-newable» centers around the fact that depending on the plant source, it can take from 2 to 100 years for different sources of plant energy to regrow, such as the difference between fast growing switch grass and slow growing trees, therefore due to the high emission intensity of plant material, researchers have suggested that if the biomass source takes longer than 20 years to …, they argue the plant source should not be regarded as renewable from a climate change mitigation standpoint.

As of early 2012, 85 of 107 biomass plants operating in the U.S. had been cited by federal or … regulators for violating clean air or water laws over the past five …. The Energy Information Administration projected that by 2017, biomass is expected to be about twice as expensive as natural gas, slightly more expensive than nuclear power, and much less expensive than solar panel.

10. Make up some questions to the underlined words.

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11. Distribute the words below according to the parts of speech. Underline suffixes and prefixes. Translate the words.

Verb Noun Adverb AdjectiveFlight, fatality, suffer, explosive , pressure, vertical, virtually, collision,

mainly, clearance, empower, recommend, creation, direction, altitude, coast, deadliest, civilian, brought, final, highway, went, huge, tank, specifically, emission, intensity, researcher, suggest, tasked.

12. Fill in the following table as in the example: make made made struck

givenfly shot

beenbrought

costthrow fell

risenwritten

laid

13. Read text, find the gerunds and the participles:

Bioluminescent Seaweeds

There’s something very special about bioluminescent seaweeds. They soak up sunlight, absorb carbon dioxide, and in return, breathe out oxygen while emitting a soft fluorescent glow. In essence, it’s nature’s all-in-one version of a solar panel, a carbon sink and a light bulb.

French biochemist Pierre Calleja has spent several years working on a way to harness the microorganisms’ special abilities to help mitigate some of planet Earth’s most pressing problems, namely global warming, threats to ecosystems and the need for renewables. His solution comes in the shape of a cylindrical seaweed-powered lamp that requires no electricity and is thus completely self-sufficient, operating through a process wherein all the energy produced during photosynthesis is collected and stored in a battery that helps to power the light during the evenings.

No one’s ever heard of a lamp saving the world. Well, the fact is that microseaweed is incredibly efficient at removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, about 150 to 200 times more than trees. Basically, a seaweed lamp can remove as much CO2 in one year as a tree would in its lifetime. Also,

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extracting seaweed from aquatic environments, such as oceans, could potentially save fish and other marine life since rapid increases known as seaweed blooms have caused widespread mortality due to harmful toxins that are sometimes released.

14. Match the numbers to the letters.1) seaweed a) glow2) breathe out b) environments3) fluorescent c) blooms4) global d) seaweeds5) aquatic e) warming6) bioluminescent f) oxygen

15. Translate the following sentences into English: 1) Биолюминесцентные водоросли поглощают солнечный свет и

углекислый газ, а взамен вырабатывают кислород.2) Французский биохимик Пьер Кальеха провел несколько лет,

работая над использованием специальных свойств микроорганизмов.3) Он надеялся, что это поможет уменьшить некоторые глобальные

проблемы Земли.4) Одной из таких проблем является проблема глобального

потепления.5) Сейчас человечество понимает необходимость в возобновляемых

источниках энергии.6) Микроводоросли невероятно эффективны для удаления

углекислого газа из атмосферы.7) Эффективность удаления углекислого газа из атмосферы при

помощи микроводорослей примерно в 200 раз выше, чем у деревьев.

С. Discussion1) Using the information given in the text «Biomass in the energetic»

analyze and supplement the list of most common reasons for modern society to use biomass in energetic.

2) Speak on the other innovations in power engineering.

UNIT 11 – INVENTIONS

Active vocabulary1. fluorescent lamp – флуоресцентная лампа2. mercury-vapor – ртутный3. gas-discharge lamp – газоразрядные лампы4. short-wave – коротковолновый5. coating – покрытие6. incandescent lamp – лампа накаливания

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7. luminous – светящийся8. fixture – зажимное приспособление9. wavelengths – длина волн10. significant – важный11. flicker – мерцание12. frequencies – частоты13. disposable – одноразовый14. irreversibly – необратимо15. alkaline – щелочной16. flashlights – фонарики17. rechargeable – перезаряжаемый18. lead-acid – свинцово–кислотные19. lithium – литий

Guess the meaning of the following words: hazardous waste, visible light, short-wave ultraviolet light, mercury vapor, phosphor coating, quantities of UV radiation, low frequencies, incandescent lamps, light intensity, to flicker susceptible, pre-existing diseases, portable devices, standby power, lead-acid batteries, electrochemical cells.

A. Electric Battery

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Each battery consists of a negative electrode material, a positive electrode material, an elec-trolyte that allows ions to move between the electrodes, and terminals that allow current to flow out of the battery to perform work.

Primary (single-use or «disposable») batteries are used once and dis-charged; the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Com-mon examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable devices. Secondary (rechargeable batteries) can be discharged and recharged multiple times; the original composition of the electrodes can be re-stored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehi-cles and lithium ion batteries used for portable electronics. Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year, with 6% annual growth.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat mitigated by the fact that bat-teries deliver their energy as electricity (which can be converted efficiently to mechanical work), whereas using fuels in engines entails a low efficiency of conversion to work.

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B. New Types of Battery

Electric cars – Envia SystemsWith electric cars, the most formidable challenge are batteries, which tend

to be expensive and need to be charged all-too-frequently to match the range of its fossil–fueled counterparts. However, this is becoming simpler as charging stations become more common – while in 2012 there were only 12 charging sta-tions in the United States, there now are 154.

Meanwhile, the startup, Envia Systems, is tackling the problem at its core. With funding sources including $4 million from ARPA–E, and $7 million from GM, the company created a long-range lithium-ion battery for electric cars. En-via claims that their technology not only triples the amount of energy stored in a battery, but does so at half the cost of available batteries.

If their venture proves commercially successful, this has the potential to truly disrupt automotive industry. Tesla already is exceeding expectations, de-spite current battery limitations and initial skepticism, by winning Automobile Magazine’s Car of the Year with its Model S. If one were to combine Tesla’s performance with a battery that is triple the price (at a fraction of the cost), we can certainly expect more consumers lining up to buy electric cars.

Personal: Charge your phone on the go with solar energy – GoalZeroThe best part about smart phones is that they are basically tiny computers

in your hand. But there is a reason that computers are plugged in most of the time. Despite the fact that the market can provide us with a multi-tasking prod-uct that can serve as a GPS-telephone-mini-television, the battery technology to sustain these functions for long periods of time just is not there yet.

With its solar-powered mobile charger, GoalZero is one of the many fledgling companies trying to provide a solution that is portable and eco-friendly.

Inspired by founder Robert Workman’s work with the non–profit organi-zation TIFIE in the remote regions of the Republic of Congo, GoalZero aspired to “blend portability, power, and ease-of-use”.

GoalZero’s Switch 8 Recharger, which retails for $40, is the size of a thick marker, can power a dead smart phone to life in 1 hour, and can be recharged from any USB source in 4 hours. It can also be used to recharge most mobile devices with a USB port, including tablets, E-readers, cameras, and MP3 players. It is definitely most applicable to consumers navigating the outdoors, and traveling through underdeveloped regions, where energy access is limited.

Overall, the company provides a range of solar-powered devices, from kits to tents, to ultra-light to utility-heavy. Their solar powered mobile charger falls into the ultra-light category.

A. Comprehension

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1. Read text A. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) disposable batteries; 2) rechargeable batteries;3) shapes of batteries;4) battery industry.

2. Read text B. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text.

1) GoalZero is trying to provide a solution that is portable and eco-friendly.

2) Electric car’s batteries tend to be expensive.3) Smart phones are basically tiny computers in your hand.4) Their solar powered mobile charger falls into the ultra-light category.5) If one were to combine Tesla’s performance with a battery that is triple

the price, we can certainly expect more consumers lining up to buy electric cars.

3. Answer the following questions:1) What does electric battery consist of?2) How is the alkaline battery used?3) What kind of batteries do you know?4) How many times are primary batteries used?5) What is the main problem with electric cars?6) How does the company Envia Systems solve problems with electric

cars?7) What are the advantages of the smart phone?8) What are the disadvantages of the smart phone?9) How to make smart phones more convenient?

B. Vocabulary Practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) An electric battery is a device that convert stored chemical energy into

electrical energy.2) Each battery consists of two negative electrodes.3) The worldwide battery industry generates US$1 million in sales each

year.4) Batteries have much lower specific energy than common fuels such as

gasoline.5) If charging stations become more common, people will buy electric

cars more often.6) Solar batteries can be used to recharge most mobile devices.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.

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To reverse, to perform, to deliver, electrochemical, battery, solar–pow-ered, mechanical, charging, long-range, multiple

1) ….. stations 6) ….. work2) ….. lithium-ion battery 7) ….. times3) ….. technology 8) ….. current4) ….. devices 9) ….. energy 5) ….. cells 10) ….. work

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) to become simpler;2) to tackle the problem;3) amount of energy stored in a battery;4) commercially successful;5) current battery limitations;6) initial skepticism;7) computers are plugged in most of the time;8) solar-powered mobile charger;9) to remote regions;10) thick marker;11) to power a dead smart phone to life;12) to recharge most mobile devices;13) energy access is limited.

4. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) An electrolyte allows ions to move between the electrodes, and termi-

nals that allow current to flow out of the battery to perform job / work.2) Primary batteries are used once / twice and discarded3) Common example of the solar / alkaline battery is used for flashlights.4) Rechargeable batteries can be recharged some / multiple times.5) Batteries come in many shapes / colours.6) Batteries can be of sizes of rooms / houses.

5. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:

1) the device consists … several parts;2) battery is used … flashlights;3) electrodes are classified …;4) according … modern researchers;5) to convert chemical energy … electrical energy;6) problem … its core;7) energy stored … a battery;8) work … organization;9) to power … 1 hour;10) to charge a phone … solar energy.

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6. Give English equivalents for:Аналоги, работающие на ископаемом топливе; первоначальный

скептицизм; мобильные телефоны, работающие на солнечных батареях; электрохимические ячейки; электрическая батарея; щелочная батарея; литий–ионные батареи; свинцово–кислотные батареи; портативные устройства; энергопотребление в режиме ожидания.

7. Fill in the following table:Verb Noun Adjective

occur ––––––––––––––– explosion

effectiveunderstanddefine –––––––––––––

practicalcorporate

proficientevidence

associate

8. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with Present Participle or Past Participle.

Energy-Saving Lamps

It is essential to recognize that energy saving light bulbs are similar in nearly all respects to fluorescent tubes which have been in widespread use in the Member States for many decades. However, from the limited data available to us, some energy saving lamps appear to emit UV-B and traces of UV-C in con-trast to the previously most widely used types of fluorescent tubes. These data also indicate that lamps are different regarding both the emitted wavelengths of UV and UV intensity. Incandescent lamps do not emit significant quantities of UV radiation.

The modulation of light intensity from energy saving lamps is of a much higher rate than that may be perceived as flicker. Flicker, observed with low fre-quencies, is associated with adverse health effects in the small percentage of in-dividuals with certain pre-existing diseases (epilepsy, migraine, and photopho-bia). There is no evidence that these conditions are exacerbated by normally functioning fluorescent tubes. It can therefore be concluded that the flicker from energy saving bulbs is most unlikely to produce significant adverse health ef-fects even in flicker susceptible individuals.

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9. Find in the text above the use of modal verbs and their equivalents. Translate the sentences. What other modal verbs do you know?

10. Match the numbers to the letters.1) energy saving a) percentage2) widely b) intensity3) fluorescent c) radiation4) UV d) effects5) light e) tubes6) higher f) light bulbs7) health g) used8) small h) rate

11. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Environmental, kilohertz, savings, mercury, lamp, current, light, sizes,

converts, coating.

Fluorescent Lamps

A fluorescent … or fluorescent tube is a very low pressure mercury–va-por gas-discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible …. The electric … (in the gas) excites mercury vapor which produces short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor … on the inside of the bulb to fluoresce, pro-ducing visible light. A fluorescent lamp … electrical power into useful light much more efficiently than incandescent lamps.

The luminous efficacy of a compact fluorescent light bulb is about 60 lu-mens per watt, four times the efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb. For con-ventional tube fluorescent lamps the fixture is more costly because it requires a heavy ballast to regulate the current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost. In fact, it is estimated that a legitimate, qualified fluorescent light bulb can result in … of $6.00 per year. The compact fluorescent light's ballast is contained in the base of the bulb, where the fre-quency of the AC current is boosted electronically to 60 …. At this frequency only very small ballast is needed.

The compact fluorescent lamp is now available in the same popular … as incandescent and is used as an energy–saving alternative in homes.

Because they contain …, many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste. The United States … Protection Agency recommends that fluorescent lamps be segregated from general waste for recycling or safe disposal.

12. Make up some questions to the underlined words.

13. Match the words in the left column to the synonyms in the right one:1. purpose a) ensure

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2. provide b) objective3. possible c) means4. facility d) place 5. site e) especially6. service f) probable7. particularly g) maintenance

14. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Gerund.1) Learning English is not an easy thing.2) His friend began learning the English language.3) Studying natural phenomena without making observations is useless.4) There are many methods of solving this problem.5) On coming home my father began watching television.6) Russian scientists played an important part in solving the problem of

atmospheric electricity.7) On splitting atoms in the reactor heat is developed.8) Seeing is believing.

15. Translate the following sentences using the Gerund.1) Использование новых материалов способствует дальнейшему

техническому прогрессу.2) При объяснении физического явления преподаватель сделал

несколько опытов.3) Увеличение производства энергии необходимо.4) Изобретатель был против изменения конструкции этого

устройства.5) Увидев прибор в действии, студенты решили, что он надежен.6) Мы закончили обсуждать эту проблему к концу недели.7) Прежде чем делать опыты, необходимо проводить наблюдение.8) Много лет назад люди научились защищать свои дома от ударов

молнии.9) Существуют различные способы получения электрического токаю10) Ученые продолжали изучать новое явление.11) Пирометр используется для измерения температуры горячих

металлов.12) Франклин изобрел громоотвод для защиты зданий от ударов

молнии.13) Ходить пешком очень полезно.14) Атомный реактор используется для получения энергии.

16. Translate the following sentences into English: 1) Люминесцентные лампы широко использовались в течение

многих десятилетий.

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2) Энергосберегающие лампы почти во всех отношениях похожи на люминесцентные лампы.

3) Модуляция интенсивности света от энергосберегающих ламп имеет гораздо более высокий темп, что может восприниматься как мерцание.

4) Мерцание, наблюдаемое в низких частотах, может неблагоприятно отразиться на здоровье небольшого количества людей.

5) Люминесцентная лампа имеет вид трубки.6) Люминесцентная лампа – это ртутная газоразрядная лампа очень

низкого давления, в которых используется флуоресценция для производства видимого света.

7) Электрический ток возбуждает пары ртути, которые производят коротковолновое ультрафиолетовое излучение.

8) Люминесцентная лампа преобразовывает электрическую энергию в полезную световую гораздо эффективнее, чем лампа накаливания.

9) Производство электрических батарей по всему миру приносит 48 млрд. долл. ежегодного дохода.

С. Discussion

1) Speak on the outstanding achievements in power engineering.2) Speak on the possible fantastic inventions of the future using you imag-

ination

UNIT 12 – FAMOUS INVENTORS

Active vocabulary

1. goals – цели2. phenomenon – явление3. interaction – взаимодействие4. so-called – так называемый5. honor – честь6. to strengthen – укреплять7. circular – круговой8. wireless – беспроводной9. setting – установка10. license – лицензия11. intercontinental – межконтинентальный12. ill-fated – злосчастный13. miraculous – чудотворный14. archetypal – исконный15. award – награда16. cesium – цезий

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17. rubidium – рубидий18. artificial – искусственный19. equations – уравнения20. to solve – решать

Guess the meaning of the following words: experimental physics, mag-netic field, current–carrying conductors, electromagnetic telegraph, iron core, magnetic needle, wireless transmission, general conference, patented devices, magnetic field strength, circuit laws, doctoral dissertation, electric signal, ther-mal radiation, solar spectrum, solid object.

A. Andree-Marie Ampere

Andre-Marie Ampere (1775–1836) was a famous French physicist, mathematician and a naturalist, the member of the Parisian Academy of Sciences.

Ampere was born in Lyons and he got education at home. Firstly he was a private tutor in Polytechnic school in Paris, and then he started to conduct seminars at the Department of Physics at Burke, and since 1805 – at the Department of Mathematics at the Parisian Polytechnic School, where he showed himself as a good litterateur too. In 1814 he was selected as the member of the Academy of Sciences and since 1824 Ampere served as a professor of experimental physics at the College de France.

His name is in the list of the greatest scientists of France. Ampere made different researches in Maths, Physics and Mechanics. His main physician work was done in the sphere of electrodynamics. In 1820 he established a rule for determining the direction of the magnetic field on the magnetic needle, known today as the Ampere’s rule; he made a lot of experiments on the relationship between electricity and magnetism; for these goals he created many devices; he discovered that the Earth's magnetic field affects the moving current–carrying conductors. In the same year Ampere discovered the interaction between electric currents, formulated the law of this phenomenon (Ampere's law), and developed the theory of magnetism, proposed to use the electromagnetic processes for transmitting signals. According to the theory of Ampere, magnetic interactions are the result of interactions occurring in the bodies of the so-called circular molecular currents, that is the equivalent to small flat magnets. This statement was called the Ampere’s theorem. Thus, a large magnet, as Ampere thought, consists of a set of elementary magnets.

In 1822 magnetic effect of the solenoid(coil current) was discovered by Ampere, followed from the idea of permanent magnet solenoid equivalence. Besides, he offered to strengthen the magnetic field using an iron core, placed inside a solenoid. In 1826 he proved the theorem of the circulation of the magnetic field. In 1829 Ampere invented such devices as the commutator and

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the electromagnetic telegraph. In mechanics, Ampere gave a formulation of the term «kinematics». In 1830 he created a new term that was called «cybernetics».

In honor of the scientist the unit of electric current was called «amp».

B. Nikola Tesla

Nikola Tesla (1856–1943) was a Serbian American inventor, electrical engineer, mechanical engineer, physicist, and futurist best known for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC) electricity supply system.

Tesla gained experience in telephony and electrical engineering before emigrating to the United States in 1884 to work for Thomas Edison. He soon started business on his own, setting up laboratories and companies to develop a range of electrical devices. His patented AC induction motor and transformer were licensed by George Westinghouse, who also hired Tesla as a consultant to help develop a power system using alternating current.

Tesla is also known for his high-voltage, high-frequency power experiments in New York and Colorado Springs which included patented devices and theoretical work used in the invention of radio communication, for his X-ray experiments, and for his ill–fated attempt at intercontinental wireless transmission in his unfinished Wardenclyffe Tower project (also known as Tesla Tower).

Tesla's achievements and his abilities as a showman demonstrating his seemingly miraculous inventions made him world-famous. Although he made a considerable amount of money from his patents, he spent a lot on numerous experiments. He lived for most of his life in a series of New York hotels although the end of his patent income and eventual bankruptcy led him to live in diminished circumstances. Tesla continued to invite the press to parties he held on his birthday to announce new inventions he was working on and make (sometimes unusual) public statements. Because of his pronouncements and the nature of his work over the years, Tesla gained a reputation in popular culture as the archetypal «mad scientist». He died on 7 January 1943.

Tesla's work fell into relative obscurity after his death, but since the 1990s, his reputation has experienced a comeback in popular culture. His work and reputed inventions are also at the center of many conspiracy theories and have also been used to support various pseudoscience, UFO theories and New Age occultism. In 1960, in honor of Tesla, the General Conference on Weights and Measures for the International System of Units dedicated the term «tesla» to the SI unit measure for magnetic field strength.

A. Comprehension

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1. Arrange the sentences below in the order they appear in the text A.1) Ampere served as a professor of experimental physics at the College de

France. 2) Ampere got education at home. 3) Ampere made different researches in Maths, Physics and Mechanics.4) A large magnet consists of a set of elementary magnets.5) Ampere discovered the interaction between electric currents.6) He offered to strengthen the magnetic field using an iron core, placed

inside a solenoid.

2. Read text B. Choose the sentences which contain information about:1) Thomas Edison;2) Tesla’s business;3) George Westinghouse;4) Power experiments;5) Tesla’s birthday parties.

3. Answer the following questions:1) Where did Ampere study?2) What are the principles of Ampere’s rule and law?3) What did Ampere invent in 1829?4) What unit was called in honor of Ampere?5) Who was Nicola Tesla?6) Why was he well–known all over the world?7) What experiments did he make in New-York and Colorado?8) When did Tesla die? 9) What is «Tesla Tower»?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Agree or disagree with the following statements:1) Andre-Marie Ampere was a private tutor in Polytechnic school in Paris2) In Paris Andre-Marie Ampere showed himself as a good dentist.3) Main physician work of Ampere was done in the sphere of electrody-

namics.4) Ampere invented such device as the commutator.5) Tesla lived for most of his life in a series of New York hostels.6) Tesla's achievements made him world-famous.7) Tesla was a Serbian American inventor.

2. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below. Use the words only once.Mad, to announce, famous, to gain, conspiracy, diminished, experi-

mental, induction, eventual, relative.1) ….. motor; 6) ….. scientist;

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2) ….. bankruptcy; 7) ….. obscurity;3) ….. circumstances; 8) ….. theories;4) ….. new inventions; 9) ….. physicist;5) ….. a reputation in; 10) ….. physics.

3. Give Russian equivalents for:1) the member of the Parisian Academy of Sciences;2) private tutor;3) to conduct seminars;4) the Department of Mathematics;5) to serve as a professor;6) to be in the list of the greatest scientists;7) to establish a rule;8) to make a lot of experiments;9) to create many devices;10) to formulate the law;11) to develop the theory;12) circular molecular currents.

4. Read the text.

Georg Simon Ohm

Georg Simon Ohm (16 March 1789–6 July 1854) was a German physicist and mathematician. As a school teacher, Ohm began his research with the new electrochemical cell, invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta. Using equipment of his own creation, Ohm found that there is a direct proportionality between the potential difference (voltage) applied across a conductor and the re-sultant electric current. This relationship is known as Ohm's law.

Georg Simon Ohm was born into a Protestant family in Erlangen, Bran-denburg-Bayreuth (then a part of the Holy Roman Empire), son to Johann Wolf-gang Ohm, a locksmith and Maria Elizabeth Beck, the daughter of a tailor in Er-langen. Although his parents had not been formally educated, Ohm's father was a respected man who had educated himself to a high level and was able to give his sons an excellent education through his own teachings. Of the seven children of the family only three survived to adulthood: Georg Simon, his younger brother Martin, who later became a well-known mathematician, and his sister Elizabeth Barbara. His mother died when he was ten.

From early childhood, Georg and Martin were taught by their father who brought them to a high standard in mathematics, physics, chemistry and philoso-phy. Georg Simon attended Erlangen Gymnasium from age eleven to fifteen where he received little in the area of scientific training, which sharply con-trasted with the inspired instruction that both Georg and Martin received from their father. This characteristic made the Ohms bear a resemblance to the

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Bernoulli family, as noted by Karl Christian von Langsdorf, a professor at the University of Erlangen.

Georg Ohm's father, concerned that his son was wasting his educational opportunity, sent Ohm to Switzerland. There in September 1806 Ohm accepted a position as a mathematics teacher in a school in Gottstadt bei Nidau.

Karl Christian von Langsdorf left the University of Erlangen in early 1809 to take up a post in the University of Heidelberg and Ohm would have liked to have gone with him to Heidelberg to restart his mathematical studies. Langsdorf, however, advised Ohm to continue with his studies of mathematics on his own, advising Ohm to read the works of Euler, Laplace and Lacroix. Rather reluc-tantly Ohm took his advice but he left his teaching post in Gottstatt Monastery in March 1809 to become a private tutor in Neuchâtel. For two years he carried out his duties as a tutor while he followed Langsdorf's advice and continued his pri-vate study of mathematics. Then in April 1811 he returned to the University of Erlangen.

Ohm's own studies prepared him for his doctorate which he received from the University of Erlangen on October 25, 1811. He immediately joined the fac-ulty there as a lecturer in mathematics but left after three semesters because of unpromising prospects. He could not survive on his salary as a lecturer. The Bavarian government offered him a post as a teacher of mathematics and physics at a poor quality school in Bamberg which Ohm accepted in January 1813. Unhappy with his job, Georg began writing an elementary textbook on ge-ometry as a way to prove his abilities. Ohm's school was closed down in Febru-ary 1816. The Bavarian government then sent him to an overcrowded school in Bamberg to help out with the teaching of mathematics.

After his assignment in Bamberg, Ohm sent his completed manuscript to King Wilhelm III of Prussia. The King was satisfied with Ohm's book, and of-fered Ohm a position at the Jesuit Gymnasium of Cologne on 11 September 1817. This school had a reputation for good science education and Ohm was re-quired to teach physics in addition to mathematics. The physics laboratory was well–equipped, allowing Ohm to begin experiments in physics. As the son of a locksmith, Ohm had some practical experience with mechanical devices.

Ohm published Die galvanishe Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet (The Gal-vanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) in 1827. Ohm's college did not ap-preciate his work and Ohm resigned from his position. He then made an applica-tion to, and was employed by, the Polytechnic School of Nuremberg. Ohm ar-rived at the Polytechnic School of Nuremberg in 1833, and in 1852 he became a professor of experimental physics at the University of Munich.

In 1849 Ohm published Beiträge zur Molecular-Physik, (in English: Molecular Physics). In the preface of this work he stated he hoped to write a sec-ond and third volume "and if God gives me length of days for it, a fourth". How-ever, on finding that an original discovery recorded in it was being anticipated by a Swedish scientist he did not publish it, stating: "The episode has given a fresh and deep sense for my mind to the saying 'Man proposes, and God dis-

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poses'. The project that gave the first impetus to my inquiry has been dissipated into mist, and a new one, undersigned by me, has been accomplished in its place.

He died in Munich in 1854, and is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof.

5. Underline the correct word (s) in bold. 1) Ohm’s father was restricted / respected men.2) From eleven to fifteen Ohm studied in Gymnasium / Gym.3) In 1809 Ohm become a private turtle / tutor.4) Ohm unhappy with his job / work in school.5) Ohm decided to sell / send his manuscript to King Wilhelm III of

Prussia.6) The King offered Ohm a posture / position at the Jesuit Gymnasium.7) Ohm gave his complete / complicated theory of electricity in his

famous «The Galvanic Circuit».

6. Fill in the correct preposition, then make sentences using the completed phrases:

1) to be discovered … somebody;2) the experiments … mechanics;3) to consist … elementary magnets;4) to be known … his contributions;5) to make money … the patents;6) to dedicate … someone;7) … honor … somebody;8) … death;9) current … the conductor;10) to send … someone;11) to resign … the position;12) to be employed … someone.

7. Give English equivalents for:Стесненные обстоятельства, быть в списке самых известных ученых

мира, стать известным только после смерти, был открыт известным немецким ученым, исследования в области электродинамики, движущиеся проводники с током, электромагнитный телеграф, железный сердечник, магнитная стрелка, беспроводная передача, запатентованные устройства, разность потенциалов, экспериментальная физика.

8. Make these sentences negative:1) Ohm began his research with the new electrochemical cell.2) Ohm found that there is a direct proportionality between the potential

difference and the resultant electric current.3) Ohm's father was a man who had educated himself to a high level.

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4) Georg Simon attended Erlangen Gymnasium.5) There in September 1806 Ohm accepted a position as a mathematics

teacher in a school in Gottstadt bei Nidau.6) Ohm's own studies prepared him for his doctorate.7) Ohm's school was closed down in February 1816.8) The Bavarian government sent him to an overcrowded school in Bam-

berg to help out with the teaching of mathematics.

9. Read the text. Fill in the gaps with words from the list.Light, student, researches, dissertation, awarded, named, spectroscopy,

physicist, coined, rubidium.

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887) was a German … who contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black–body radiation by heated objects. He … the term «black body» radiation in 1862, and two different sets of concepts (one in circuit the-ory, and one in thermodynamics) are … «Kirchhoff's laws» after him; there is also a Kirchhoff's Law in thermo chemistry. The Bunsen-Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen.

Kirchhoff formulated his circuit laws, which are now ubiquitous in electri-cal engineering, in 1845, while still a …. He completed this study as a seminar exercise; it later became his doctoral …. In 1857 he calculated that an electric signal in a resistance wire travels along the wire at the speed of …. He proposed his law of thermal radiation in 1859, and gave a proof in 1861. He was called to the University of Heidelberg, where he collaborated in spectroscopic work with Robert Bunsen. Together Kirchhoff and Bunsen discovered cesium and … in 1861. At Heidelberg he started to conduct a mathematical-physical seminar. Among those who attended this seminar were Arthur Schuster and Sofia Ko-valevskaya.

In 1862 he was … the Rumford Medal for his … on the fixed lines of the solar spectrum, and on the inversion of the bright lines in the spectra of artificial light. In 1875 Kirchhoff accepted the first chair specifically dedicated to theoret-ical physics at Berlin.

He contributed greatly to the field of … by formalizing three laws that de-scribe the spectral composition of light emitted by incandescent objects, build-ing substantially on the discoveries of David Alter and Anders Jonas Angstrom. He also contributed to optics, carefully solving Maxwell's equations to provide a solid foundation for Huygens' principle (and correct it in the process).Kirchhoff died in 1887.

Kirchhoff's three laws of spectroscopy:1) A hot solid object produces light with a continuous spectrum.

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2) A hot gas produces light with spectral lines at discrete wavelengths which depend on the energy levels of the atoms in the gas.

3) A hot solid object surrounded by a cool gas produces light with an al-most continuous spectrum which has gaps at discrete wavelengths depending on the energy levels of the atoms in the gas.

10. Make up some questions to the underlined words.

11. Match the words in the left column to the synonyms in the right one:1) circuit a) light2) doctoral b) spectrum3) electric c) object4) thermal d) a seminar5) solar e) radiation6) solid f) dissertation7) doctoral g) a low8) speed of h) dissertation9) to propose i) laws10) to attend j) signal

12. Distribute the words below according to the parts of speech. Underline suffixes and prefixes. Translate the words.

Verb Noun Adverb AdjectiveMedical, inherently, suffer, medication, treatment, rapid, carry, available,

allow, assistance, recommend, permission, simply, survive, compare, rate, fatal, guard, previously, flock, occur, chase, engine, travelling.

13. Form the nouns from the following verbs:1) to collide;2) to estimate;3) to occur;4) to differ;5) to calculate;6) to quote;7) to state;8) to insure.

14. Translate the following sentences into English:1) Густав Кирхгоф – немецкий физик, который внес свой вклад в

фундаментальное понимание электрических цепей.2) Кирхгоф сформулировал закон электрических цепей, который

сейчас повсеместно используется в электромеханике.3) Его пригласили работать в университет Гейдельберга, где он

начал работать в области спектроскопии.

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4) Среди тех, кто посещал его семинары, была Софья Ковалевская. 5) Он внес огромный вклад в оптику и спектроскопию6) Горячий твердый предмет производит свет с непрерывным

спектром.7) Горячий газ производит свет со спектральными линиями в

дискретных волнах, которые зависят от энергетических уровней атомов в газе.

8) Его имя внесено в список величайших ученых Франции. 9) Ампер провел множество опытов по исследованию

взаимодействия между магнитом и электрическим током.10) Ампер обнаружил, что магнитное поле Земли влияет на

движущиеся проводники с током.11) В честь Ампера единица силы электрического названа

«Ампером».12) Тесла заработал значительную сумму денег благодаря своим

патентам, но практически все потратил на проведение опытов.13) Тесла приглашал прессу на вечеринки в честь своего дня

рождения для того, чтобы объявить о новых изобретениях, над которыми он работал.

14) Тесла приобрел репутацию «сумасшедшего ученого»15) После смерти работы Тесла были забыты, но, начиная с1990

годов, его репутация была восстановлена.

С. Discussion

1) Retell Ohm’s biography. 2) Using internet find information about activities of modern scientists

and discuss it in you group.

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SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Reading material related to the themes of the units:

Ohm’s Scientific Works

Ohm's lawOhm's law first appeared in the famous book Die galvanische Kette, math-

ematisch bearbeitet (tr., The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) (1827) in which he gave his complete theory of electricity. In this work, he stated his law for electromotive force acting between the extremities of any part of a circuit is the product of the strength of the current, and the resistance of that part of the circuit.

The book begins with the mathematical background necessary for an un-derstanding of the rest of the work. While his work greatly influenced the theory and applications of current electricity, it was coldly received at that time. It is in-teresting that Ohm presents his theory as one of contiguous action, a theory which opposed the concept of action at a distance. Ohm believed that the com-munication of electricity occurred between "contiguous particles" which is the term he himself used. The paper is concerned with this idea, and in particular with illustrating the differences in this scientific approach of Ohm's and the ap-proaches of Joseph Fourier and Claude-Louis Navier.

A detailed study of the conceptual framework used by Ohm in producing Ohm's law has been presented by Archibald. The work of Ohm marked the early beginning of the subject of circuit theory, although this did not become an im-portant field until the end of the century.

Ohm's acoustic lawOhm's acoustic law, sometimes called the acoustic phase law or simply

Ohm's law, states that a musical sound is perceived by the ear as a set of a num-ber of constituent pure harmonic tones. It is well known to be not quite true.

Study and publicationsHis writings were numerous. The most important was his pamphlet pub-

lished in Berlin in 1827, with the title Die galvanische Kette mathematisch bear-beitet. This work, the germ of which had appeared during the two preceding years in the journals of Schweigger and Poggendorff, has exerted an important influence on the development of the theory and applications of electric current. Ohm's name has been incorporated in the terminology of electrical science in Ohm's Law (which he first published in Die galvanische Kette...), the propor-tionality of current and voltage in a resistor, and adopted as the SI unit of resis-tance, the ohm.

Although Ohm's work strongly influenced theory, at first it was received with little enthusiasm. However, his work was eventually recognized by the Royal Society with its award of the Copley Medal in 1841. He became a foreign member of the Royal Society in 1842, and in 1845 he became a full member of

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the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities. At some extent, Charles Wheatstone drew attention to the definitions which Ohm had introduced in the field of physics.

Pyotr Kapitsa

P. Kapitsa, an outstanding Soviet physicist, was born in Kronshtadt in the family of a general in 1894. He graduated from the Petrograd Polytechnic Insti-tute in 1919. Kapitsa took great interest in physics while still at the institute.

In 1921 Kapitsa was sent to England on Lenin’s instructions to renew sci-entific contacts. He worked in the famous Cavendish Laboratory headed by Rutherford. Kapitsa was elected a member of the Royal Society for his outstand-ing scientific work in the production of large magnetic fields. In the middle of 1930s he organized the Institute of Physical Problems near Moscow, it was here that Kapitsa concentrated his attention on the research of super low temperatures of liquid helium and superconductivity. He showed that helium conducted heat so well because it flowed with remarkable ease.

After the Great Patriotic War his scientific activity was directed to space research.

In 1950s Kapitsa also turned his attention to ball lightning – a phenome-non in which plasma exists for a much longer period than it was supposed.

Kapitsa was awarded a Nobel Prize for his great contribution to world sci-ence in 1978.

Today there are few names in the history of physics that can be placed next to his.

Solar Energy

Solar hot water heatingAlso can be used to heat water. Heating water for bathing, dishwashing,

and clothes washing is the second biggest home energy cost.A solar water heater works in pretty much the same way as solar space

heating. A solar collector is mounted on the south side of a roof where it can capture the most sunlight. The sunlight is converted to heat energy and used to heat water in a tank. The hot water is then piped to faucets throughout a house just as it would be with an ordinary water heater. Today over 1.5 million homes in the United States use solar water heaters.

Solar ElectricityBesides using solar energy to heat homes or water, solar energy also can

be used to produce electricity. Two ways to make electricity from solar energy are photovoltaics and solar thermal systems.

Photovoltaic ElectricityPhotovoltaic comes from the words photo meaning «light» and volt, a

measurement of electricity. Sometimes photovoltaic cells are called PV cells or

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solar cells for short. You are probably already familiar with photovoltaic cells. Solar-powered toys, calculators, and roadside telephone call boxes all use solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity.

Solar cells are made up of silicon, the same substance that makes up sand. Silicon is the second most common substance on earth. Solar cells can supply energy to anything that is powered by batteries or electrical power.

Electricity is produced when sunlight strikes the solar cell, causing the electrons to move around. The action of the electrons starts an electric current. The conversion of sunlight into electricity takes place silently and instantly. There are no mechanical parts to wear out.

You won't see photovoltaic power plants today, though. Compared to other ways of making electricity, photovoltaic systems are expensive. It costs about 27 cents a kilowatt-hour to produce electricity from solar cells. Most peo-ple pay their electric companies eight cents a kilowatt-hour for the electricity they use. Today photovoltaic systems are mainly used to generate electricity in remote areas that are a long way from electric power lines.

Solar Thermal ElectricityLike solar cells, solar thermal systems use solar energy to produce elec-

tricity. But instead of sunlight, solar thermal systems use the sun's heat to do it.Most solar thermal systems use a solar collector with a mirrored surface to

concentrate sunlight onto a receiver that heats a liquid. The super–heated liquid is used to make steam that drives a turbine generator to produce electricity in the same way that coal, oil, or nuclear power plants do.

Until recently, the most successful thermal power plant was the LUZ plant in the Mojave desert of California. This solar power plant used mirrored solar collectors shaped like water troughs to collect sunlight. LUZ made electricity as cheaply as most coal or oil-fired electric power plants. Then in 1992, LUZ had to shut down because of falling oil prices and an over-budget construction project at LUZ's homebase.

Despite its problems, solar energy has great potential for the future. Solar energy is free for the taking and its supplies are unlimited. Solar energy does not pollute or otherwise damage the environment. It cannot be controlled by any one nation or industry. If we can improve the technology to harness the sun's enor-mous power, we may never face energy shortages again.

Kosh-Agach Solar Power Station in Gorny Altai

The capacity of the Kosh-Agach solar power station is five megawatts, which will ensure stability in the supply of electricity to three municipal districts

GORNO-ALTAISK, September 04. /ITAR-TASS/. Russia's President Vladimir Putin, who is currently on a working trip in the Altai Republic, on Thursday watched in a video conference mode a ceremony marking the start–up of the Kosh-Agach solar power station which will become Russia's largest and the republic's first own power generating facility in the region. Following the

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station's coming into operation, the republic will be able to lessen energy deficit and generate environment-friendly electric power.

The Russian president addressed the personnel of the solar power station, congratulating them on the start of the operation of the power station. «This is the first generating facility in the Altai Republic, with the latter depending one hundred percent on transmissions of power from Russia's other regions. How-ever, it is especially gratifying that this is a solar power station», he emphasized.

«This is a very good example of how things must be done», Putin said. «It is all the more correct and in demand for such a region as the Altai Republic, bearing in mind that the republic affords a large number of nature conservation zones, nature reserves and, in general, this is a remarkable scenic spot in our country», he said, referring to the region as a unique place on earth.

Crimea may join Russia’s energy system Putin recalled that it is planned to start up several more power stations.

«Four of them must be launched in the Altai Republic before 2019, with their aggregate amount of financing being more than five billion rubles», the Presi-dent said. «This means a large amount of work which will enable the production sector of the component to feel confident and get a market», he pointed out.

The Russian president expressed confidence that under conditions of the local climate, with the number of sunny days being comparable to that of South-ern Europe and South Russia (about 300 within a year), the future of the solar power station looks cloudless. «This will be, of course, an effective work, and the enterprise will be successful», he said.

The capacity of the Kosh-Agach solar power station is five megawatts, which will ensure stability in the supply of electricity to three municipal dis-tricts. Andrei Tsygulev, deputy head of the Kosh-Agach District for construction and architecture, told ITAR-TASS, «The entire Kosh-Agach District consumes from 2.7 to 3.5 megawatts of power, that is, the power station will generate al-most twice as much power as our requirements are, and the surplus will be sold to other areas of the region».

The Kosh-Agach solar power station is the country's first power generat-ing facility of such capacity. Earlier, the aggregate installed capacity of solar power generating facilities exceeded two megawatts. The cost of construction was 570 million rubles. The station is the first out of five projects to build solar power stations in the Altai Republic's territory, with their aggregate capacity amounting to 45 megawatts.

Heuvel will design in the Altai Mountains of solar powerPreparation for construction of the first solar power plant in the remote

area power shortage Altai Republic will begin in 2012, the project cost has not been determined, said the deputy chairman of the regional government, Robert Paltaller.

In the Altai Republic at present no own sources of power generation, power is by overhead cables Bijskogo power unit. Experts notice a permanent deficit of energy supply. In addition, because of long chains, according to ex-

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perts, during the delivery of electricity to remote areas, much of it is lost in tran-sit.

According to the deputy, for development of alternative energy Gorny Al-tai regional government in 2011 signed a cooperation agreement with the com-pany «Hevel».

«(The agreement), on a construction of a solar power station in the village of Kosh-Agach capacity of five megawatts. Design work will begin in the first quarter of this year», – said Paltaller.

Told Agency Deputy Minister of Regional Development of the Republic Nikolai Kondratiev, timing of the project and its cost has not been determined. In February, the government of the region are waiting for the delegation of «Hevel» then become known project.

«The construction of the station would be fully controlled the company, government funding is not supposed to be. I can say that it will be a huge sta-tion, which completely meet the needs of residents of the village of Kosh-Agach – the largest in the region» – said Kondratiev.

Ltd. «Hevel» was created in the summer of 2009 for the development of Russian production of thin film solar modules. The proportion of «Rusnano» in OOO «Hevel» is 49%, «Renova» – 51%.

How to Reduce Energy Usage

Electricity costs have doubled for businesses over the last decade.But these days «going green» is as much about business survival as reduc-

ing impact on the environment. Technology of Business offers a guide to the most effective ways busi-

nesses can cut their energy bills and begin operating more sustainably. LED lightingSwitching to LED – Light Emitting Diode – lighting is the quickest and

simplest action any business can take to reduce energy usage, argues Myles Mc-Carthy, director of implementation at the Carbon Trust.

A traditional 60 watt incandescent bulb would produce about 750 to 1,000 lumens – a measure of lighting power – but 95% of the energy used to create that light would typically be wasted in heat.

Modern LED lights are much more thermally efficient and can now pro-duce between 50 and 100 lumens per watt (lm/W) in normal working conditions.

Switching to LED lighting is the simplest way for businesses to cut their energy bills

One US manufacturer, Cree, reckons it has produced a white light LED bulb that can produce 300 lm/W.

Mr McCarthy says payback on investment in LED is typically between one and three years. For example, one retail outlet client invested £74,000 in new lighting, resulting in a 74% lighting energy reduction and savings of around £33,000 per year, he says.

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«This is why we've seen considerable investment in LED in recent years».Smart monitoringSmart meters, thermostats, and sensors – part of what's being called «the

internet of things» – are giving us data about our energy consumption patterns that we never had before.

«It's the ability of these meters to communicate that's smart, not their abil-ity to record energy usage», argues Joel Hagan, chief executive of smart meter-ing company, Onzo.

«They give us far more visibility than we ever had before, down to the en-ergy usage of individual appliances».

Applying «internet of things» data analytics to Microsoft's campus in Redmond, Washington could reduce energy usage by 10% a year, the company says, saving it «millions of dollars»

This increased visibility is helping businesses identify energy wastage more easily and make potentially huge savings.

Quentin Clark, head of Microsoft's data platform group, told the BBC: «By implementing internet of things control systems and big data analytics at our headquarters campus [in Redmond, Washington] we were able to spot aber-rations in our energy usage, such as a garage that had air conditioning».

Microsoft says its 88 Acres project, involving 125 buildings, 30 000 pieces of equipment generating 500 million data transactions every day, could produce energy savings of up to 10% a year for the company, saving it «millions of dollars».

Walgreens' first «net zero energy» store just outside Chicago The store uses low-energy LED lighting controlled by an energy manage-

ment system In another example, Mike Franco, chief executive of California-based

smart building systems firm, RiptideIO, says his company implemented a $20m [£12m; 14m Euros] energy management system for US drugstore chain, Wal-greens.

The project, which involved thousands of stores, saved the retailer $14m last year alone, he says.

Walgreens completed its first «net zero energy» store just outside Chicago late last year, incorporating solar photovoltaic (PV), LED lighting and wind tur-bines to produce more energy than it takes from the grid.

Up the junctionAny conglomeration of buildings can benefit from lighting and energy

control systems, says Chris Bedford, managing director of intelligent lighting controls company, Open Technology.

A recent project at Clapham Junction railway station in London reduced lighting energy usage by 40%, he says.

Control systems have cut lighting energy usage by 40% at London's Clapham Junction railway station

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The initial investment of about £30,000 formed part of a wider energy re-duction strategy to achieve total annual savings of over £7m for Network Rail and South West Trains.

Smaller energy control system projects can cost about £6,000 and above, depending on the size of the business, he added.

With savings like these on offer, it's no wonder Martin Chilcott, founder of sustainable business community 2degrees, says: «Our Trends Tracker survey shows that businesses consider smart metering and energy management software to be second only to LED lighting in importance».

Solar gainOnce a business has made efficiencies to its current equipment and energy

usage patterns, generating its own electricity through renewable technology could be a sensible next step, experts advise.

The Energy Saving Trust's Greg Shreeve describes solar PV as a "sure–fire" investment for businesses with the necessary capital.

The National Museum of Taiwan History in Tainan features a giant wall of solar panels

The cost of installing PV panels has fallen dramatically over the last 10 years while their efficiency has improved, making them an obvious useful addi-tion to business buildings big or small.

Not only can they help reduce your electricity bills but you'll get paid for the electricity you generate and export to the grid thanks to the UK's Feed–In Tariffs (FITs) scheme.

Introduced in April 2010, the scheme pays businesses for the electricity they generate through solar, wind turbines, hydro, anaerobic digesters or com-bined heat-and-power systems. The rate of generation subsidy – currently more than 14p per kilowatt hour for small schemes – is under review and could be re-duced.

And how much support you receive also depends on your property's En-ergy Performance Certificate rating, so it makes sense to have improved your firm's energy efficiency before applying.

But with small-scale solar PV systems currently costing between £5,000 and £10,000, you could still see a return on investment within six to 10 years, in-stallers say.

Electric fruitLocal delivery companies should consider switching their fleets to electric

vehicles, advises Tim Anderson, senior transport manager at the Energy Saving Trust.

When Fruit London, a small company delivering fresh fruit to city work-ers, invested in a fleet of four electric vans, «It was one of the best decisions we ever made», says co-founder Laszlo Mulato.

Fruit4London says switching to electric vans was «one of the best deci-sions we ever made».

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A £5,000 government subsidy for electric vehicles reduced the cost of each Renault van to about £13,000 (plus VAT), says Mr Mulato. And each van saves the business £9,000 a year in congestion charge fees, maintenance and fuel costs, he adds.

«We haven't been able to increase our prices for five years, so savings like these help keep us competitive».

The company leases the vehicle battery from Renault for about £70 a month and it costs less than £1 a day to charge. With each van doing up to 60 miles a day, range is not an issue, he adds.

The switch to electric vehicles has had the added advantage of pleasing big clients who want their suppliers to be green as well, says Mr Mulato.

Ice-Breakers

In the very earliest days of polar exploration, ice-strengthened ships were used. These were originally wooden and based on existing designs, but beefed up.

Particularly around the waterline with double planking to the hull, strengthening cross members inside the ship and bands of iron around the out-side and / or metal sheeting at the bows, stern and along the keel.

Such strengthening was designed to help the ship push through ice and also in case the ship was «nipped» by the ice. Nipped is an innocuous sounding word to describe a terrible and powerful event when ice floes around a ship driven by winds and tides (often many miles distant) push against the ship trap-ping it as if in a vice and causing damage – sometimes damage enough to reduce the ship to match-wood.

Such damage might be survivable, it might cause the loss of the ship when the ice finally relents – the ship now no longer being able to float as hap-pened to Shackleton's Endurance or it might cause the loss of the ship in as little as 15 minutes from first pressure being exerted. In the days of wooden ships, the only vessel that could survive such treatment was the Fram, built for Fridtjof Nansen. The Fram was prodigiously strong, but it's chief defence was that when squeezed from the sides it would respond by rising up due to a rounded hull shape. Even the mighty Fram at one point looked to be in danger when ice floes built up to such an extent that they might fall on it and prevent it rising when squeezed.

These days, ships that go to the Polar Regions are of course no longer made of wood, but of steel. They still need to be specially strengthened to work in ice conditions. An ordinary ship with no strengthening will not risk touching ice at all, no matter how gently. A modern ship weighing thousands of tonnes meeting an iceberg weighing perhaps as much again or up to thousands of times more can easily sustain enough damage to require major repairs or to sink her. Ice will easily hole a non-strengthened ship.

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Ships therefore that have any chance of contacting ice are at least ice–strengthened if not being designed to plough through the ice as do ice–breakers.

Icebreakers are needed if there is a trade route to keep ice free, if there are military reasons for patrolling in areas with heavy sea ice or if you need to work in heavy ice conditions, particularly in winter. Icebreakers are expensive to build and very expensive in fuel to run (sometimes powered by gas turbines or a nu-clear generator). They are uncomfortable to travel in on the open sea. All ships designed for the ice have rounded keels with no protuberances, these things pro-vide stability in normal ships and result in ships that are designed to contact ice rolling heavily in a even a light sea.

Rounded keels and a lack of stabilizing fins means that progress is quicker and smoother through ice and that there aren't any parts to be ripped off. A fur-ther discomfort comes from breaking through continuous thick ice with constant vibration, noise and jarring against the ice.

Icebreakers are generally owned by those countries with an interest in the north-east and north-west passages in the Arctic or that have other shipping lanes and ports that need to be kept open during the winter months.

Ice strengthening on the other hand is found much more commonly in ships designed for Arctic or Antarctic work. There is no actual universal defini-tion of what needs to be done to a ship to be «officially ice strengthened» and it can be applied to all manner of ships, whether supply ships, tankers, container ships, warships etc. Commonly ice–strengthened ships can cope with continuous one year old ice about 50cm – 100cm thick.

Breaking ice by any ship is not a case of forcing the ice aside, but by the ship riding up and over the ice in front of it, with the weight of the ship then breaking the ice, this may be a continuous process or can result in a lot of back–and–forth in particular thick places.

Characteristics of Ice Breakers– Ice breakers have the features of ice strengthened ships and then some

of their own too.– Heavy for their size, to make them more effective at breaking through

ice when they are pushed up above it by their engines.– Very gradual upwards slope at the bow, particularly at the water line to

allow the bow to ride up over ice before the weight breaks through.– Hull made from special steels designed for optimum strength at low

temperatures Air bubbling systems to assist ice-breaking. Air is forced under pressure from 2m or so below the water line where ice is met, helping to break it and move it out of the way. Heated water jets below the waterline to help when breaking through ice.

– Ability to rapidly move large amounts of water ballast within the ship to shift the weight when needing to break ice. The ships can be rocked from side to side in this manner.

– Hull divided by bulkheads into a series of watertight compartments in case it is holed.

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– Extra thick steel at the bow, the stern and at the waterline.– An «ice horn» to protect the rudder and propeller when in reverse, and

an «ice knife» in front to protect it when in forwards motion.– Electric propulsion to the propellers. Electric motors can apply torque

when not actually turning or when only turning slowly, so hitting a large piece of ice will not stop the engine.

– Extra strong propellers with replaceable blades. There may also be a propeller inspection well to examine them in operation and the facility to change blades while at sea.

– Very powerful engines. The engine may be diesel possibly with extra power supplied by gas turbines for ice breaking or be nuclear powered.

– Powerful searchlights for use in dark winter conditions.Characteristics of ice–strengthened ships Most of the ships that supply Antarctic bases are ice strengthened rather

than full blown ice breakers.– Double hull, with a gap between them, the gap may be air or filled with

water ballast. If the outer hull is punctured the inner will hopefully not be.– Flat hull shape with a rounded rather than pointed bow. This allows the

front of the ship to drive forwards, rise above the ice and then let the weight of the ship break the ice.

– Specially formulated hull polymer paints for strength and also low fric-tion when in contact with ice.

– Special engine cooling arrangements so that the inlet for water taken on board to cool the engine doesn't get blocked with ice – likewise the water outlet.

– No stabilizers or any other kind of hull protuberance that might get ripped off by ice

– Helicopter, for scientific work, but also for spotting leads and open wa-ter in the ice to guide the ship.

– Rudder and propeller protected by the shape of the hull, so that ice mov-ing backwards is less likely to cause damage.

– Thicker than normal steel, particularly at the bow and at the level of the water–line

– Reinforced «ice belt» that typically extends about 1m above and below the water line. This is where the hull has thicker steel and also has extra internal ribs to help the stiffening. These are usually twice as many of these ribs than in a comparable «normal» ship.

– Powerful bow and stern thrusters to help maneuvering in tight spaces such as pack ice.

Russian Submarine Vladimir Monomakh

The Vladimir Monomakh is a Russian Ballistic missile submarine of the fourth generation Borei class (Project 955) currently in sea trials. It is named af-ter Vladimir Monomakh (1053–1125), the Grand Duke of Kievan Rus'.

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The project was developed by the Rubin Design Bureau, and the chief de-signer was Sergey Kovalev. The keel was laid down on 19 March 2006 at the Sevmash shipyard in Severodvinsk. The hull of the Akula–class submarine K–480 Ak Bars was used in the construction of Monomakh. The submarine will be armed with 16 of the newest submarine-launched ballistic missile developed in Russia, the Bulava (NATO designation SS–N–32). The Vladimir Monomakh and its sister ships will replace the Delta III and IV classes in the Russian Navy. The submarine was launched on 30 December 2012 and had begun moored tests in January 2013. The submarine is expected to enter sea trials by the summer of 2013 and enter service in 2014.

The submarine finished its first sea trials on 8 October 2013 when return-ing from a 25 day trial at sea. On September 9, 2014 a Bulava missile was launched from the submarine.

Russian Submarine Yuri Dolgoruky

Russian Navy got a new leader. On April, 15 the head project 955 subma-rine Yuri Dolgoruky left the slipway of the Sevmash shipyard in the White Sea. The ceremony was attended by the First Vice–Premier Sergey Ivanov, the Com-mander of the Navy Vladimir Masorin, Deputy Minister of Defense and Chief of Arms of the MoD General Alexey Msokovksy, the Mayor Moscow Yuri Luzhkov, General Director of Sevmash Vladimir Pastuhov, the Governor of Arkhangelsk region Nikolay Kiselyov as well as by the heads of other shipbuild-ing enterprises. Boreis (955 project) are to remain the core of the naval nuclear deterrence till the middle of this century. The new subs will replace the subs of the project 667BDR and BDRM now on duty. According to the specialists the new sub will have no matches in the foreseeable future. «Yuri Dolgoruky» with 14,7/24 thousand tons (surface/underwater) displacement carries strategic rocket complex Bulava-M consisting of 12 so called quasi-ballistic missiles with ten nuclear warheads of individual aiming. The range of the missile that for the first time in the world’s history has changeable trajectory and can reach hypersonic speed is 8000km. However, sailing tests will start this year without the missile, which is being finalized by the designer. The crew of the sub will be formed only with officers and NCOs.

Submarine State Arms Program

Before 2015 State Arms Program provides for building 7 project 955 subs. In the next two years the eighth will be constructed under a new Arms Pro-gram. Alexander Nevsky (the second sub) will be ready by 2009 and Vladimir Monomah – by 2011. The best Russian nuclear subs will be deployed in the Far East. The Commander of the Pacific Fleet of the Russian Navy Admiral Victor Fedorov publicly confirmed that the two newest strategic submarines («Alexan-

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der Nevsky» and «Vladimir Monomah») will be commissioned with the Pacific Fleet. «Yuri Dolgoruki» is to stay with the Northern Fleet.

Earlier during his visit to the Far East First Vice-Premier Sergey Ivanov said that the Pacific Fleet is the priority of the Navy. According to him all nu-clear arsenal, such as new sub Yuri Dolgoruky, will be in Kamchatka, although the main base of the surface fleet will remain in Vladivostok.

However, the development of the Russian submarine Navy does not stop with the new project. Sevmash continues construction of the multi–role nuclear project 855 submarine Yasen, which will surpass its foreign matches in most characteristics. «Severodvinsk», the head sub of the 855 project, is far more complicated than even project 955. It has both more diverse arms and more di-verse tactics. (Project 855, NATO reporting name GRANAY: displacement – 8600/13800 tons, dimensions – 119х13,5х9,4m, max depth – 600м, speed of – 16/31 knots. Crew – 90 persons (32 officers). It won’t take long to hear about this sub. At the same time the command of the Russian Navy considers it neces-sary to begin the development of the principally new project of a multi-purpose nuclear submarine of smaller displacement, according to the Commander of the Navy Masorin. Once he said that «so far it is only in our plans, but we precisely know, that such submarines are needed. It should be the submarine of smaller displacement in comparison with the existing today. It will be an underwater hunter». This should take some more time, about 10 years according to the as-sessments of the Admiral.

Meanwhile the designers of Bulava left less hopes for skeptics. The next launch is planned for this June, according to the Commander of the Russian Navy Admiral Vladimir Masorin. «Dmitry Donskoi», the test sub, will launch the missile from underwater position. Once again it has been officially con-firmed that the previous unsuccessful tests of 2006 had no influence on the pro-gram in general. The Commander said that the Moscow based Institute of Teplotechnika, the designer of the missile, found out the bottle necks which were in the technological sphere, and «cured the disease».

Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant

The Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant in Iran 17 kilometers (11 mi) southeast of the city of Bushehr, between the fishing villages of Halileh and Bandargeh along the Persian Gulf.

Construction of the plant was started in 1975 by German companies, but the work was stopped in 1979 after the Islamic revolution of Iran. The site was repeatedly bombed during the Iran-Iraq war. Later, A contract for finishing the plant was signed between Iran and the Russian Ministry for Atomic Energy in 1995, with Russia's Atoms troy export named as the main contractor. The work was delayed several years by technical and financial challenges as well as by po-litical pressure from the West. After construction was again in danger of being stopped in 2007, a renewed agreement was reached in which the Iranians

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promised to compensate for rising costs and inflation after completion of the plant. Delivery of nuclear fuel started the same year. The plant started adding electricity to the national grid on 3 September 2011, and was officially opened in a ceremony on 12 September 2011, attended by Russian Energy Minister Sergei Shmatko and head of the Rosatom Sergei Kiriyenko.

The project is considered unique in terms of its technology, the political environment and the challenging physical climate. It is the first civilian nuclear power plant built in the Middle East. Several research reactors had been built earlier in the Middle East: two in Iraq, two in Israel, one in Syria and three in Iran.

There have been safety concerns about the Bushehr plant, associated with construction of the plant itself, aging equipment at the plant, and understaffing.

In August 2013, the head of Russian nuclear regulator Rosatom has said that state company will soon sign documents transferring operational control of the Bushehr nuclear power plant to Iran, and on September 23 of 2013, opera-tional control was transferred.

The facility was the idea of the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. He wanted a national electrical grid powered by nuclear power plants. Bushehr would be the first plant, and would supply energy to the inland city of Shiraz. In August 1974, the Shah said, "Petroleum is a noble material, much too valuable to burn. We envision producing, as soon as possible, 23,000 megawatts (MW) of electricity using nuclear plants".

In 1975, German Kraftwerk Union AG, a joint venture of Siemens AG and AEG Telefunken, signed a contract worth US$4–6 billion to build the pres-surized water reactor nuclear power plant. The work was begun in the same year. The two 1,196 MWe reactors, subcontracted to ThyssenKrupp AG, were based on the Convoy design (see Konvoi (Kernkraftwerk) on the German Wikipedia) and identical with the second reactor unit of the German Biblis Nu-clear Power Plant. The first reactor was to be finished by 1980 and the second one by 1981.

Kraftwerk Union was eager to work with the Iranian government because, as its spokesman said in 1976, «To fully exploit our nuclear power plant capac-ity, we have to land at least three contracts a year for delivery abroad. The mar-ket here is about saturated, and the United States has cornered most of the rest of Europe, so we have to concentrate on the third world»

Kraftwerk Union fully withdrew from the Bushehr nuclear project in July 1979, after work stopped in January 1979, with one reactor 50% complete, and the other reactor 85% complete. They said they based their action on Iran's non–payment of $450 million in overdue payments. The company had received $2.5 billion of the total contract. Their cancellation came after certainty that the Ira-nian government would unilaterally terminate the contract themselves, following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, which led to a crisis in Iran's relations with the West. Shortly afterwards, Iraq invaded Iran and the nuclear program was stopped until the end of the war.

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In 1984, Kraftwerk Union did a preliminary assessment to see if it could resume work on the project, but declined to do so while the Iran-Iraq War con-tinued. In April of that year, the U.S. State Department said, «We believe it would take at least two to three years to complete construction of the reactors at Bushehr». The spokesperson also said that the light water power reactors at Bushehr «are not particularly well-suited for a weapons program». The spokesman went on to say, «In addition, we have no evidence of Iranian con-struction of other facilities that would be necessary to separate plutonium from spent reactor fuel». The reactors were then damaged by multiple Iraqi air strikes from 1984 to 1988, during the Iran-Iraq War.

In 1990, Iran began to look outwards towards partners for its nuclear pro-gram; however, due to a radically different political climate and punitive U.S. economic sanctions, few candidates existed.

A Russian-Iranian intergovernmental outline for construction and opera-tion of two reactor units at Bushehr was signed on 25 August 1992. Two years later, Russian specialists toured the site for the first time to assess the damage done to the partially complete plant by the passage of time and by air raids dur-ing the Iran-Iraq War. The final contract between Iran and Russia's Ministry for Atomic Energy (Minatom) was signed on 8 January 1995. Russia's main con-tractor for the project, Atomstroyexport, would install a V–320 915 MWe VVER–1000 pressurized water reactor into the existing Bushehr I building, with commissioning originally expected in 2001.

The Bushehr Nuclear Plant project is considered unique in terms of tech-nology, the political environment and the challenging physical climate. Finan-cial problems, inflation, and the need to integrate German and Russian technol-ogy have made the project difficult for the participants.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian government ended its subsidies to contractors building power plants for foreign customers, putting Atomstroyexport in financial difficulties. Another obstacle was the shortage of Russian engineers and technicians with suitable experience. The last nuclear plant built in the Soviet Union was the No. 6 reactor at Zaporizhzhya in Ukraine, which is why Ukrainian specialists were invited to work in Iran after they had finished the work at Zaporizhzhya.

The 1995 contract with Iran stipulated that a share of construction and in-stallation jobs would be reserved for Iranian subcontractors. These companies were inexperienced and had been only minimally involved in the German project, which resulted in what should have been a one–year task taking over three years (1995–1997). Due to these difficulties, in 1998 Minatom pushed through an agreement that Atomstroyexport would finish the first reactor on its own. The agreement was signed on 29 August 1998 as an addendum to the main contract.

The extremely hot and humid climate of the Bushehr area, with significant amounts of brine in the air due to the proximity of the ocean, represented a spe-cial challenge for the construction. In such conditions, even stainless steel can

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rust, and a special painting technology had to be developed to protect the sta-tion's structural elements. In the summer the temperatures can reach 50 °C (122 °F). While the German companies worked at the site, the workers had a special clause in their contracts to allow them to stop working during the summer heat waves.

German engineers had left behind a total of 80,000 pieces of equipment and structural elements, with little technical documentation. The Iranian side in-sisted that the German hardware must be integrated in the Russian VVER–1000 design. Germany refused to help in the construction, mostly for political reasons, as Iran was under an embargo for nuclear plant components. Therefore, it was decided to take stock of the existing equipment using only Russian expertise.

The 1998 addendum to the construction contract put the final value of the project at just over $1 billion. After that, the sum was not adjusted for inflation, resulting in funding shortages which almost again halted work.

In 2001, several items for the NPP – in particular, the footing for the reac-tor and four 82–ton water tanks – were manufactured on Atommash, Russia's nuclear engineering flagship.

In response to American and European pressure on Russia, a new revised agreement was reached in September 2006, under which fuel deliveries to Bushehr were scheduled to start in March 2007 and the plant was due to come on stream in September 2007 after years of delays. In February 2007, the work on the site faltered due to funding shortages, and Atomstroyexport reduced the number of employees working on the site from 3,000 to just 800. During subse-quent negotiations, Atomstroyexport even contemplated pulling out of the project. In the end, an agreement was reached, under which the Iranians would compensate for the growing cost of equipment and engineering works once the reactor went live. A top Iranian nuclear official claimed that the Russians were deliberately delaying and politicizing the project under European and American pressure.

Prior to the contract revision, the price was about a third that of a contem-porary reactor, at just over $1 billion, reflecting the year of the original contract and that it was the first post-Soviet nuclear export order. Increased material costs and currency fluctuations had made completion at that price difficult.

According to Moscow Defense Brief, until 2005 Washington exerted con-siderable diplomatic pressure on Russia to stop the project, as the US adminis-trations viewed it as evidence of Russia's indirect support for the alleged Iranian nuclear arms program. The United States also tried to persuade other countries to ban their companies from taking part. For example, Ukraine's Turboatom was to supply a turbine, but cancelled the deal after the US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright's visit to Kiev on 6 March 1998. The United States lifted its opposition to the project in 2005, partly due to the deal signed by Moscow and Tehran, under which spent fuel from the plant would be sent back to Russia.

In 2007, according to Moscow Defense Brief, Russia made a strategic de-cision to finish the plant, and in December 2007 started to deliver nuclear fuel to

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the site. On 20 January 2008 a fourth Russian shipment of nuclear fuel arrived. Russia has pledged to sell 85 tons of nuclear fuel to the plant.

In March 2009, the head of Russia's state nuclear power corporation Rosatom, Sergei Kiriyenko, announced that Russia had completed the construc-tion of the plant. A series of pre–launch tests were conducted after the an-nouncement.

On 22 September 2009, it was reported that the first reactor was 96% complete and final testing would begin in the near future. In early October final testing was started. In January 2010, Kiriyenko announced to the public that the Bushehr reactor would be opening in the near–future, declaring 2010 the «year of Bushehr».

On 13 August 2010, Russia announced that fuel would be loaded into the plant beginning on 21 August, which would mark the beginning of the plant be-ing considered an active nuclear facility. Within six months after the fuel load-ing, the plant was planned to be fully operational.

An official launch ceremony was held on 21 August 2010 as Iran began loading the plant with fuel. At the ceremony, Iranian nuclear chief Alki Akbar Salahei said:

«Despite all pressure, sanctions and hardships imposed by western na-tions, we are now witnessing the startup of the largest symbol of Iran's peaceful nuclear activities».

Although they have opposed the project in the past, Western governments now stress that they have no objection to the demonstrably peaceful aspects of Iran's nuclear programme such as Bushehr, according to the BBC.

Spokesman of the United States State Department, Darby Holladay, stated that the United States believes the reactor is designed to produce civilian nuclear power and does not view it as a proliferation risk as long as the Russians were responsible for the fuel.

On 27 November 2010, the head of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran declared that «All fuel assemblies have been loaded into the core of the re-actor» and they were hoping that the facility «will hook up with the national grid in one or two months».

The plant is to be operated by Russian specialists. Russia also provides the nuclear fuel for the plant, and spent fuel is sent back to Russia. The Bushehr plant will satisfy about 2% of Iran's projected electricity consumption.

The former head of Pakistan's Inter–Services Intelligence hailed Iran's launch as a positive move in the Muslim world, and he also said that an anti–Iran campaigns by the US and Israel stems from Iran's Islamic status. «Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant is a victory for Iran and indicates that Iranians do their best to achieve their peaceful objectives but the US and Israel are not ready to accept this achievement».

In February 2011, Rosatom announced that one of the reactor’s four main cooling pumps, from the original German reactor, had suffered damage. Thor-oughly cleaning the reactor of metal particles required the removal of the fuel

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core, resulting in a startup delay. The reactor achieved a sustained nuclear reac-tion at 11:12 on 8 May 2011 and ran at a minimum power level for final com-missioning tests.

The plant was connected to the national grid on 3 September 2011, and the official inauguration was held on 12 September. By the inauguration time the plant had the capacity to run at 40% capacity, while the full projected capac-ity of the first unit is 1,000 megawatts The opening ceremony was attended by Energy Minister of Russia Sergei Shmatko and head of the Russian Federal Atomic Energy Agency (Rosatom) Sergei Kiriyenko, AEOI Director Fereydoun Abbasi, Iranian Energy Minister Majid Namjou and a number of Iranian MPs.

Under the terms of Russia-Iran agreement, approved by the International Atomic Energy Agency, Russia will be responsible for operating the plant, sup-plying the nuclear fuel and managing the spent fuel for the next two or three years before passing full control to Iran. Before the plant will reach full capacity in November, it will be disconnected from the grid for several weeks to make a number of tests.

Director Fereydoun Abbasi announced on 15 February that the Bushehr nuclear power plant had reached 75 percent of its power generation capacity. Abbasi was quoted «that hopefully the Bushehr plant will be connected to the national grid at its full capacity in late April».

On 30 August at 18:47 local time, the power unit 1 was brought to 100 percent of its power generation capacity.

In September 2013, the Bushehr plant began producing power for the power grid. For two years the plant will be operated by Iranian staff with the as-sistance of Russian specialists, after which Iran will have sole control of the plant. The first refueling of the reactor was completed in July 2014.

The total cost of the project is estimated to be over €3 billion including the payments to both Russia and Germany. The original 1995 contract with the 1998 addendum was worth $1 billion and was not adjusted for inflation. Al-though in 2007 Iran agreed to compensate for the rising costs after the construc-tion is finished, it is regarded that the possibility of the project turning a profit are remote. However, the project allowed the nuclear industry of Russia to pre-serve its expertise in times when funding was scarce, and until the sector started to receive orders from China and India.

According to Moscow Defense Brief, completion of the plant could be-come an indicator of Russia's credibility in large international high technology projects, and the successful integration of German and Russian technology could help the Russian nuclear industry in its ambitions to partner with foreign compa-nies in building nuclear power plants in Russia and abroad.

Since Bushehr's nuclear reactor has been under construction by different firms and consultants, the constituent parts have also different origins. 24% of the parts are German in origin, 36% are Iranian–made while 40% are Russian–made.

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Tehran and Moscow have established a joint venture to operate Bushehr because Iran has not yet had enough experience in maintaining such installa-tions. However, Iran may begin almost all operational control of the reactor within two or three years.

A further two reactors of the same type are planned, and a preliminary agreement was made in 2014, though details have still to be agreed. The fourth unit was canceled, though further VVER units may be built elsewhere in Iran.

An Iranian parliament member proposed paying the Russian women working in Bushehr to cover their heads.

The Center for Energy and Security Studies, a Moscow–based indepen-dent think tank, explained the construction delays of the plant as partly due to a «shortage of skilled Russian engineering and construction specialists with suit-able experience». It also spoke of «frequent problems with quality and dead-lines». Aging equipment at the plant has also been a problem and, in February 2011, a 30–year–old German cooling pump broke, sending metal debris into the system. In 2010, the IAEA noted that the facility was understaffed.

Leaders from Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have expressed fears that a serious nuclear accident at the Bushehr plant would spread radiation throughout the region. Bushehr is closer to six Arab capitals (Kuwait City, Riyadh, Manama, Doha, Abu Dhabi, and Muscat) than it is to Tehran. The gov-ernment of Oman believes the plant presents no risk to Oman.

According to Kuwaiti geologist, Dr.Jassem al-Awadi, the plant is located at the junction of three tectonic plates. However the United States Geological Survey and NASA characterize the geology as near the boundary of two tectonic plates, the Arabian plate and the Eurasian plate. The plant is designed to with-stand without serious damage a magnitude 8 earthquake, and survive up to mag-nitude 9.

A 2011 Natural Resources Defense Council report that evaluated the seis-mic hazard to reactors worldwide, as determined by the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program data, placed Busheher within the second group of 36 reac-tors within high seismic hazard areas, at lower risk than 12 reactors within very high seismic hazard areas in Japan and Taiwan.

Iran is with Israel one of the two countries in the world with significant nuclear activities not to ratify the 1994 Convention on Nuclear Safety, a system of peer review and mutual oversight, and it has been suggested that nuclear safety in Iran could benefit from Iran signing the convention.

In October 2012, the plant had to be shut down to limit damage after stray bolts were found beneath the fuel cells, contradicting Iran's earlier assurances that nothing unexpected had happened and that removing nuclear fuel from the plant was just routine.

Two diplomats claimed anonymously to press–agency AP, that recent earthquakes in April and May 2013 had caused a big crack in a wall of at least one of the buildings, the building that contains the reactor core however had no

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visible damage to it. Although spokesmen in Tehran argued earlier that the nu-clear facility in Bushehr had suffered no damage during these earthquakes.

Transistor

The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern elec-tronics. Many consider it to be one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century. Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass–produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves as-tonishingly low per–transistor costs.

A solid–state device involved in amplifying small electrical signals and in processing of digital information. Transistors act as the key element in amplifi-cation, detection, and switching of electrical voltages and currents. They are the active electronic component in all electronic systems which convert battery power to signal power. Almost every type of transistor is produced in some form of semiconductor, often single–crystal materials, with silicon being the most prevalent.

The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a portmanteau of the term «transfer resistor». In 1956, William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the bipolar tran-sistor.

The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiqui-tous device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechani-cal devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function.

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch elec-tronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic de-vices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its develop-ment in the early 1950s, the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.

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Literature

1) Пособие по английскому языку: для старших курсов энергетических вузов. − 3-е изд., перераб. − М.: Высш. школа, 1983. − 159 с.

2) www.alternative-energy-news.info/bladeless-wind-turbine-inspired-by-nikola-tesla/

3) www.alternative-energy-news.info/efficiency-of-wind-turbine-blades/4) www.alternative-energy-news.info/worlds-largest-wind-turbine/5)www.cpsenergy.om/Services/Generate_Deliver_Energy/

Wind_Energy/wind_generation.asp 6) www.np-sr.ru/presscenter/glossary/SR_0V0052947) www.rlocman.ru/review/article.html?di=682798) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re9) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff 10) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla11) osi.ecopower.ru/ru/home.html

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