organization response to environment homeostasis – maintaining an internal level of stability...
TRANSCRIPT
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Organization Response to environment Homeostasis – maintaining an
internal level of stability even though external environment is changing
Energy use Growth and Development Reproduction Changes through time
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The study of interactions that take place between organisms and their environment.
It explains how living organisms affect each other and the world they live in.
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Habitat is the place an organism lives Niche is an organism’s total way of life
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Abiotic factors - the nonliving parts of an organism’s environment.•Examples:air currents, Temperature, moisture, light, Soil nutrients
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Biotic factors - all the living components of an environment.
All organisms are affected by both biotic and abiotic factors in their niches
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•Ecologists have organized the interactions an organism takes part in into different levels according to complexity.
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Organism: An individual living thing
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Population: A group of the same species, which live in the same area
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Biological Community: All the populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time.
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Ecosystem: Populations of organisms that interact with each other in a given area ALONG with the abiotic components of that area.
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Biosphere: The portion of Earth that supports life.•It is about 20 km (13 mi) wide from deepest parts of ocean to 8-10 km above the surface•The Earth is 600 times as thick as the biosphere•If Earth was an apple, the biosphere would be the skin
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So, from smallest to biggest:•Organism•Population•Community•Ecosystem •Biosphere
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Important words to know Transpiration- when plants lose water
(usually through stomata) Evaporation- water turns from liquid
to gas Condensation – Water vapor
condenses into clouds Precipitation – any sort of water
falling from the sky (rain, sleet , snow) Runoff- when water runs across land
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Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the atmosphere.
Without it and other greenhouse gases, Earth would be a frozen world.
But humans have burned so much fuel that there is about 30% more carbon dioxide in the air today than there was about 150 years ago. The atmosphere has not held this much carbon for at least 420,000 years according to data from ice cores.
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The way that carbon is fixed into an environment – PHOTOSYNTHESIS• From the plants, animals receive carbon (up the food chain – discussed later)
Carbon is released into the atmosphere• Burning of fossil fuels/forest fires/etc• Decomposing matter• Respiration (breathing out CO2)
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Even though the air is mostly N2 gas, many organisms cannot use it.
To be used by organisms the nitrogen must be fixed – nitrogen fixation
Without nitrogen, no protein or nucleic acids!
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Ways in which nitrogen is “fixed” into an ecosystem:• Lightning strikes• Soil microbes (bacteria that convert nitrogen to
a usable form)• Nodules on the roots of legumes (symbiotic
relationship)• From the plants, animals receive nitrogen (up
the food chain – discussed later) Ways in which nitrogen is released into
atmosphere:• Decomposing matter• Industrial complexes
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Population Ecology
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Population Ecologists study many factors dealing with population, the three most important are…
•Population density •Growth rate •Carrying capacity
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Population density measures how crowded a population is • The population density of the US is about 30 people per square kilometer (0.6 mi2) • In Japan it is 337 people/km2
•(Data from 2003)
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Growth rate- the amount by which a population size changes over a given time
In order for a population to grow, the birth rate (number of individuals born) must be greater than the death rate (number that die)
Population size constantly changes in any given population due to changes in growth rates
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Population grows by the same amount at regular intervals (week, month, year) producing a straight line when graphed
Ex: population grows by the same amount every month (2,4,6,8,10,12)
X axis is time Y axis is population size
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The number of individuals added to the population gets larger during each time interval or generation
Ex: population may grow at pattern such as (1,2,4,8,16,32,64 …)
When plotted on a graph the line looks like the letter “J”
X axis is time Y axis is population size
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NOOO!!
Every ecosystem has a Carrying capacity
This is the maximum number of organisms that can be supported in a given habitat.
The carrying capacity of a habitat is based on limiting factors
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Used to represent carrying capacity
Typically happens when organisms are introduced to a new ecosystem with few predators
At first population will grow slowly then rapidly
Eventually population will reach the carry capacity and then remain stable at that level
X axis is time Y axis is population size
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Density-Dependent• Depends on
population size • Increases in food
competition, disease, predator/prey
• Decrease in living space and available water
Density-Independent • Affects the same
percentage of a population regardless of its size
• Natural disasters such as hurricanes, fires, earthquakes, volcanoes or tsunami destroy a habitat
• Human intervention as burning of fossil fuels increases greenhouse gases linked to global warming, deforestation
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Agricultural Revolution - Major period of population growth began when humans started to cultivate crops and domesticate animals
Industrial Revolution – Improved food production and distribution
Health Care – germ theory lead to improved hygiene, better waste removal and water treatment
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Plague – disease that greatly reduces the size of population (Black Plague in 1300’s reduced the population in England by 50%)
Famine –a severe food shortage causing starvation and death (Potato Famine of 1840’s/China 1870-1890)
War – death by combat, disease, cut off from food supply (Germany 1618-1648/WWI/WWII)
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Community Ecology
•Looks at the interactions of populations within an ecosystem
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Species Interactions In Communities
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1.Predator-Prey 2. Competition 3. Parasitism 4. Mutualism 5. Commensalism
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The prey is the organism that is eaten •The predator is the organism that does the eating
Examples: •Lions eating Zebras •Snakes eating Mice •Birds eating insects
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Populations rise and fall with each other
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Competition occurs when two or more organisms attempt to use the same limited resource.•A limited resource is any resource that
may run out.•Examples:Hyenas fight with lions over the same animals
Two cacti that are side by side compete for water
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Close association between two or more organisms of different species living together•3 typesParasitismMutualismCommensalism
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Parasitism is the relationship between a parasite and a host.
A Parasite is an organism that lives in or on another organism and feeds on it without immediately killing it.• Examples: ticks, fleas, blood-sucking
leaches, and mistletoe• The organism that the parasite feeds on is
called the Host• The host is harmed in parasitism.
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Mutualism is a cooperative partnership between two species in which both species benefit.• An example is the bacteria in your intestines
and you. Billions of bacteria live in your intestines. They help break down food you would otherwise not
be able to digest. They also produce beneficial substances, such as
Vitamin K for you. In return, you give them a warm, dark, food-rich
environment.
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Commensalism is a relationship in which one species benefits from another species and the other is neither harmed nor helped
This is the rarest and strangest type of species interaction• Example: Remoras and Sharks
The remoras attach to the sharks and feed on scraps left over from the sharks meals.
The shark is neither harmed nor helped by this relationship
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Relationship Organism #1 Organism #2
Commensalism + 0
Mutualism + +
Parasitism + -
Predator Prey + -
Competition - -
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Honey guide: These birds will lead people and other mammals to honey and after the mammal opens the bee hive to get the honey, the bird feeds on the bee larvae
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Producers are the autotrophs of an environment •Mostly by photosynthesis
Consumers are the heterotrophs of the environment. They can be… •Herbivores- which eat producers •Carnivores- which eat other consumers •Omnivores- which eat producers and consumers
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Primary consumer - eats producer Secondary consumer - eats primary Tertiary consumer - eats secondary Detritivores - (Decomposers) - Break
down complex molecules in dead organic matter into smaller molecules • They are responsible for recycling many
nutrients into the soil
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Food Chains- A single pathway of energy relationships among organisms in an ecosystem
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The arrows DO NOT merely show what gets eaten• The purpose of the arrows is to show where
the energy is going• Scientists refer to eating as an energy
transfer, because when one organism eats another, the main goal is to get energy from the organism.
• SO, the arrow points at the organism that GETS the ENERGY (the organism doing the eating)
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Food chains are a very inaccurate depiction of feeding relationships in an ecosystem…Food webs are more accurate
Food webs are interrelated food chains of an ecosystem
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Decomposers are sometimes shown in food chains and food websEventually all organisms give their remaining energy to decomposers
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Decomposer – tadpole
Producer – plankton
Consumers - everything except the plankton (including the tadpole)
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Each organism in a food chain or web represents a trophic level •The trophic level is an organisms position in a sequence of energy transfers (in a food chain or web) •Notice Higher on the food chain means higher trophic level
Producer Primary Consumer
Secondary Consumer
Tertiary Consumer
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•A top level carnivore means that NOTHING in that environment is able to eat it. •Organism CAN be at more than one level
•In this diagram, a fox eats a snake, but it eats insects also, it would be both a secondary and tertiary consumer •In real life, many organisms are at 2 or more levels.
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Producers add biomass (Organic material produced by an environment, like glucose) to environments
They are always at the bottom of the food chain or web. • So they are the origin of the energy
BUT…Producers get their energy from the sun • So, THE SUN IS THE ULTIMATE SOURCE OF ENERGY IN ALMOST ALL ECOSYSTEMS
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•Energy transfers within an environment are often shown using an Energy Pyramid: • Notice that energy is lost as you move up the pyramid •Notice also that low trophic levels are at the bottom and higher levels are at the top
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Very little energy (10%) is transferred when one organism eats another. Why is this? • Not all organisms are eaten at any given level • Consumers cannot break down all of the
organic material in their food • Organisms use the energy they make or
consume for themselves and do not store it, some of the energy organisms consume is lost as heat during digestion
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This low rate of energy transfer if the reason that as you move up a food chain, there are less organisms at higher trophic levels •There is not enough energy to support the organisms at higher levels
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The tendency of a community to retain relatively constant conditions
Large populations with varying genetics tend to be most stable • For example in a field of corn (which tends to
be genetically similar), if there is an outbreak of a deadly corn plant virus, the community would drastically change (most die out)
• But if the field had many other plants in abundance, it would not change as much
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The gradual, sequential growth of a community is called ecological succession
This can occur in areas where no life has been before (primary succession)
This can also occur when there is a disaster that completely wipes out a community (secondary succession)
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In both primary and secondary succession there is a specific sequence of growth•The first species to grow in succession is called the pioneer species
•Pioneer species are typically small, grow quickly, good at growing under harsh conditions, and good at dispersing offspring
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•No true soil is present before Primary Succession
•Because of this it is slower than secondary
•Occurs on newly exposed or created land-like land under melting ice caps or islands formed by volcanoes
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•Lichens are usually the pioneer species•They break down the rocks into dirt and when they die, they leave behind organic material, which will be broken down by decomposers
•This creates soil which is basically dirt, minerals, and organic material•This process takes thousands of years
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This happens after an existing community is disrupted by a disturbance like a fire
Soil is already present Grasses and weeds tend to be the
pioneer species After many years bigger plants will
begin to grow This process takes about 100 years
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When it reaches a climax community•This is simply a stable end point
•At this point, the community remains relatively stable assuming there are no more disturbances
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Ecosystem Ecology
Biomes
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A very large climatic region that contains a number of smaller, but related ecosystems in it.
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Found in Northern North America, Europe, and Asia
Has permafrost (a permanent layer of frozen soil)
Due to the permafrost and a short growing season, there are few or no trees in the tundra
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From right: tundra near Churchill, Manitoba, Canada; tundra in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska
AnaktuvukPass, Alaska
Arctic Fox
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Found near the equator Over 200cm of rain each year
This biome gets the most rain and supports the greatest variety of life
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Bengal Tiger
Rainforest in Malaysia on the island of Borneo
Amazon and Amazon River
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Found all over the world Can be coniferous or deciduous based on the trees that grow there
Coniferous - Bears seeds in cones and tend to be evergreen
Deciduous - Shed their leaves each year
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Deciduous
CONIFEROUS
Coyote
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Found south of Tundra Also called Boreal Forest Very cold, long winters Animals in this biome often migrate or hibernate during winter
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Lakes and other water bodies are very common. The Helvetinjärvi National Park, Finland, is located in the southern boreal forest.
Taiga White Spruce taiga, Denali Highway, Alaska Range, Alaska
American Black Bear
Bobcat
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3 varieties: Temperate grasslands, savanna, and chaparral
Other names include steppes, prairies, pampas and veldts
Characterized by grasses dominating, few or no trees
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savanna
Saker Falcon
prairie
Steppe
Northern Lynx
Mongolian Gerbil
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•Receive less than 25cm of rain each year•Can be hot or cold•Temperatures can very greatly from day to night (the dirt does not trap heat well, which is what warms ecosystems at night)
Desert Kangaroo Rat
Bobcat
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•Waxy cuticles •Tiny hairs and light greens prevent some hear absorption•Remember, plants need CO2 to photosynthesize. C3 plants take in CO2 through stomata all day, which causes water loss…
•C4 plants keep stomata half closed•CAM plants only take in CO2 at night
Barrel Cactus
Palo Verde
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Desert Tortoise
Thorny Devil
Sonoran Desert Toad
•Animals tend to be small •Some are able to get the water they need from food•Nocturnal-only out at night in hot deserts•Burrowers
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Aphotic - no light, no photosynthesis; organisms here typically feed on falling dead organisms from above
Photic - has sunlight Intertidal - area of the shoreline covered during
high tide and exposed during low; has organisms that are adapted to periodic exposure to air
Neritic - shallow water above the continental shelf; most productive zone; upwelling carries nutrients from deep waters making it nutrient rich.; this is where coral reefs form in tropical areas
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•Oceanic - deep parts of ocean/open sea; fewer species than neritic, nutrient levels low, ½ the photosynthesis that happens on Earth happens in the ocean; •Pelagic - open ocean•Benthic - ocean floor; diverse life can be found living near sea floor volcanic vents
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Estuary of Klamath River, Oregon River Nith estuary, Scotland
•Where rivers meet oceans•Salt water mixes with fresh•Inhabitants are well adapted to changing temp and salt conditions
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•Eutrophic •rich in organic matter and vegetation, •murky and have a lot of bacteria which eventually use all of the oxygen and that can cause the animal life to die•Lakes naturally become this way over time
•Oligotrohpic •Not a lot of organic matter and vegetation•waters are clearer•Still supports fish and other life
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Areas of land covered in freshwater for at least part of the year
Main types are marshes and swamps Wetlands filter pollutants from water;
they prevent flooding by taking in large amount of water
Las Vegas has wetlands, which is the area that most of our rainwater drains to (which is the reason it stays wet)
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Human Impact
What are humans doing to the ecosystems of the
world?
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ozone layer - created a hole is this layer that protects us from UV radiation due to Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
greenhouse effect - this NATURAL effect keeps the Earth warm, but due to pollution, humans are amplifying this effect and making it warmer than usual (overloading the carbon cycle with too much CO2, a greenhouse gas)
Smog and acid precipitation are caused by air pollution
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All of these things have had a hand in changing ecosystems and communities world wide
Many Ecologist study human impact on communities by looking at: •Biological magnification •Keystone species •Bioindicators
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Land and water pollution can be a big problem for many organisms • Chemical that we use on farms and in our
homes can be toxic to wildlife Many chemicals that enter an
ecosystem undergo biological magnification, a process in which chemicals become more concentrated as they move up the food chain
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These are species that can affect many other species in a community
When these species become extinct, or scarce, the entire community changes and usually many other species are affected
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•When a species of starfish that feeds on mussels was removed from an intertidal zone, the mussel began to dominate and eat other species (decreasing biodiversity)
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These are species that are especially sensitive to change
Frogs are bioindicators because they live in or around water (which is where pollutants tend to accumulate) and they absorb gases through their skin
Many people believe that the world wide decline in frog populations is an indicator of population declines in other species
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Means the ability to meet human needs in such a way that the human population can be maintained indefinitely • To do this, we need to make sure our resources
(like food, space and water) will always be available
• This includes keeping the Earth healthy and maintaining biodiversity
• Biodiversity - refers to the variety of forms of life in an area
• If we keep doing what we are doing this is not going to happen