● learning modes ● theories of learning ● types of memory ● learning modes ● theories of...
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● Learning Modes
● Theories of Learning
● Types of Memory
● Learning Modes
● Theories of Learning
● Types of Memory
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels for use by Walden U. students, and teachers of
Advanced General Psychology
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels for use by Walden U. students, and teachers of
Advanced General Psychology
Unstructured Peer-Group Interaction and Play
Vessels’ Learning Modes Kevin Ryan’s Learning Modes
Interpersonal and Environmental Support (Relationships) ETHOS
Developmentally Appropriate Discipline & Reinforcement EXPECTATIONS
Observation & Modeling EXAMPLE
Direct Instruction EXPLANATION
Experiential Learning in Classroom and School Communities EXPERIENCE
Service Learning & Experiences in the Larger Community EXPERIENCE
This alignment was created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000 ©. Professor Kevin Ryan may or may not agree that his five E’s correspond to Dr. Vessels’ seven modes exactly as shown above. Professor Ryan’s work precedes Dr. Vessels work by many years, and it is presented here as validation of Dr. Vessels’ similarly eclectic approach.
Vessels’ Learning Modes Validating Theorists
Interpersonal and Environmental Support
Rogers, Damon, Baumrind, Knowles, Benson, Piaget, Lave, Kagan, Havighurst,
DeVries, Erikson, Vygotsky, Bruner
Unstructured Peer-Group Interaction and Play
Developmentally Appropriate Discipline & Reinforcement
Skinner, Knowles, Damon, Tolman, Gagne, Thorndike, Aristotle, Havighurst, Baumrind,
Hull, Aristotle, Hoffman
Observation & Modeling
Didactics or Direct Instruction
J. Anderson, Shweder, Norman, Ausubel, Damon, Kohler, G. Miller, Durkheim, Gardner, Vygotsky,
Bloom, Sternberg , Rumelhardt, McClelland, Lynn, Hoffman
Active Participation Within Classroom and School Communities
Piaget, Dewey, Bruner, Turiel, Nucci, Lave, Damon, Erikson, Socrates, Vygotsky,
Knowles, Kohlberg, DeVries, Rogers, Gagne, Schaps, Bruner
Lave, Rogers, Durkheim, Bandura, Benson, Shweder
Piaget, Vygotsky, Rogers,DeVries, Lave, Turiel, Bruner
Bandura, Gagne, Vygotsky, Mischel, Rotter, Kohlberg
Service Learning & Learning in the Larger Community
This alignment was created by Dr. Gordon Vessels. The theorists shown above and/or experts who know their work well may not agree that the work of these individuals supports the learning modes with which they are aligned and/or that their work is limited to a particular learning mode.
Vessels’ Learning Modes Relevant Concepts/Methods
Interpersonal and Environmental Support
Unstructured Peer-Group Interaction and Play
Developmentally Appropriate Discipline & Reinforcement
Observation & Modeling
Didactics or Direct Instruction
Active Participation Within Classroom and School
Communities
Service Learning & Learning in the Larger Community
Experiential Learning, Respectful Engagement, Authoritative Parenting, Situated Learning, Love
That Fosters Identification, Constructivism, Differentiated Instruction, Unconditional Regard
Experiential Learning, Spontaneous Game Play,Situated Learning, Constructivism
Operant Conditioning, Sign Learning, Connectionism, Conditions of Learning, Ethics of
Fear and Shame, Heteronomy, Authoritarian Conscience, Authoritative Parenting/Teaching, Feedback, Practice, Habit Formation, Induction
Social Learning, Conditions of Learning, Zone of Proximal Development, Scaffolding, Vicarious
Reinforcement, Just Community
Subsumption, Information Processing, Socialization, Multiple Intelligences, Social
Development, Heteronomy, Bloom’s Taxonomy, Componential Subtheory, Learning Styles,
Differentiated Instruction, Assimilation
Progressive Education, Democratic Education, Constructivism, Situated Learning, Respectful
Engagement, Social Learning, Zone of Proximal Development, Experiential Learning, Conditions of Learning, Collaborative Learning, Just Community
Situated Learning, Experiential Learning, Socialization, Social Learning, Communitarianism,
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2003 ©
ENJOY THE AFTER IMAGES by Gordon Vessels ©
Stimulus and response (behavior) in classical and operant conditioning: Thorndike, Hull, Watson, Skinner
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Result: Horn Eye Blink
TIME
OPERANT CONDITIONING Result: Whistle Sit Up
Antecedents ConsequencesBehavior
A B C
Reinforcer Food
Reinforcer Food
Stimulus Clap
Stimulus Clap
Behavior Sit Up
Behavior Sit Up
The whistle is an antecedent discriminative stimulus. Behavior occurring in its presence will continue if reinforced.
Key Relationship
Key Relationship
Stimulus Horn
Stimulus Horn
Behavior Eye Blink
Behavior Eye BlinkCS UCS UCR
CS CR
Stimulus Horn
Stimulus Horn
Stimulus Air Puff
Stimulus Air Puff
Behavior Eye Blink
Behavior Eye Blink
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Types of Reinforcement and
Punishment
Types of Reinforcement and
Punishment
negative reinforcer received
Punishment
negative reinforcer received
Punishment
positive reinforcer removed
Negative Punishment
positive reinforcer removed
Negative Punishment
Negative Reinforcement
negative reinforcer removed
Negative Reinforcement
negative reinforcer removed
Positive Reinforcement
positive reinforcer received
Positive Reinforcement
positive reinforcer received
Afte
r a
Be
hav
ior,
a R
ein
forc
er is
:
Re
mo
ved
Pre
sent
ed
Type of Operant Event
Pleasant Unpleasant
Positive Reinforcers: (Primary) (Secondary) food & water; money & praiseNegative Reinforcers: (Primary) (Secondary) shock & headache; rejection & criticism
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
BEHAVIOR CHANGEMETHODS FOR BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Mechanism Definition Examples
Positive Reinforcement
Encouraging a behavior by giving a desired reward or reinforcer thereafter
Giving a child candy when he brings in a homework assignment; Saying “good girl” to a baby who swallows a spoonful of food.
Negative Reinforcement
Encouraging a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus thereafter
Ceasing to scold a child when he hangs up his clothes; Giving in to a roommate or spouse in order to bring an argument to an end
PunishmentGiving an aversive stimulus in response to an undesired behavior to suppress it
Slapping a child for swearing at his parent; making a child do chores after getting into a fight with a classmate
Negative Punishment
Removing a desired reward or activity in response to undesirable behavior
Sending a child to her room without toys because she refused to share her toys; refusing to speak to a spouse who was rude.
ExtinctionGradually eliminating a behavior by removing the reinforcers that follow it
Ignoring a child when he has a temper tantrum; drastically cutting the possible winnings in a state lottery
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Social Learning; Situated Learning Sociocultural
Expectancy
Constructivism; Discovery Learning
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT; COMMUNITY; INQUIRY CENTERS; SCAFFOLDING; COOPERATION; COLLABORATION; OBSERVATION; VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT; SCHEMAS; MENTAL MAPS; RESPECTFUL ENGAGEMENT; NETWORKS
Information Processing
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Assumptions
Major Theories
Instruction
Checklists
Cooperative Learning
Collaborative Learning
Communities of Learning
Social-Cognitive Constructivism
Bandura: Social-Learning (social-cognitive)
Lave: Situated Learning
Vygotsky: Sociocultural Development
Role of Cognition
Behavioral Outcomes
Observation a Key
Social Interaction a Key
Apprenticeships
Authentic Activities
Problem Solving
Anchored Instruction
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
Rotter: Expectancy
Zone of Proximal Development
Piaget
BanduraBandura RotterRotter
LaveLave VygotskyVygotskyPiagetPiaget
Bruner: Discovery
BrunerBruner
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Modeled after a chart created by Y.W. Kreher that can be found at http://web.syr.edu/~ywkreher/IDE%20621%20KB/SOCIAL_LEARNING/ [email protected]
Piaget’s theory of learning is based on the proposition that
the child [or person] builds cognitive structures, that is,
mental maps, concept networks, or schemas that are used to understand and respond
to new learning experiences. His several stages of
development explain how these structures and their use in
thinking change qualitatively with maturation. If the child’s
learning experience fits existing schemas or cognitive structures of knowledge, it is assimilated;
if the learning experience is relatively unfamiliar, different,
or novel in some way, the child [person] loses equilibrium and
must rebuild one or more schemas or networks of
cognitive structures to accommodate the new
information.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Focus on the Learner
The Role of the Learner
Learning Is . . .
The Role of the Teacher
Assess the Individual Learner
Cognitive Stimulation
Open-Minded
Guide
Facilitator
Set Limits
Use Technology
Double Lesson
Responsible for his own
learning
Challenge Creativity
Encourage Independent Thinking
Make Suggestions
Give Recommendations
Possibilities, current levels, etc.
Strengths: cognitive, artistic, etc.
Developmental Needs: social, moral, etc.
Feelings, personality, learning style, etc.
Learning Along the Way
Counseling
Show “Direction”
Organize
PlanStimulate modeling, etc. to support the research
Internet access and share information
Software as a tool to reach learning goals
Overall: Organize own work
Desirable traits
Learn new way to learn
Learn new information
Curious
Initiative
Persistence
Learning is an active process
Motivation is the key to learning
Experience plays a critical role in
learning
Humans have a cognitive
predisposition to . . .
Learning is contextualized
Learning is a social activity
Learning takes time
Focus on . . .
Accepts learner autonomy
Focus on learning rather than teaching
Learner has will
Learner has purpose
Encourages learner inquiry
Encourages learner curiosity
Encourages learner initiative
Learner has existing beliefs
Learner has existing attitudes
Learner has existing knowledge
Select and transform information
Construct hypotheses
Make choices
Related to the rest of their life
Related to their prejudices
Related to their fears
Cooperative learning is supported
Learning involves language
Learning involves being in real-world situations
Encourages dialogue
Between students
Between student and teacher
Reflection
Maturation
Deep understanding
Authentic Performance
ConstructivismArranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Discovery Learning
This is a methodology related to Piaget’s work, but it may not reflect his thinking about adult-child relations.
Jerome BrunerThis chart is an elaborated version of one created by Sinia and retrived from
http://www.uib.no/People/sinia/CSCL/HMM_Constructivism.htm Contact Sinia at [email protected] or the Universitetet I Bergen in Norway.
Jerome Bruner’s Constructivism and Discovery Learning
Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database; Copyright 1994-2004 Greg Kearsley ([email protected]) http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley Permission is granted to use these materials for any educational, scholarly, or non-commercial
purpose.
2. Students’ predisposition toward learning
1. Structuring of information so it can be grasped
4. The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments
Instruction
should address
the following: 3. Sequencing of informationpresented
Learning is an active process wherein the learner constructs new concepts built on prior learning.
The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions while relying on cognitive structures or schemas.
The teacher encourages students to discover. They engage in an active dialogue.
Teacher translates
information into a
format appropriate to
the student’s current
understanding
Curriculum is spiraled so students build on what theyknow.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory or Observational
Learning Theory
Observer’s behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model in a particular environment — direct interaction with the model is not necessary
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT:
Observer’s behavior is affected by the positive
and/or negative consequences the model experiences as a result of
his or her behavior.IDENTIFICATION/
ADMIRATION: Observer’s imitation of
the model is more likely if the model possesses
characteristics the observer finds attractive
or like themselves.
Social learning theory explains human behavior in
terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive,
behavioral, and environmental influences.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Attention Retention Production Motivation
Social/Observational Learning Processes
Verbal ImageryOrganize
Initiate
Monitor
Refine
Consequences
Self-Reward
Incentives
Potential Forms of Reinforcement
Extrinsic Intrinsic Vicarious Self - Reinforcement
Model
Activity
Subject
Characteristic of:
ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Scaffolding -- where the adult adjusts the level of help in
response to the child's level of performance -- is an effective
teaching tool. It produces immediate results and leads to independent problem solving.
ZPD is the distance between the actual developmental level and the level ofpotential development as determined byproblem solving under adult guidance.
Things that can be done with little support
Things that can be done with much support
Things that cannot be done even with support
Things that cannot be done even with support
Things that can be done without help
from others
Things that can be done without help
from others
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive development results from a dialectical process
wherein children learn through problem-solving experiences they share
with adults or “more knowledgeable
others.”
Initially, the adult assumes most of the responsibility for guiding the child’s problem solving. But gradually this responsibility transfers to the child. A difference exists between what the child can do on his own and what the child can do with adult help. Vygotsky calls this the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
Since much of what children learn comes from the culture, and since much of their problem solving is mediated by parents or adults, or more knowledgeable others, they should not be taught alone or in isolation. With the right kind of adult help, children can perform tasks they cannot complete on their own.
LEV VYGOTSKYLEV VYGOTSKY
Vygotsky said that learning leads development.
Piaget said that development leads learning.
A Social-Cognitive Theory of . . . Learning and Development
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005. Some of the information above paraphrases that retrieved from Funderstanding at http://www.funderstanding.com/about_us.cfm
Reinforcement Value refers to the
desirability of these outcomes. Things we want to happen, that we are attracted to,
have a high reinforcement value.
Rotter’s Social Learning Theory Combines Behaviorism and Personality Research
To understand behavior, one must take (a) the individual (life history of learning and experiences) and (b) the environment
(stimuli the person is aware of and responding to) into account.
If you change the way the person thinks, or change the environment he or she is responding to, you change behavior.
Behavior Potential is the likelihood of
engaging in a particular behavior
in a specific situation.
Expectancy is the subjective probability that a given behavior
will lead to a particular outcome,
or reinforcer.
Behavior Potential (BP), Expectancy (E) and Reinforcement Value (RV) can be combined into a predictive formula for behavior: BP = f(E & RV)
Although the psychological situation does not figure directly into Rotter's formula for predicting behavior, he believes it is always important to keep in mind that people interpret the same situation differently.
= f
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Facilitate “authentic” activity. Provide a
context that reflects the way knowledge is used and developed in real-
life. Provide Insight through multiple
perspectives and changing roles for
community members. Support collaborative
construction of knowledge. Provide
support and mentoring. Promote reflection to
build abstractions. Promote articulation to
render competencies explicit.
Situated learning (Greeno, 1989; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989) proposes that inquiries into learning and cognition must take account of social interaction and physical activity. A unifying concept emerging from related research is "communities of practice” -- the idea that learning is constituted through the sharing of purposeful, patterned activity (Lave & Wenger, 1991). This idea stresses "practice" and "community" equally.
Communities of Practice
Social Practice
Meanings
Understandings & Beliefs
Values
Activity
Authentic
Learning Knowledge
Social FrameworkCommunities
of Practice
Communities of Practice Knowledge is situated, thus,
in part, a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and
used (Brown et al., 1989).
Culture
The nature of knowledge is socially embedded (Lave & Wenger, 1991).
Social Framework II
Socially created networks across cultures
Concepts
Re-created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Brown. J.S., Collins, A.. & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, p. 32-
42. Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991) Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sensory Input
SensoryMemory, Store, or Register
Short-term and
Working Memory or
Store
Long-term Memory or Store
Attention
Long-term Memory Schema
Activation
Encoding
Activated information from sensory store and activated
memory schemas is rehearsed, studied, reviewed, used,
interpreted, transformed, etc.
Schema knowledge clusters are being
created, expanded, and interconnected.
Unrehearsed and unused information lost
in 10 to 15 seconds
Some information lost over time depending on
depth and extent of schematic
encoding
Long-term Memory Schema
ActivationIncreasing attention to relevant sensory stimuli
All sensory input is lost in .5 to 3 seconds if not
attended to
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
WorkingMemory
WorkingMemory
Short-term memory and working memory include what you are conscious-of, thinking-
about, or concentrating-on including perceptions and cognitions. It refers to your
capacity to keep a limited amount of information in an active state.
ExternalEvents
ExternalEvents
Long-Term
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
Se
ns
ory
Inp
ut
AttentionAttention
EncodingEncoding
Retrie
val
Retrie
val
Perceived Information
Attended-To Information
Activated Long-Term Memory
Schemas
Information Linked with Long-Term
Memory Schemas and/or Adequately
Rehearsed
Information gets from STM to LTM if it can be meaningfully incorporated into activated schemas or existing knowledge that has been temporarily brought into the STM or “Working Memory” as well.
7± 2 bits7± 2 bits
SensoryMemoryRegister
SensoryMemoryRegister
Short- Term
Memory
Short- Term
Memory
Created by G. Vessels, 2004
Sensory MemoryRegister
GeneralLasts a very brief 1 to 3 secondsHolds information in an unprocessed
stateTakes place without conscious
awarenessIconic MemoryShort-term sensory register for visionApparently holds everything we seeLasts less than one second unfortunately
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Short-Term Memory (new information)
Limited7 ± 2 items and/or “chunks” of items ─
discovered by George Miller and W. Wundt
A chunk is a cluster, unit, or grouping of items
that can be processed as one item. Its discovery is attributed to George Miller.
Lasts 10-20 seconds The duration can be extended through
attention and rehearsal. Other uses and connections
move it into working memory.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Working Memory (active, conscious memory)
Perhaps still limited to 7 ± 2 items and/or “chunks”
of items at any given moment.These items and/or chunks can come from
long-term memory through retrieval or relatively automatic activation of long-term memory schemas, and/or from short-term memory as new information.
Lasts indefinitely as one concentrates and acts upon or transforms the information in some way through simple rehearsal or one or more of many forms of “higher-level” mental processing.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Working Memory (continued)
A system for the temporary maintenance and manipulation of information.
Underlies more complex cognitive tasks:
Learning (encoding)
Retrieval
Comprehension
Reasoning.
Temporary storage of information processed in a range of different cognitive tasks.
Enables independent and diverse types of information to interact.
Thus, a common system that operates across a broad range of tasks and types of information.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Baddey and Hitch’s Model of Working MemoryBaddeley, A.D. & Hitch, G. (1974). Working Memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation,
Volume 8. New York: Academic Press.
Central Executive
Vis
uo-s
patia
l S
ketc
h P
adP
honological S
toreArticulatory loop
A Revised Working Memory Model – Baddeley 2001
Central ExecutiveCentral
Executive
Visuospatial Sketch Pad
Visuospatial Sketch Pad
Phonological Store
Phonological StoreEpisodic
BufferEpisodic
Buffer
Visual Semantics
Visual Semantics
EpisodicLTM
EpisodicLTM
LanguageLanguage
Baddeley, A.D. (2001). Is working memory still working? American Psychologist, 56, p. 851-864.
The Central Executive
• Most complex and least understood component of Working Memory
• “In some ways the Central Executive functions more like an attentional system than a memory store” - Baddeley (1997)
• Model suggests that the Central Executive (CE) coordinates the activity of its two slave systems.
• Other possible functions for the CE include coordinating retrieval strategies, guiding selective attention, temporarily activating long term memory schemas, suppression of habitual responses.
Long-Term Memory
Relatively permanent memory.
Structured cognitively as (1) a network of linked or interconnected nodes that form complex memory schemas and/or (2) levels of meaning and understanding, from shallow to deep, that reflect how the person encountered and has used the information (e.g. active-experiential learning that involved discovery and some form of application
requiring reasoning would presumably place the information at a deep and more permanent , retrievable, and usable level in long-term memory). Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Organizing Info & Encoding
Meaningful Info is Easier to Encode
ChunkingMagical Number 7±2“ciacnnabccbsnbc”
ROYGBIV
HierarchiesBroad Concepts First
Details NextLike Outlined Notes
Vessels reworking of Kevin Richardson’s 1998 Slide
Separate Processing & StorageSeparate Processing & Storage
SemanticFacts/General
Knowledge
EpisodicExperienced
events
ProceduralSkills
Motor/Cognitive
DispositionsClass/OperantConditioning
Explicitknowing you know
Implicitnot knowing you know
Types of Long-TermTypes of Long-TermMemoryMemory
Types of Long-TermTypes of Long-TermMemoryMemory
Vessels re-working of Kevin Richardson’s 1998 slide, which is available through the American Psychological Society.
Remembering: Retrieval CuesRecognition
Identification of itemspreviously learned
RecallRetrieval of information
previously learned
Retrieval Cues - help us to remember
Web of Associations or LTM Schemas “hare”
Vessels re-working of Kevin Richardson’s 1998 slide which is available through the American Psychological Society via J. Krantz.
PrimingActivation of a
connected node
(Implicit)
LTM - semantic network
DOGSHEEPDOG
HOUND
BEAGLE
SNOOPY
LASSIE
COLLIE
ANIMAL
CARTOON DOGS ON TV
DOGS ON TV
HUNTING BREEDS
SHADOW
Moves
Tracks
Is a
Small Size
Friend of
Charlie Brown
Cartoon Book Character
Brown & WhiteDog on TVBook
Character
Brown & White
Is a
InstanceBrown, White,
Black
Instance Instance
Brown, White, Black
Medium SizeIs a
Is aIs a
Four LegsBarksWorks Sheep
Breathes
DomesticatedWild
Working Dogs
Instance
Instance
Instance
REAL DOGS ON TV Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Memory/Concept Schemas
Situations and events
Expectations
Generally accurate rules
of thumb
Recognition and
understanding
Correct PredictionsTop down
processing
Sequences of events
Experts
Memory selection
areinclude
Operate inguide
provide
Are aboutare exploit
areDiffer from
Allow predictions
of neware
include
Can be
Violate our
Can lead to
can
Causes us to
Is not
Studied by
usesIs forDoes not store
Researched by
are
Understood better by
Occur over
stores
has
Make sense within proper framework
Use our own culturally
consistent material
Harris et al.
Background knowledge
Inevitable
MisrememberGrammatical
Structure
Meaning of message
Two approaches
Clusters of
objects
Bottom-up processing
Extended period of time
Cognitive processes
Exact Words
Guided by
requires
includesuses Linked
with Can use Can
help in
Also studied
is
Can mislead
in
Mental models
More memorableEarlier
material
Relevant schema
Schema activation
Verbatim memory
Recall
Incidental learning
Office schema
Attention
e.g.
emphasizesIs shifted
to remember
involves
Has consequences
on
Says people
can control
Developed by
Emphasizes active nature
of
Constructive approach
Pragmatic approach
Murphy and
Shapiro
Abstractions
Schema inconsistent
material
Are an
Interpretation
Bartlett
Categories
Scripts
Generalized knowledge
Heuristics
Errors
Integration
Schema consistent material
Four phases of memory
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Forgetting
Forgetting
ForgettingProactive Interference
Something learned earlier disrupts something learned later
Proactive InterferenceSomething learned earlier disrupts something learned later
Retroactive InterferenceSomething learned later disrupts something learned earlier.
Retroactive InterferenceSomething learned later disrupts something learned earlier.
PastPastPastPast PresentPresentPresentPresent
PastPastPastPastPresentPresentPresentPresent
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Forgetting As Retrieval Failure
Forgetting As Retrieval Failure
Some info may nevermake it to LTM
Encoding Failure
Some info may nevermake it to LTM
Encoding Failure
Some info may notmake it out of LTMInterference
Some info may notmake it out of LTMInterference
Proactive vs RetroactiveInterference
Proactive vs RetroactiveInterference
InterferenceInterference - learning some items may Interfere with learning other items
InterferenceInterference - learning some items may Interfere with learning other items
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Behaviorism InformationProcessing
Constructivism
How is learning
described?
A change in the probability of a
particular behavior occurring in a
particular situation.
A change in knowledge as
stored in memory.
A change in meaning
constructed from experience.
How is learning viewed?
An antecedent, prompts a behavior that is followed by some consequence.
Involves several processes:
attention, working memory, encoding
into long-term memory schemas,
retrieval.
Interplay among students' existing
knowledge, the social context, and the problems to be
solved.
What is the teacher's
role?
To arrange the reinforcement
contingencies and present them to
the students.
To guide and support cognitive
processes that support various
memory functions.
To provide students with a collaborative learning situation,
and to function as a coach and facilitator.
How does the teacher
carry out his or her roll?
▪ State objectives of
the instruction as learner behaviors; • Use cues to guide students to desired
behavior; • Use consequences
to reinforce desired behavior.
▪ Organize new information;
• Link new information to
existing knowledge; • Use techniques to guide and support
students' attention, encoding, and
retrieval.
• Provide students with "good
problems" that stimulate
exploration and discovery;
• Create group learning activities; • Model and guide the knowledge-
construction process.
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Perspective BehavioralInformation Processing Constructivist
Background
Early 20th century B.F. Skinner – his ideas on Operant Conditioning largely contributed this perspective. Developed as a reaction to the study of mental phenomena by psychoanalytic psychologists, gestalt psychologists, and others.
Mid 20th century
George Miller – provided two ideas that are fundamental to this perspective: 1. short-term memory can only hold 5-9 chunks of meaningful information; 2. The human mind functions like a computer – takes in information, processes it, stores and later locates it, and generates responses to it.Developed as a reaction to behaviorism.
Later 20th century
(Although ideas of constructivism have existed prior to the 20th century — Dewey, Piaget, Bruner, and Vygotsky) Represents a collection of theories including - generative learning, discovery learning, and situated learning.Ideas of constructivism come from cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, and anthropology.
Definition
Learning occurs when new behaviors or changes are acquired as the result of an individual’s response to stimuli.
Learning is a change in knowledge stored in long-term memory schemas.
Learning is the process where individuals construct new ideas or concepts based on prior knowledge and/or experience.
Principles
The influence of the external environment contributes to the shaping of the individual's behavior.The environment presents an antecedent that prompts a behavior. Whether the behavior occurs again is dependent on the consequence that follows it.
Governed by internal process rather than by external circumstance (behaviorism).Process of selecting information (Attention), translating information (Encoding), and recalling that information when appropriate (Retrieval).
Individuals construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems, usually in collaboration with others.Learning as a change in meaning constructed from experience.Individual interpretation of experience vs. objective representation (information processing perspective)
Applications for Instruction
1. State objectives and break them down into steps2. Provide hints or cues that guide students to desired behavior.3. Use consequences to reinforce the desired behavior.
1. Organize new information.2. Link new information to existing knowledge.3. Use techniques to guide and support students' Attention, Encoding, and Retrieval process.
1. Pose "good" problems - realistically complex and personally meaningful.2. Create group learning activities.3. Model and guide the knowledge construction process.
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Modeled after chart created byLeilani Carbonell (2004). Instructional development timeline, learning theory. Retrieved from http://www.my-ecoach.com/idtimeline/learningtheory.html Part of the My-eCoach program.
Primary Source: Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl (Eds.). (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning,Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman.
Knowledge Dimension
Cognitive Process Dimension
Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Factual Knowledge
Conceptual Knowledge
Procedural Knowledge
Meta-Cognitive Knowledge
KNOWLEDGE
COMPREHENSION
APPLICATION
ANALYSIS
SYNTHESIS
EVALUATION
Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) and Krathwohl’s Revision (2001)
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005 ©
Parallel Distributed Processing: also referred to as Neural Networking or Connectionism
McClelland, J. L. and Rumelhart, D. E. (1988). Explorations in Parallel Distributed Processing: MIT Press
Components of this “computational” learning/memory theory: (a) processing units, (b) connections -- each unit can be connected to any other unit via a link which has a “weighting” or “strength” (c) the weighting can be either excitatory or inhibitory (d)
activation rules, (e) internal inputs (f) external inputs (g) unit processing output.
Information isn’t input into memory in a step-by-step manner: consolidated first in sensory memory, then short-term, and then long-term memory. Rather, information is distributed to all parts of the networked memory system at once.
Connections
Input Layer Output Layer
Hidden Layers Input Links to neuron
Output links from neuronNeuron
Neural (Memory) Network
Input links to neural
(memory) network
Output links from
neural (memory) network
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Gordon Vessels ©
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Youth use the skills learned
in parts of their lives
Youth use the skills learned
in parts of their lives
Youth Connect the discussion to the larger world
Youth Connect the discussion to the larger world
Youth do before being shown how
Youth relate the experience to the
learning objectives (life
skills and/or subject matter)
Youth relate the experience to the
learning objectives (life
skills and/or subject matter)
Youth describe results of the
experience and their reactions
Youth describe results of the
experience and their reactions
Do
Apply Reflect
1Experience
the activity:Perform it,
do it
2Share
results, reactions, and observations
publicly
5Apply
what was learned to a similar or different situation, practice
3Process
discussing, looking at the experience,
analyzing, reflecting
4Generalize
to connect the experience to real world examples
More Active More Reflective
More Concrete
More Abstract
The Experiential Learning Cycle After John Dewey
and David Kolb
Concrete Experience
Reflective Observation
Abstract GeneralizationActive
Experimentation
Coordinated Action
Joint Action
Shared Meaning
Public Reflection
More Active More Reflective
More Concrete
More Abstract
The Group Team Learning Cycle
Experiential Learning Theory: Rogers, Dewey,
Kolb
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005