© in this web service cambridge university press · 352, 359, 360, 364, 366 american society of...

INDEX

Abel, John Jacob, 349Abel, Othenio, 194, 196–7Abir-Am, Pnina, 338n51, 338n53, 366n49abolitionism, and antivivisectionist

movement, 588abortion, and embryology, 288, 290, 297,

313–14, 315Academie de Medecine (Paris), 355Academie Royale des Sciences (Belgium), 31Academy of Natural Sciences (Philadelphia),

16, 68, 203Achilladelis, Basil, 126n1Ackerknecht, Erwin, 143, 371, 374n22Acot, Pascal, 452n8acquired immune deficiency syndrome

(AIDS), 158, 481Adams, Roger, 134adaptation: and the argument from design,

548–50, 554–5; bacterial, 336–7; in the fossilrecord, 196; Lyell’s principle of, 251, 253–4;and natural selection, 199. See alsoDarwinism; ecology

Adelman, George, 521n41Adolf Study (1945), 359affinity, and Naturphilosophie, 209Agassiz, Alexander, 69, 70, 73, 83, 87–8Agassiz, Louis, 66, 68–9, 73, 86, 178, 187, 194,

200, 202, 214, 252, 272age, of earth, 179–80Agricultural College of Berlin, 237Agricultural Research Council (U.S.), 239agriculture: and academicization of natural

history in nineteenth century, 25; and fieldstations, 87; and genetic research, 447; andmicrobiology, 334–5; and patronage for lifesciences, 97–100, 103–44

agrochemistry, 456

AIDS. See acquired immune deficiencysyndrome

Aikin, Arthur, 118air pollution, 156, 158, 162, 612Airy, George, 48, 398Akeley, Carl E., 71, 74, 632Albert I, Prince (Monaco), 83, 88Aldrovandi, Ulisse, 61Alexander, Annie M., 74Alexandrov, Daniel, 88n29Alison, William Poulteney, 144Alkali Act (Britain 1863), 607alkaloids, and pharmaceutical industry, 127–8Allee, Walter Clyde, 223, 612Allegre, Claude, 395n2Allen, Joel Asaph, 70Allwardt, Alan, 390n12, 392n16Alvarez, Walter, 199amateurs, in science: and botany in nineteenth

century, 225–6; categorization of, 18–21; andconservation movement, 33; contributionsof to science in nineteenth century, 624; andculture of collecting, 21–3; and relationshipbetween religion and science, 552

Ambrose, Stephen E., 80n9Ameghino, Florentino, 201American Academy of Natural Sciences

(Philadelphia), 80n10American Association for the Advancement of

Science, 345American Association of Geologists and

Naturalists, 18, 81American Association of Petroleum Geologists

(AAPG), 122–3, 182American Breeders Association, 99American Cancer Society, 493–4, 498, 501American Journal of Bacteriology, 331

635

www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press978-0-521-57201-9 - The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 6: The Modern Biologicaland Earth SciencesEdited by Peter J. Bowler and John V. PickstoneIndexMore information

http://www.cambridge.org/9780521572019

http://www.cambridge.org


636 Index

American Medical Association (AMA), 589,591, 593

American Men (and Women) of Science, 361–6American Museum of Natural History (New

York), 69–70, 71–2, 74, 75, 195, 202, 204,632

American Physiological Society (APS), 345,352, 359, 360, 364, 366

American Society of Biological Chemists, 98American Society for the Control of Cancer

(ASCC), 491, 492, 493American Society for Microbiology, 340American Society of Naturalists, 26Amundsen, Roald, 55, 56Anaconda Copper Mining Company, 122analogy, and mathematical models, 417–18anatomy: and cell theory, 275–9; comparative,

267–8, 270–4; definition of, 266; future of,284; human, 268–70; tissues and cells,274–5. See also morphology; physiology

Anderson, Warwick, 484Andrus, E. C., 135n41–2aniline dyes, 277–8animal rights movement: and ethics of

experimentation, 586–92, 598–600; andphysiology, 357. See also antivivisectionistmovement

Antarctica, and scientific expeditions, 35, 56Antarctic Treaty of 1959, 58anthrax, 147–8, 326anthropology, and stages of cultural

development, 570–1. See alsopaleoanthropology; physical anthropology

antibiotics: and pharmaceutical industry, 135;and public health, 158. See also penicillin

antivivisectionist movement, 356–8, 586–92.See also animal rights movement

Appel, Toby A., 190, 202, 249n9, 351n13, 352Arbib, M. A., 429Arboleda Aparicio, Luis Carlos, 44n38archaeology, and debate on human nature, 571,

575. See also paleoanthropologyArchives de Zoologie experimentale et generale

(journal), 26Archiv fur Mikrobiologie, 337Argand, Emile, 390Armstrong, David, 152Arnold, John P., 531n22Arrhenius, Svante, 471Aschoff, Ludwig, 376Asiatic Society of Bengal, 46Askonas, Brigitte, 480Association for the Advancement of Medicine

by Research, 587

Association for the Advancement of Science(AAAS), 223

Association of British Science Writers, 631Association of Pathology Informatics, 379astronomy, and geology, 170, 184. See also space

explorationAtomic Energy Commission, 618Atwater, W. O., 348Audubon Society, 29Australia, and voyages of exploration, 46, 47,

49Australian National University, 391Australopithecus, and human evolution, 574Austria: and museums, 64, 69; and scientific

expeditions, 55autopsy, and pathology, 377Aventis Pharma, 140Avery, Oswald, 339, 440

Babbage, Charles, 549Babcock, Ernest, 101Bache, Alexander Dalles, 82, 400Bacon, Francis, 40, 59, 555bacteriological revolution, and microbiology,

323–8bacteriology, 103, 148–9. See also microbiologyBaer, Karl Ernst von, 191, 211, 213, 250, 291–2,

507Bailar, John, III, 486Baillie, Matthew, 371Bain, Alexander, 566Baird, Spencer Fullerton, 66Bakewell, Robert, 118Balbiani, Eduard, 278Baldwin, Hayden, 378n39Baldwin, James Mark, 569Baldwin, Peter, 143Balfour, Francis, 220, 296Balling, Carl, 529Balls, W. L., 100Bang, Ivar C., 377Banks, Joseph, 41, 42, 65, 77, 231Bannister, Robert C., 572n20Barbour, Thomas, 201Barger, A. Clifford, 351n14Barona, Jose Luis, 352–3n17Barrell, Joseph, 404Barrow, John, 47Barth, Heinrich, 38Bartholomew, Michael, 216, 251n10Barton, Ruth, 626Basalla, George, 49, 76Basler I. G. (pharmaceutical company), 140Bassi, Augusto, 325






Index 637

Bates, Henry Walter, 22, 50, 78Bateson, Beatrice, 107n35Bateson, William, 99, 107n35, 222, 259, 262,

435, 439, 447n48, 581bathymetry, 52Baudin, Nicolas, 45Bauer, Axel, 368n2, 374n24Bauer, Ferdinand, 46Baur, Erwin, 446Baxter, Alice, 434n8Bayer (pharmaceutical company), 129Bayle, Gaspard, 372Beadle, George W., 238–9, 339–40, 440–1Beagle (ship) voyages, 49, 77–8, 214, 253Beatty, John, 95n12Beaumont, William, 344, 585Becker, George F., 117Beebe, William, 38Beecher, Charles Emerson, 194Beecher, Henry K., 597, 598Beer, Gavin de, 106behavioral sciences: beginnings of, 505–7; and

concepts of hysteria and holism in earlytwentieth century, 519–21; development ofup to mid-nineteenth century, 507–9;electricity, energy, and nervous system inearly twentieth century, 513–16; andevolution, 516–19; and neuroscience, 521–3;place of in history of science, 504; transitionfrom language to reflex in late nineteenthcentury, 510–13. See also human nature

Behring, Emil von, 130, 468, 473Beijerinck, Martinus Willem, 333–4Belgium, and public health, 144Bell, Charles, 511Belling, John, 449n55Benacerrat, Baruj, 480Ben David, Joseph, 343, 345Benioff, Hugo, 404Bennison, Saul, 351n14Bentham, George, 23, 228Berg, Paul, 527Bergman, Torbern, 409Bergonie, Jean, 490Bergson, Henri, 413, 532Berkeley, Miles, 20Berkner, Lloyd, 408Berlin Agricultural College, 98, 99Berlin Botanical Garden, 233Berlin Physiologische Gesellschaft, 345Bernard, Claude, 6, 25, 231, 299, 342, 346, 347,

348–9, 355, 356, 445, 583–4, 601Bernice P. Bishop Museum (Hawaii), 67Bernstein, Julius, 420

Berzelius, Jons Jacob, 347, 410Besant, Annie, 561Bessel, Friedrich, 397Bessey, Charles E., 98, 229, 610Betta, Emmanuel, 298n30Bianconi, Giovanni Giuseppe, 73Bibel, Debra Jan, 482Bichat, Xavier, 6, 267, 274, 275, 355, 372Bickmore, Albert S., 69Bigelow, Henry, 88Bigo, Mourier, 320biochemistry: and agriculture, 98; and

biotechnology, 533–5; and cancer, 495; andembryology, 308; and microbiology, 335–7

biocoenosis, and ecology, 454–6, 462biodiversity: and botany, 242; and

environmentalism, 614; and museummovement, 75

bioenergetics, and physiology, 348bioethics, 598Biogen (pharmaceutical company), 535, 536biogeography: colonialism and European

naturalists, 77; and paleontology, 200–201;and “scientific travelers,” 50; and zoology,222

biological sciences, and development ofhistory of science, 9–10. See also biology;life sciences

biology: and cancer, 494–8; emergence of asacademic discipline, 23–7; transformation ofnatural history into, 27–9, 32–3; universitiesand history of, 90. See also biologicalsciences; evolution and evolutionarytheory; human nature

biome, 451n1biomechanics, 269biomedicine, and cancer, 491–4biosphere, 465biotechnology: and biochemical engineering,

533–5; and biotechnics in early twentiethcentury, 530–3; and botany, 225; definitionof, 525; early history of, 528–30; andfermentation industries, 335–7; and geneticengineering, 535–8; and molecular biology,526–8; and patenting of microorganisms,524, 536; and relationship between scienceand technology, 525–6

birth control, and public health, 160, 161Bischof, Carl Gustav, 411Blackett, P. M. S., 391Blackman, Frederick Frost, 456Blanckenhorn, Max, 182Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, 211, 288body donation movement, 269






638 Index

Boehringer Ingelheim, 129Bogen, Joseph, 511Bohr, Niels, 426Bonnet, Charles, 508Bonpland, Aime, 44, 453Bookchin, Murray, 616Bopp, Martin, 98n17Bordet, Jules, 470, 471, 478–9Borlaug, Norman, 240Boruttau, Heinrich, 343n2Bostock, John, 377botanical garden(s), 42, 87, 99, 231–3, 242Botanical Garden of Mexico City, 42Botanical Society of the British Isles, 30Botanical Society of London, 21Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg (Indonesia), 233botany: and links between theory and practice

in field and laboratory, 237–42; andmapping initiatives in natural history, 30;and “new botany” in late nineteenthcentury, 233–7; role of in history of lifesciences, 225–7; systematics and plantgeography, 227–31; universities and chairsof, 93, 94. See also botanical gardens

Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, 41Bouguer, Pierre, 398, 399Boulton, Matthew, 549Bourget, Marie Noelle, 46Boussingault, Jean–Baptiste, 410, 456Boveri, Theodor, 426, 430, 434Bowditch, Henry, 344Bowen, Norman, 412, 413Bowie, William, 400, 401Bowler, Peter J., 195, 196, 201, 216, 244n1,

255n15, 256–7, 421n13, 458n20, 569n14,571n18, 575n23, 580n32, 623

Boyce Thompson Institute (New York), 241Boyd, William, 478–9Boyer, Alexis, 372Boyer, Herbert, 527Boys, Charles, 398Brachet, Jean, 309brain, and debate on mind and human nature,

565–8. See also neurochemistry;neurophysiology; neurosciences

Braun-Blanquet, Josias, 454Brazil, and pharmaceutical industry, 138–9Breinl, Ferdinand, 472Breithaupt, August, 410Breithaupt, Johann, 110brewing industry, 335–7, 530Bridgewater Treatises (1833–6), 549Brigham, William Tufts, 67Bright, Richard, 373, 376–7

Britain: and academicization of natural historyin nineteenth century, 25, 30; agricultureand patronage for life sciences, 97, 98,99–100; and animal protection movement,586, 599–600; and bacteriology, 329;colonialism, nationalism, and explorationby, 37, 41, 46–7, 48, 50, 53–4; anddevelopment of history of science, 7, 8; andenvironmentalism, 609; and geologicalsurveys, 112, 113, 118–19, 172–3; and humanexperimentation, 596; and mining schools,110; and national differences in geneticresearch, 448–9; and natural history surveys,81–2; and natural theology, 78–9; andpharmaceutical industry, 135; andprofessionalization of science, 17, 19, 20–1,23; and public health, 144; and regulation ofabortion, 315; and science in service of state,593–4; universities and development of lifesciences, 93, 102–3, 105

British Anatomy Act of 1832, 269British Association for the Advancement of

Science, 18, 345British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 630British Empire Cancer Campaign, 491British Medical Association, 594British Museum, 61, 65, 69, 70, 191British Physiological Society, 349British Society for General Microbiology, 337Britton, Nathaniel Lord, 233Brobeck, J. R., 351n13Broca, Paul, 510, 511, 566Broks, Peter, 627–8Brongniart, Alexandre, 118n32, 172, 187, 229Brooks, Chandler McC., 343n2, 351n13Brooks, William Keith, 86Brosses, Charles de, 40Brown, James H., 452n8Brown, Lesley, 314Brown, Louise, 315Brown, Robert, 65, 227–8, 234, 235Browne, Janet, 78n4, 252n13Bruce, David, 332Brucke, Ernst, 346, 347, 349, 509Bruckner, Eduard, 178Brundin, Lars, 75Brunhes, Bernard, 407Bruni d’Entrecasteaux, Antoine de, 41Bryan, William Jennings, 544, 559Buch, Leopold von, 109, 175Buchner, Edouard, 98, 320Buchner, Hans, 326Buckland, William, 176, 187, 189, 202, 552Bud, Robert, 335, 524n1






Index 639

Budd, William, 325Buffon, Comte de (George-Louis Leclerc), 61,

79, 169, 244–6Bullard, Edward, 405, 407Bulloch, William, 317n1, 479Bullock, William, 70Burchfield, Joe, 180Burdon-Sanderson, John, 344Bureau of Biological Survey, 611Burian, Richard M., 445n39Burill, Thomas J., 335Burkhardt, Richard, 46, 107n35Burkholder, Paul, 136n43Burmeister, Hermann, 67Burnet, Frank Macfarlane, 474, 479, 480Burroughs, Wellcome and Co., 130–1, 136Burrow, J. W., 571n18Burrows, Montrose, 282Busch, Lawrence, 538n38Bush, Vannevar, 38Butler, Joseph, 555Butler, Stella V., 353n18Byrd, Richard E., 55, 56

cabinets of curiosities, 61–2Cagniard de Latour, Charles, 320Cahan, David, 420n9Cain, A. J., 75Cajal, Santiago Ramon y, 281, 513, 514California Academy of Science, 83Cambrian-Silurian controversy, in

paleontology, 188Cambridge University, 93, 94, 96, 99n19, 100,

102–3, 336, 353, 391Cambrosio, Alberto, 484Camp, Charles, 195Campbell, John, 41Campbell, Milton, 131Canada: and development of market-based

agriculture, 25; and local scientific societies,20; and scientific expeditions, 48–9

cancer: as biological problem, 494–8; centersfor treatment of, 492–3; chemotherapy andclinical trials of drugs for, 498–9; clinicalview of in nineteenth century, 487–9; deathrates from in U.S., 486; and pathology, 375,380; present status of research on, 502–3;and public health, 161–2, 491; andradiotherapy, 489–91; risk of andbiomedicalization of everyday life, 499–502;voluntary health organizations andbiomedicine, 491–4

Cancer Chemotherapy National ServiceCenter (CCNSC), 498–9

Candolle, Augustin-Pyramus de, 228, 230, 231,453, 454

Cangiamila, Francesco Emanuele, 288Canguilhem, Georges, 343n2, 348, 349, 371,

505–506n4Cannon, Susan Faye, 44, 77n2, 405n36. See

also Cannon, Walter B.Cannon, Walter B., 349, 357, 518, 589. See also

Cannon, Susan FayeCanterbury Museum (Australia), 67Caplan, Arthur O., 581n34Carlile, Richard, 546Carlsburg Brewery, 335Carlson, Elof A., 432n1Carnegie, Andrew, 74Carnegie Institution (U.S.), 240–1, 303, 412Carpenter, J. R., 451Carpenter, W. B., 554Carpine-Lancre, Jacqueline, 83n18Carrel, Alexis, 282Carson, Rachel, 160, 494, 602, 612, 614–15, 617Carswell, Robert, 373Carteret, Philip, 41Carus, Carl Gustav, 192Castle, William Ernest, 259, 447catastrophism: and geology, 176; and

paleontology, 189, 199Catholic Church, and embryology, 297–8Cattell, James McKeen, 361n43Cavendish, Henry, 398Caventou, Joseph–Bienaime, 128Celera (pharmaceutical company), 526cell, theory and structure of, 275–9, 282–4, 292cellular pathology, 374–5Central Embryological Collection (Hubrecht

Laboratory), 303Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique

(CNRS), 103Cerrai, Paola, 417n4Cerus (pharmaceutical company), 535, 536Cetus (pharmaceutical company), 537Chabry, Laurent, 299Chadwick, Edwin, 144Challenger (ship) expedition, 53–4, 83Chamberlin, T. C., 179Chambers, Robert, 252, 257, 550, 567, 624–5Chapman, Frank M., 31, 70Charcot, Jean-Martin, 519Charles, Daniel, 538n38Chase, Merrill, 474–5, 480chemotherapy, and cancer, 498–9Chernobyl nuclear power accident (1988), 158Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory (CZL),

86–7






640 Index

Child, Charles Manning, 305cholera, 148Chomel, Auguste, 372, 373Church, John A., 110n4Churchill, Frederick, 106, 107n34, 422n16, 425Ciba (pharmaceutical company), 129Cinadar, Bernard, 480Civil War (American), 134Clairaut, Alexis-Claude, 397, 399Claman, Henry, 476Clark, Paul, 98n18Clark, William, 46, 47, 80Clark, William R., 479Clarke, Alexander, 400Clarke, Edwin, 504n1, 512n19class: and cancer as public health issue, 492;

concept of science and definition of geology,111; and professionalization of science innineteenth century, 15–16, 19

classification: and microbiology, 317–20; andsystematics in botany, 227–31. See alsonomenclature; taxonomy

Claude, Albert, 497Claus, Carl, 219Clegg, John, 391Clemens, William, 200Clements, Frederick Edward, 458–9, 610, 612,

620climate, and geology, 179. See also global

warmingclinical pathology, 369, 375–8, 380Clinton, Bill, 600cloning, and biotechnology, 527Cobbe, Frances Power, 561, 586–7, 588Cochrane, Archie, 597Cohen, Sheldon, 482Cohen, Stanley, 527Cohn, Edwin, 594Cohn, Ferdinand, 319, 323Cohnheim, Julius, 375–6Cole, K. S., 420n10Coleman, William, 93n7, 97n14, 354, 435n13Collard, Patrick, 317n1collecting: culture of in late nineteenth

century, 21–3; development of alternativesto, 30–2; and museums, 65; protectionismand reaction against on ethical ground, 29

College of American Pathologists, 378Collins, Wilkie, 357colonialism: agriculture and life sciences,

99–100; and botanical gardens, 232–3; andEuropean model for exploitation of naturalresources, 77; and exploration in eighteenthand nineteenth centuries, 37, 39–42, 48–9,

51; and natural history surveys, 79; andpublic health, 149–50, 154, 155

Columbia School of Mines (New York), 110Columbia University (New York), 195Combe, George, 565, 566Committee on Medical Research (U.S.), 593–4Commoner, Barry, 614Commons, Open Spaces and Footpaths

Preservation Society, 609computers, and mathematical modeling,

429–30. See also Internetcomputer tomography (CT), 522Condamine, Charles de la, 397Congres Scientifique de France, 18Conn, Herbert William, 335Conrad, Joseph, 50Conroy, Mary Schaeffer, 132conservation: and resource management, 608;

and roles of amateurs and professionals innatural history, 33. See alsoenvironmentalism

continental drift, theory of, 181, 183, 391–4. Seealso plate tectonics

contractionism, and plate tectonics, 386, 387,388, 390

Conybeare, William, 187, 189, 552Cook, James, 37, 41, 42, 77, 231Cooke, Wells Woodbridge, 31Cooter, Roger, 508n11, 566Cope, Edward Drinker, 82, 194, 195, 196, 570Copeland, Herbert, 279Cornell University, 99Correns, Carl, 239, 435, 446, 581Corsi, P., 249n9Corvisart, Jean, 372cosmology, 170cost-benefit analysis, and environmentalism,

618Coste, Victor, 85Cotta, Carl Bernhard von, 110Cowles, Henry Chandler, 457–8Cox, Alan, 392Cranefield, Paul F., 343n2Creer, Kenneth, 391Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary, and

extinctions, 199Crick, Francis, 441, 442Crick, R. E., 199Croll, James, 179Crombie, Alistair Cameron, 462n34Crowcroft, Peter, 461n30Cruelty to Animals Act (Britain 1876), 587, 605cryptogams, 235CSI (television program), 378






Index 641

Cuenot, Lucien, 447Cunningham, Andrew, 93n7, 266n1Curie, Marie, 489, 490Curie, Pierre, 489Cuvier, Georges, 6, 45, 46, 63, 118n32, 172, 176,

185, 186–9, 190, 208, 210–11, 245–6, 249,271–2, 290–1

cytogenetics, 225, 449cytology, 267, 277–8, 284

Dale, Henry H., 136Daley, Reginald, 390, 391Dana, James Dwight, 51, 81, 82, 410, 552Daniels, George H., 119n38Darbishire, Leonard, 447Darden, Lindley, 366n49, 436n15Dareste, Camille, 299Darling, Frank Fraser, 614Darrow, Clarence, 544, 559Dart, Raymond, 574Darwin, Charles, 4, 45, 49, 72, 73, 77–8, 82,

85, 191, 192, 195, 214–15, 225, 230, 243, 252–6,268, 273, 294, 413, 421, 433, 455, 516, 553–9,567, 568–9, 574, 625

Darwin, Erasmus, 243, 253, 254, 433Darwin, Francis, 236, 238Darwinism: and approaches to zoology in late

nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,218–21, 222; Darwin’s life and developmentof theory, 252–6; debates on in evolutionarybiology during late nineteenth century,256–9; and direction of evolutionarybiology in early twentieth century, 259–63;and emergence of evolutionary biology asdiscipline, 243; impact of introduction onzoology in nineteenth century, 205, 206,208, 214–18; and influence on paleontology,197–200. See also evolution andevolutionary theory; social Darwinism

Daubenton, Louis-Jean-Marie, 61, 63, 187Daubree, Gabriel-Auguste, 411Daum, Arnold R., 120n40, 124n50Davaine, Casimir, 325Davenport, Charles Benedict, 581Davidson, George, 83Davies, G. J., 174n5Dawkins, Richard, 562Dawson, John William, 67, 73, 552DDT (insecticide), 158, 159Deacon, Margaret, 53n81De Bary, Anton, 234, 237, 333De Beer, Gavin, 224deep ecology, 616Defoe, Daniel, 48

De Geer, Gerard, 178De la Beche, Henry Thomas, 17, 112, 114, 172,

173Delage, Yves, 445Delbruck, Max, 335, 339, 426–7, 441, 530Delesse, Achille, 407Delft Polytechnic, 336Denmark, agriculture and patronage for life

sciences, 97–8Dennett, Daniel, 562Dennis, Michael Aaron, 122n46Depew, Donald J., 244n1Descartes, Rene, 505–6, 563, 605Descent of Man, The (Darwin 1871), 557,

568–9, 574descriptive embryology, 301–4Desmond, Adrian, 18n10, 78n4, 189, 191, 204,

218n39, 249n9, 252–3n13, 561, 625Deutsch, Georg, 521n42Devall, Bill, 616developing countries: and pharmaceutical

industry, 138–9; and tropical medicine, 153–5developmental biology, 286, 310, 311developmental genetics, 309De Vries, Hugo, 236, 239, 258, 435, 581D’Holbach, Paul, 546Diemer, John, 188Dietrich, Michael, 95n12Dietz, Robert, 392, 408n45Di Gregorio, Mario, 189dinosaurs, and museums, 203. See also fossils;

paleontologydioramas, and museums, 73–4diphtheria, and diphtheria antitoxin, 130, 328,

468discovery, and “exploration” in science, 35. See

also explorationdiseases: microbiology and research on

tropical, 331–2; and theories of transmission,324–8. See also cancer; germ theory; specificdiseases

Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 95n12, 101, 260–2Doell, Richard, 392Dohrn, Anton, 85, 216, 219–20, 295Doll, Richard, 500Dollinger, Ignaz, 291Dollo, Louis, 194Doudoroff, Michael, 337Dovaston, J. F. M., 23Drake, Donald, 126n2Draper, John William, 542Drayton, Richard, 232Driesch, Hans, 299–301Drosophila melanogaster. See fruit fly






642 Index

Drouin, Jean-Marc, 452n8drugs. See antibiotics; chemotherapy;

pharmaceutical industrydual arrangement, and museums, 68, 70,

75Dubois, Eugene, 270Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 346, 347, 349, 356,

419, 509, 514Dubos, Rene, 526Dufrenoy, Ours Pierre, 112Dujardin, Felix, 318Dukuchaev, Vasili, 413Dumas, Jean-Baptiste, 410Dunn, L. C., 98n17, 445Durant, John, 518n37Durham, Herbert, 328Dutrochet, Henri, 347, 352Dutton, Clarence, 181, 399–400dyes and dye industry, 128–30, 277–8

earth: age and structure of, 179–80; size, shape,and weight of, 397–402

earth science, and geology, 184, 396Eccles, John C., 351n14Ecoles des Mines (Paris), 109ecology: and concept of “biocoenosis,” 454–6,

462–3; and concept of ecosystem, 451–3,454–6; and concepts of plant succession andorganicism, 457–9; controversies in earlytwentieth century, 459–61; and deep ecology,616; and emergence of biology as academicdiscipline, 28; and environmentalism,609–13; and first qualitative outline ofecological system, 456–7; and globalecology, 464–6; and mathematicalmodeling, 423–5; Odum’s fundamentals of,463–4; and plant communities, 453–4; andpopulation dynamics, 461–2; universitiesand development of, 98; and zoology, 222

economic geology, 121, 181–2ecosystem, 451Eddington, Arthur S., 629, 630Eddy, Mary Baker, 561Edelman, Gerald, 473, 522Edgeworth, Francis Ysidro, 427–8Edwards, Robert, 314E. F. Hutton (stockbroker), 536Egypt, Napoleon’s invasion of, 45Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried, 211, 318Ehrlich, Paul, 470, 471–2, 473, 479Eichler, August, 229Einstein, Albert, 630Eiseley, Loren, 244n1, 516n31Eisen, Sydney, 542–3n2

Eldredge, Niles, 198–9electron microscope, 283, 338electrophysiology, 513–16Elie de Beaumont, Leonce, 109–10, 111–12, 175,

176Ellegard, Alvar, 625Elliot, Paul, 353Elliotson, John, 547Ellis, Emory, 426Elsasser, Walter, 407Elton, Charles, 106, 461, 611embryology: and comparative anatomy, 272–3;

emergence of as discipline, 287–91; andevolution, 215, 294–8; and experimentalsciences in twentieth century, 304–8;experiments and description in latenineteenth century, 298–304; genetics andmolecular biology, 308–12, 439; andhistories of development, 291–4; andhistoriography, 285–7; and reproduction intwentieth century, 312–15; and zoology, 212,214, 220, 221, 222

Emerson, Alfred E., 223Emmerich, Rudolf, 478Emmons, S. F., 117Endangered Species Act of 1973, 614Engel, Michael, 98n18Engler, Adolf, 229, 233Engstrand, Iris, 41Enlightenment: and embryology, 287; and

geology, 168–9; and public health, 144Entomological Society of Canada, 25entomology, 25, 26, 154Entwicklungsmechanik (developmental

mechanics), 298–9, 300f, 301, 305environmentalism: and emergence of

administrative state, 606–9; origins anddevelopment of, 602–4; and politics,619–21; and public health, 143, 149, 160;revolution in late twentieth century, 613–17;roles and authority of science, 617–18; andscience in nineteenth century, 604–6. Seealso air pollution; ecology; global warming

Environmental Protection Agency, 494Eotvos, Roland de, 398–9epidemiology, and public health, 145–6epigenesis, 287–8, 290Ereky, Karl, 531Esau, Katherine, 238Escher, Arnold, 175Esslinger Reisgesellschaft (Germany), 22ethics: of experimentation, 583–601; and

reaction against collecting, 29ethnobotany, 242






Index 643

ethology, 581eugenics movement: and biotechnology, 532,

537; and genetic determinism, 564, 580, 581;and human anatomy, 270; and publichealth, 151–2; and statistical techniques, 422

eurocentrism, and scientific expeditions innineteenth century, 39

Evans, Francis C., 451Everest, George, 81, 399evolution and evolutionary theory: and

anatomy, 270, 272; and behavioral sciences,516–19; and embryology, 215, 294–8; andenvironmentalism, 605; and genetics, 439;and human nature, 568–76; and influenceof Buffon and Linnaeus, 244–6; andLamarck, 246–9; and Lyell, 250–2; andmathematical models, 421–3; Mendel andMendelism in early twentieth century,259–63; and museum movement, 73; andpaleontology, 190–7; and post-Darwinperiod in late nineteenth century, 256–9;recent controversies on, 263–4; and religion,553–9; and von Baer, 250; and zoology,214–21. See also adaptation; Darwinism;natural selection

Ewing, Maurice, 392exhibitions, and popularization of science,

623–4, 632“expanding-earth” theory, 409expedition(s), and history of exploration in

nineteenth century, 38–9experimental embryology, 286, 298–301,

304–308, 310experimentation: ethics of, 583–601; and

physiology, 346–7. See also laboratoriesexploration: beginning of modern period of,

36–9; and “discovery” in science, 35; andEuropean colonialism and imperialism,39–42; future of, 57–9; industry anddevelopment of geology, 120–3; andinternationalism, 52–7, 58; and nationalism,45–52; of space, 34, 56–7, 59; and works ofHumboldt, 43–5. See also discovery;expedition(s)

extinction, and paleontology, 186–8, 199–200

Falkland Islands, 49Farber, Paul, 27Farbwerke Hoechst, 129Farley, John, 118, 321, 434n8Farlow, W. G., 98Farmer, J. B., 100Farr, William, 144Faure-Fremier, Emmanuel, 445

Fechner, Gustav Theodore, 420–1feminism: and embryology, 314–15; and history

of science, 576–9fermentation, Pasteur’s studies of, 320–3, 529Fernbach, August, 335Fernel, Jean, 343Ferrier, David, 512, 566, 567Feruglia, Paolo, 417n4Fichman, Martin, 259n19field clubs, 20Field Museum of Natural History (Chicago),

71field stations, 84–9Figuier, Louis, 627Fildes, Paul, 337Finger, Stanley, 504n1Fisher, Osmond, 399Fisher, Ronald Aylmer, 87, 259–60, 391, 418,

422, 428, 439, 581fisheries, and environmentalism, 608, 615Fitzroy, Robert, 49fixist theories, and plate tectonics, 385, 386,

388, 389, 390–1Flammarion, Camille, 626, 627Fleck, Ludwik, 483Fleming, John, 207Flemming, Walther, 278Flett, John Smith, 114n16Flexner, Abraham, 356Flinders, Matthew, 41, 46Florey, Howard, 135Flourens, J. P. M., 508n12Flower, William Henry, 68Foffmann, Hermann, 30Folin, Otto, 377Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO),

160Forbes, Edward, 17Forbes, Stephen Alfred, 452, 455–6, 610Ford, E. B., 106Forel, Francois-Alphonse, 456–7forensics, 270, 378–9. See also physical

anthropologyforestry, and environmentalism, 607Forssmann, Werner, 591Forster, Georg, 44Forster, Reinhold, 44Fossey, Dian, 576, 577fossils, 22, 573–5. See also dinosaurs;

paleontologyFoster, Michael, 54, 102, 220, 353, 356Foster, W. D., 317n1, 479Foucar, Elliott, 378n37Foucault, Michel, 245, 371, 373, 483






644 Index

France: and academicization of natural historyin nineteenth century, 25; colonialism,nationalism, and exploration by, 41, 45, 47,51; and geological surveys, 112; history ofscience and institutions of early nineteenthcentury, 6; and national traditions ingenetic research, 445, 449; and Paris modelfor museums, 60, 62–6; and pharmaceuticalindustry, 131–2; and popular science, 626–7;and professionalization of science, 19; andpublic health, 153

France, Raoul, 533Frank, Robert, 353, 354Frankel, Henry, 385n1, 389n7–9, 390n10–12,

393n16–17, 394n18Franklin, John, 48, 52Franklin, Rosalind, 577freethought, and religion, 545–7, 558Freiberg Academy (Germany), 109French, Richard D., 357, 587French National Institute for Research in

Agronomy, 239Frend, William, 545Freshwater Biological Association, 611Freud, Sigmund, 519, 570Fritsch, Gustav, 512fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), and genetic

research, 273, 311, 436–7, 447Fuerbringer, Max, 218Fulton, John, 518functional magnetic resonance imaging

(fMRI), 522fundamentalism, and debate on religion and

science, 559, 560–1Fundamentals of Ecology (Odum and Odum

1971), 464

Gaden, Elmer, 534Gadow, Hans, 218Gaia hypothesis, 615–16Galison, Peter, 37Gall, Franz Joseph, 507–8, 565Galtke, Heinrich, 31Galton, Francis, 151, 421, 427–8, 564, 567–8,

579–80, 581Galvani, Luigi, 514Garrels, Robert M., 414gasohol, 534, 535Gaudry, Albert Jean, 73, 193Gause, Georgii Frantsevitch, 461Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 396, 405, 406Gayon, Jean, 104n27, 258n18, 445n39Gazzaniga, Michael, 511Gefter, Malcolm L., 482

Gegenbaur, Carl, 216–17, 218, 219, 221Geigy, Johann Rudolf, 129Geikie, Archibald, 113, 188Geison, Gerald, 319–20, 322, 351n13, 352–3, 355,

483, 590gender, and debate on human nature, 576–9.

See also womenGenentech, 537generality, and mathematical models, 417Genesis and Geology (Gillispie), 550–1genetic engineering, 535–8. See also

biotechnologygenetics: advances in late twentieth century,

440–4; agriculture and patronage for, 99;and botany, 239; and cancer, 501, 502–3; andembryology, 308–12; and gene concept up tomid-twentieth century, 435–40; historicalstudies of research in, 444–50; and humannature, 579–82; and immunology, 477; andmicrobiology, 337–40; and period fromMendel to end of nineteenth century, 433–5;status of before Mendel, 432–3

geobotany, 238geochemistry: and chemical analyses of rocks

and minerals, 409–15; definition andimportance of, 395–6

geodesy, 408Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Etienne, 63, 190, 192,

210, 222, 249, 290, 299, 546Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Isidore, 290geoid, 399–400, 401Geological Society of America, 123Geological Society of London, 111, 119geological survey(s), 16, 81–2, 111–20, 192–4,

202Geological Survey of Great Britain, 112, 113, 551geology: age and structure of earth, 179–81;

emergence of in early nineteenth century,167–71; and evolution, 251–2; and history ofscience, 5; and ice ages, 178–9; andinternational community in twentiethcentury, 182–4; and plate tectonics, 385–94;relation of to industry, 108–25, 181–2; andreligion, 550–3; and stratigraphy, 171–4; andstudy of mountains, 174–8; transformationof into “earth science,” 396. See alsogeochemistry; geological surveys;geophysics; mining industry

geomagnetism, 405–8geophysics: definition and importance of,

395–6; and geological synthesis, 408–9; andgeomagnetism, 405–8; and seismology,402–5; size, shape, and weight of earth,397–402






Index 645

Georgi, Johannes, 388n5geosynclinal theory, of mountain formation,

177Gerard, Ralph, 360Gerlach, Joseph von, 277Germany: and academicization of natural

history in nineteenth century, 24;agriculture and patronage for life sciences,97, 98, 99; and antivivisectionist movement,587–8; and bacteriology, 329; and culture ofcollecting, 22; and development of historyof science, 6–7; and environmentalism, 607;and eugenics movement, 151; and museums,64; and national traditions in geneticresearch, 446, 449; and pharmaceuticalindustry, 129, 131, 134–5, 136, 139–40; andpopular science, 626; andprofessionalization of science, 17, 30; andscience in service of state, 592–3; and SouthSea expedition of 1908–10, 54; universities ofand history of life sciences, 91–4, 96–7, 105

germ-layer specificity, and embryology, 292germ theory, of disease, 147, 148, 323, 326, 328Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und

Artze, 18Gibbons, Michael, 526n8Gilbert, Grove Carl, 117Gilbert, Walter, 535Gillespie, Neal, 19Gillispie, Charles C., 170, 550–1Gingerich, Philip, 199GlaxoSmithKline (pharmaceutical company),

140Glen, William, 200, 393n17, 396n2, 407Glick, Thomas F., 257n16global ecology, 464–6global warming, 162Gmelin, Leopold, 347Godard, Justin, 493Goebel, Karl, 236Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 43, 79, 262Goetzmann, William, 52Goldscheid, Rudolf, 532–3Goldschmidt, Richard, 446Goldschmidt, Victor, 414Golgi, Camillo, 281, 282, 283, 514Golley, Frank Benjamin, 452Golub, Edward S., 479Good, Robert A., 476Goodall, Jane, 576, 577, 632Goode, George Brown, 70, 71Goodman, Jordan, 126n1Goodrich, Edwin S., 222, 224Gorgas, William, 154

Gould, Stephen Jay, 198–9, 246n5, 256, 511n18,562, 570n15, 575n24, 632

Gourret, Jean-Pierre, 278n34government. See politics; state; specific countriesGowans, James, 475–6Grant, Robert E., 191, 210, 214, 253, 547Gratiolet, Pierre, 511gravimetric geodesy, 179, 181gravimetry, and geophysics, 397, 408Gray, Asa, 225, 229–30, 556Gray, John Edward, 65, 68Great Britain. See BritainGreat Exhibition (London), 67Green, Charles, 41Green, J. Reynolds, 98n17Greene, John C., 244n1Greene, Mott T., 111n10, 174n5, 386n2, 387n4Green Revolution, 240, 615Greenwood, Anna, 328n30Gregory, William King, 195, 197Griesemer, James R., 202, 366Grinnell, Joseph, 74Griscom, Ludlow, 29Grisebach, August Heinrich Rudolf, 230, 453Gruber, Max von, 328, 471Guggenheim Exploration Company, 122Gunther, Albert, 70Gutenberg, Beno, 181, 391, 403Guyot, Arnold, 552Gylling, Olof, 74

Haast, Julius, 67Haber, Fritz, 525, 530Haeckel, Ernst, 79, 189, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219,

222, 278, 279, 285, 295–6, 297, 299, 305, 558,570, 626

Haecker, Valentin, 446Haldane, J. B. S., 243, 259, 418, 422, 439, 581,

629Hale, Horatio, 81Hall, G. Stanley, 569Hall, James, 82Hall, Stephen, 536n34Hallam, Anthony, 167n1, 200, 385n1, 387n4,

388n5, 389n9, 390n10–11, 392n14Haller, Albrecht, 344Halley, Edmund, 405Hallier, Hans, 229Hamburger, V., 307fHamburg Institute for Naval and Tropical

Diseases, 331Hamilton, Alice, 610Hannaway, Owen, 119n38Hansen, Emil Christian, 335, 530






646 Index

Haraway, Donna, 204, 576, 577Hardin, Garrett, 562Hardy, Anne, 328n30Harkness, Jon, 594Harland, Sydney, 100Harrington, Anne, 513n24, 520n39–40, 521n42Harris, Sheldon, 595Harrison, Ross, 282, 305Harvard Botanical Museum, 242Harvard School of Mining and Practical

Geology, 110Harvard University, 99, 233Harvey, William, 5Harwood, Jonathan, 102n23, 105n30, 197Hatcher, John Bell, 195Haurowitz, Felix, 472Haury, Rene-Just, 62Hawkins, Benjamin Waterhouse, 68Hawkins, Mike, 572n20Hawkins, Waterhouse, 627Hayden, Ferdinand V., 117Hayes, William, 340Hayford, John, 400–1Hays, Samuel, 603Headrick, Daniel, 52n78Heden, Carl-Goran, 534Hedley, Charles, 201Heezen, Bruce, 392Hegel, Georg, 354, 478Heidelberger, Michael, 480Heim, Albert, 177Heirtzler, James, 393Heismann, Adam, 72Helmholtz, Hermann von, 342, 346, 347,

419–20, 509helminthology, 154Helsinki Declaration (1964), 596Hemming, John, 36n3Henius, Max, 529–30Henle, Jacob, 325Hennig, Willi, 75, 274Henry, Joseph, 66Hensen, Victor, 84Henslow, John, 207Hering, Ewald, 349Herophilus, 280Hertig, Arthur T., 312Hertwig, Richard, 331Hess, Harry, 392, 393, 408n45Heyl, Paul, 398Higby, Gregory J., 139n59Hilgendorf, Franz, 193Hill, Austin Bradford, 500Hippocrates, 143, 145

His, Wilhelm, 296, 301histology, 266–7, 277–8, 279–84histopathology, 488–9historiography, 1, 4, 11; of controversies about

cancer, 501; and embryology, 285–7; andevolutionary theories, 243–4, 248, 253, 256,262; and genetics, 444–50; and the historyof paleontology, 185–6; and immunology,478–85; and physiology in nineteenthcentury as normative model, 342; and roleof universities in history of biology, 91

history of science: and behavioral sciences,504; and controversies in evolutionarytheory, 263–4; factors in emergence anddevelopment of as academic discipline,2–12; and feminist scholarship, 576–9; andimmunology, 478–85; and physiology, 342;and relationship between religion andscience, 542–5; role of botany in, 225–7. Seealso historiography; life sciences; science;specific disciplines

Hitchcock, Edward, 82, 114n19, 552Hitzig, Eduard, 512H. K. Mulford Co., 130, 131Hobby, Gladys L., 135n39Hodge, Charles, 561Hodge, M. J. S., 252n12, 253n14Hodgkin, Alan L., 420Hodgkin, Thomas, 373Hoechst (pharmaceutical company), 136, 140,

537Hoffman, Anthony, 200Hofmann, August Wilhelm von, 128Hofmeister, Wilhelm, 235Hofstadter, Richard, 572n20Hogben, Lancelot, 533, 628, 629holism: and behavioral sciences, 519–21; and

ecology, 460Holmes, Arthur, 180, 390, 391Holmes, Frederic L., 93n7, 97n14, 351n14Holtfreter, Johannes, 306, 307fHooke, Robert, 267Hooker, Joseph Dalton, 49, 50n70, 78, 225,

228, 229, 230, 242Hooker, William Jackson, 232Hopf, Ludwig, 478, 479Hopkins, F. Gowland, 102Hopkins, William, 402Hoppe-Seyler, Felix, 347Hornaday, William Temple, 71Hospers, Jan, 391housing, and public health, 156Hubel, David, 429, 521Hudson, Henry, 36–7






Index 647

Hughes, S. S., 327n27Hughlings Jackson, John, 517Hull, David L., 223n54Hulten, Erik, 30human(s): and ethics of experimentation,

583–601; and evolution, 557, 573–6; andgenetic research, 448, 538. See also humannature

human ecology, 613Human Genome Project, 537–8, 582human nature: continuing controversy on,

563–5; and gender, 576–9; and geneticdeterminism, 579–82; human origins andsocial values in debate on, 573–6; mind andbrain in debate on, 565–8; and models ofmental evolution in psychology and socialsciences, 568–72. See also behavioral sciences

Humboldt, Alexander von, 43–5, 230, 354, 397,405, 452, 453, 606, 618

Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 43, 77, 79, 93, 109,215

Hume, Hamilton, 49Humphrey, John, 479, 480Hungary, and pharmaceutical industry, 137–8Hunt, Thomas Sterry, 411–12Hunter, John, 63, 371Hurd, Thomas, 47Hutchinson, George Evelyn, 414, 425, 461n31,

462, 463, 464, 465Hutton, James, 172, 250Huxley, Aldous, 306, 533Huxley, Andrew F., 420Huxley, Julian, 32, 106, 197, 222, 223, 224, 306,

425, 533, 562, 628, 630Huxley, Thomas Henry, 49, 78, 84, 189, 192–3,

195, 202, 206, 213, 216, 218, 220, 223, 226,353, 357, 516, 558, 567, 573, 578, 608, 625

Hyatt, Alpheus, 86, 194, 196

ice ages, and geology, 178–9ICI (pharmaceutical company), 537idealization, and mathematical models, 418I. G. Farben (pharmaceutical company), 140igneous rocks, 172immigration, and public health in U.S., 153immunology: and cancer, 495–6; consolidation

of in late twentieth century, 474–8;definition of, 467; emergence of asdiscipline, 471–4; and immunity as scientificobject, 468–71; as object for historicalinquiry, 478–85

Imperial Cancer Research Fund (British), 491imperialism, 40, 44–51; and debate on human

evolution, 576; ecological, 452

India, and pharmaceutical industry, 138Individual-based modeling, 430, 431industrial hygiene, 609–10, 611–12, 618industrialism, and professionalization of

science, 16industry: and globalization, 158; relation

between geology and, 108–25; wars anddevelopment of, 133–4. See also brewingindustry; mining industry; nuclear industry;oil industry; pharmaceutical industry

inflammation, and pathology, 375infusoria, and microbiology, 317–20Ingelfinger, Franz, 631Institut d’Egypt (France), 45Institute for Experimental Medicine

(St. Petersburg), 329Institute for Infectious Diseases (Berlin), 329,

330, 331Institut Pasteur (France), 94, 468, 469, 470institutions. See also field stations;

museum(s); universitiesInstituut voor het Vegetatie-Onderzoek van

Nederland, 30integrative modeling, and neurosciences,

428–9Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,

614International Congress of Immunology, 480International Congress of Physiology, 345International Congress of Zoology, 223International Council for the Exploration of

the Seas (ICES), 84, 88International Council of Scientific Unions,

408International Education Board (IEB), 101International Geophysical Year (IGY) of

1957–8, 58, 397, 408, 409International Geosphere-Biosphere Program,

614International Histocompatibility Workshops,

477International Institute of Embryology, 303,

309. See also International Society ofDevelopmental Biologists

internationalism, and scientific exploration,52–7, 58

International Nickel, 122International Physiological Congress, 354International Polar Year (1882–3), 397International Scientific Series, 626International Society of Developmental

Biologists, 309International Union of Biological Sciences,

223






648 Index

Internet, and popular science, 633in vitro fertilization, 314Irving, Edward, 391, 392n14, 407Isacks, Brian, 394Ishii Shiro, 594–5isostasy, 181Italy: and field stations, 85–6; and

pharmaceutical industry, 131–2. See alsoNaples Zoological Station

Ivanovsky, D. I., 241Ivy, Andrew C., 593

Jablonski, David, 200Jackson, Charles T., 110Jackson, Myles, 484Jackson Memorial Laboratory, 499Jacob, Francois, 340, 442–3Jacyna, Stephen, 504n1, 510n17, 512n19Jahn, Ilse, 351n13Janssens, Frans Alfons, 437Japan, and military medical research, 594–5Jardin des Plantes (France), 93, 231, 233Jasanoff, Sheila, 536“Java man,” 573Jeans, James, 629, 630Jefferson, Thomas, 46, 79–80, 186Jeffreys, Harold, 389–90, 391, 396, 403–4Jenner, Edward, 467, 584–5Jensen, Eimar, 530n21Jensen, Orla, 530–1Jerne, Niels, 474, 475, 478, 480, 483Jesty, Benjamin, 584Jesup, Morris Ketchum, 70, 74Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital studies,

597Joerges, Bernard, 526n8Johannsen, Wilhelm, 97, 439John Hopkins University, 26, 94, 303–4,

377Joly, John, 390Jones, David Albert, 298n30Jones, James, 597Jørgensen, Alfred, 529Joseph, George, 359n33Jourdain, F. R. C., 29journal(s): and academicization of natural

history, 26; and immunology, 471Journal of Experimental Medicine, 589Journal of Pathology, 379Journal of Physiology, 26Juday, Chancey, 462, 463Judson, Horace Freeland, 440n22Jussieu, Antoine-Laurent de, 186, 227, 228, 231,

242

Kabat, Elvin, 480Kaiser, David, 366n48Kaiser-Wilhelm Institutes, 94Kant, Immanuel, 211, 351–2, 507Kauffman, S. A., 430n38, 431Kay, Lily E., 338n51, 338n53, 446n41, 538Keating, Peter, 484Keay, John, 81n12Keibel, Franz, 303Kenney, Martin, 536n35Kermack, William Ogilvie, 431Kerwin, E., 93n7Kety, Seymour, 522Kevles, Daniel, 533n27Keynes, John Maynard, 560Kharmov, Alexei, 407Kimmelman, Barbara, 87n28, 97n16, 98n17,

104n28King, Clarence, 117Kingsland, Sharon, 419n6, 423, 452n8Kingsley, Charles, 555Kious, W. Jacqueline, 395n1Kipling, Rudyard, 51Kirby, William, 207Kitasato, Shibasaburo, 130, 468Klaproth, Martin, 409–10Klebs, Edwin, 325–6Kloppenberg, J. R., Jr., 538n38Kluyver, Albert J., 336Knox, Robert, 575Koch, Robert, 104, 147–8, 323, 326–7, 330, 338,

355Koch’s postulates, 326Kofoid, Charles, 85, 87n26Kohler, Robert E., 86n25, 102, 338n51Kohlstedt, Sally Gregory, 203Kohl, David, 253n13Kohler, Robert E., 358n31, 436n15Kolliker, Rudolf Albert von, 279–80, 293fKolthoff, Gustaf, 71Koninklijke Nederlandse Botanische

Vereniging (Germany), 26Kornberg, Arthur, 527Kovalevsky, Alexander, 219Kovalevskii, Vladimir, 193Kraft, Alison, 107n34Krogman, Wilton M., 270Krugman, Saul, 597Kruif, Paul de, 479Kuhn, Alfred, 446Kuhn, Thomas S., 3Kuhne, Wilhelm, 347Kutzing, Friedrich, 320Kwa, Chung Lin, 452n8






Index 649

laboratories: and academicization of naturalhistory in nineteenth century, 24; andgenetic research, 449; and links betweentheory and practice in botany, 237–42. Seealso experimentation

Laboratory Animal Welfare Act (1966), 599LaCoste, Lucien, 402Laennec, Theophile, 372Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de Monet, 6, 61, 63,

186, 190, 210, 231, 243, 246–9, 253, 254, 257,410, 433, 546

Lamarckism, and social policy, 572Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, 392,

393, 394Lancelot, Gael, 95n12Landau, Misia, 627Landsteiner, Karl, 472, 474–5Lange, Friedrich Albert, 219language, and behavioral sciences, 510–11Lankester, Edwin Ray, 85–6, 220–1, 296, 608,

629Lansbury, Coral, 357La Perouse, Jean-Francois de, 41Laplace, Pierre, 348, 406, 546Laporte, Leo F., 197, 201, 389n7Lapworth, Charles, 177, 188Larmor, Joseph, 406Lashley, Karl, 520Lasker, Mary, 493Latour, Bruno, 66, 145, 483Laudan, Rachel, 111n10, 119n34, 385n1, 387n3Laveran, Alphonse, 153, 332Lavoisier, Antoine, 348Lawrence, Susan, 374–5Lawrence, William, 547Laycock, Thomas, 507Lazear, Jesse, 591Leach, William Elford, 65League of Nations, 157Lechevalier, Hubert A., 317n1, 478lectures, and popularization of science, 623–4Leder, Philip, 527Lederberg, Joshua, 340, 535Lee, Philip, 138–9Leeuwenhoek, Antony van, 274, 318legal issues, and pharmaceutical industry, 131–2Le Grand, Homer E., 385n1, 392n14Le Gros Clark, Wilfred E., 265Lehmann, Inge, 404Lehmann, Karl, 347Leidy, Joseph, 194Leischman, W. B., 332Lenoir, Timothy, 351–2, 366n49, 507, 525,

526n7

Leopold, Aldo, 602, 611Le Pichon, Xavier, 394Lerman, Abraham, 414Lerner, Barron H., 378n37Lesley, J. Peter, 116, 121n41, 124n52Leslie, John, 545Lesueur, Charles-Alexandre, 16Leuckart, Karl, 217Levins, Richard, 417Lewin, Benjamin, 444n35Lewis, Meriwether, 46, 47, 80Leybenzon, Leonid, 403Leydig, Franz von, 280liberalism, and debate on religion and science,

560Liebig, Justus von, 87, 145, 320, 347, 410, 456life sciences: and evolution of mathematical

models, 430–1; role of botany in history of,225–7. See also biological sciences; biology

Lightman, Bernard V., 543n2, 625Ligue Contre le Cancer (France), 491, 492, 493Lillie, Frank R., 88limnology, 457Limoges, Camille, 526n8Lindeman, Raymond Laurel, 451, 462–3Lindner, Paul, 531Linnaeus, Carl, 16, 61, 207, 227, 244–6, 271,

278, 318, 604–605Linnean Society of London, 65, 67Lipman, Jacob G., 334Lister, Joseph Jackson, 274, 323, 325, 587Lister Institute (London), 329, 468Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 332Livingstone, David, 561localization, of language, 510–11Locke, John, 605Loeb, Jacques, 103, 301Lombroso, Cesare, 570London Bible Society, 45London School of Hygiene and Tropical

Medicine, 332Lopez, Pinero, 351n14Lotka, Alfred James, 418, 423–4, 461Lotka-Volterra models, 417Lotze, Franz, 182Louis, Pierre, 372, 373Love, Carla, 388n5Lovejoy, Arthur, 169Lovelock, James, 615–16Low, Oscar, 478Lowy, Ilana, 481n32, 484Lubeck tragedy (Germany 1930), 592Ludwig, Karl, 221, 346, 347, 349, 509Luria, Salvador, 441






650 Index

Lustig, Harry, 366n48Lwoff, Andre, 103, 332Lydecker, Mia, 138–9Lyell, Charles, 5, 82, 111n9, 172, 173–4, 176, 189,

215, 250–2, 253, 254, 454–5, 552–3, 554, 557Lynch, William, 52Lysenko, T. D., 240

Maas, Clara, 591Maas, Otto, 300fMabberly, D. J., 234MacArthur, Robert Helmer, 425MacDougal, Daniel Trembly, 610–11Mackenzie, Donald, 422n15MacLean, Paul, 518MacLeay, William S., 208MacLeod, Roy, 626Maclure, William, 16Macoun, John, 16Madsen, Thorvald, 471Maehle, Andreas-Holger, 357Magendie, Francois, 6, 342, 344, 346, 347, 355,

511magmatic theory, in geology, 121Magnello, Eileen, 422n15magnetometry, 408Major, Jack, 452malaria, 153–4, 159, 332Mall, Franklin Paine, 303Mallon, Mary (“Typhoid Mary”), 152, 153MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue)

lymphoma, 380Malthus, Robert, 255, 256Malthus, Thomas, 421, 554, 571Mammal Protection Act of 1972, 614Manchester Literary and Philosophical

Society, 21Mangold, Hilde Proscholdt, 306Mangold, Otto, 307fManning, Thomas G., 82n16Manson, Patrick, 332Manten, A. A., 395n2mapping, and alternatives to collecting, 30–1Margolis, Carolyn J., 80n11Maria, Jose, 351n14Marianas Trench, 58Marie, Pierre, 510Marilaun, Anton Kerner von, 230, 454marine algology, 22Markey, Edward, 600Markham, Clements, 54–5Marks, Harry, 367n1Mars (planet), 34Mars Express (space mission), 34

Marsh, George Perkins, 602, 606Marsh, Othniel Charles, 73, 82, 185, 194–5,

202Marshall, Barry, 591Martin, Henry Newell, 354Marvin, Ursula B., 385n1, 388n5Maskelyne, Nevil, 398Mason, Ronald, 408n45materialism, and controversy on human

nature, 563mathematical ecology, 418mathematical models: and computers, 429–30;

development of in life sciences, 430–1; andecology, 423–5; emergence of as researchstrategy, 416–19; and evolution, 421–3; andmorphology, 425–7; and neurosciences,428–9; and physiology, 419–21; andstatistics, 427–8

Mather, William W., 115Matthei, J. Heinrich, 442n33, 527Matthew, William Diller, 195, 197, 201Matthews, Drummond, 393, 408n45Matuyama, Motonori, 407Maudsley, Henry, 517Maulitz, Russell C., 328n30, 371n12, 372n15,

374n20, 377n35Maull, Nancy, 366n49Maupertuis, Pierre, 397Maury, Matthew, 52May, John, 128Mayr, Ernst, 73, 75, 95n12, 222, 224, 244n1Mazumdar, Pauline, 319, 480, 482McAdams, Rachel, 596McClintock, Barbara, 238–9, 447, 577McClintock, Francis Leonard, 55n91McCoy, Frederick, 67McCulloch, W. S., 428, 429McDougall, Ian, 407McFarland, Joseph, 131McGill University (Canada), 72McIntosh, Robert P., 452McKendrick, Anderson Gray, 431McKenzie, Dan, 394McKeown, Thomas, 151Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, The

(Morgan, Sturtevant, Muller, and Bridges1915), 437–8

Meckel, Johann Friedrich, 290Medawar, Peter, 474, 476, 480media, and popular science, 627, 630, 632. See

also televisionMedical Research Council, 490–1medicine: and botany, 242; and ethics of

experimentation, 583–601; and history of






Index 651

science, 5–6; and impact of embryology onobstetrics and gynecology, 312–15; pathologyand translational, 379–80; preventivemedicine, 152, 153; and self-experimentation,591; tropical medicine, 153–5, 332; anduniversities in U.S., 102–3. See also anatomy;cytology; diseases; histology; immunology;pathology; pharmaceutical industry;physiology; public health; vaccines

Meinesz, Vening, 391Mellanby, Kenneth, 594Melloni, Macedonio, 407Melville, Richard V., 223n53Menard, H. W., 389n9, 392Mendel, Gregor, 87, 225, 422, 433–4,

581Mendeleev, Dmitri, 413Mendelsohn, Andrew, 104, 323–4Mendelsohn, Everett, 343n2Merck, H. E., 128Merck Corp., 537Merriam, Clinton Hart, 31Merrill, George P., 115n20mesmerism, 513metamorphic rocks, 172Metchnikoff, Ilya, 376, 469, 470meteoric theory, and geology, 121Mexico, and scientific expeditions, 51Meynert, Theodor, 512Micale, Mark, 520n39Michener, C. D., 75microbiology: and bacteriological revolution,

323–8; botany, chemistry, and agriculture,33–5; brewing industry and biochemistry,335–7; and classification, 317–20; emergenceof as discipline, 316–17; genetics andmolecular biology, 337–40; andinstitutionalization of bacteriology, 328–31;and mathematical models, 427; andPasteur’s studies of fermentation, 320–3;protozoology and tropical diseases, 331–2;and universities, 98

microcosm, and ecology, 455–6, 460Microorganisms and Fermentation (Jørgensen

1889), 529microscope: and anatomy, 274; and

development of microbiology, 317–18; andgenetics, 434; and histology, 283

Miller, Hugh, 22Miller, Jacques F. A. P., 476Milne-Edwards, Henri, 212, 215mind–body dualism: and behavioral sciences,

505–6; and controversy on human nature,563

mining industry: and geology, 168, 170; andmining schools, 109–11; and occupationalhealth, 156

Mitchell, Graham F., 476Mitchell, Thomas, 49Mitchison, Avrion, 475, 480Mitman, Gregg, 107n35Mivart, St. George, 220, 556mobilist tradition, and plate tectonics, 385,

386–91, 394Mobius, Karl August, 69, 73, 455model organisms, and embryology, 311. See also

Drosophila melanogasterMohl, Hugo von, 234, 235Mohorovicic, Andrija, 181, 404Mohs, Friedrich, 110, 410molecular biology: and biotechnology, 526–8,

535–8; and cancer, 496–7; and developmentof history of science, 10; and microbiology,337–40

Moleschott, Jacob, 347Monod, Jacques, 103, 337, 340, 441, 442–3Monte Carlo simulation methods, 430Moore, James R., 78n4, 253n13, 623Morange, Michel, 440n22Moreno, Francisco, 67Morgagni, Giovanni Battista, 367, 370–1Morgan, Conway Lloyd, 569Morgan, Jason, 394Morgan, Lewis H., 570Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 197, 260, 273, 300f,

308, 436–8, 447Morley, Lawrence, 393, 408n45morphogenesis, 310morphology, 221–2, 224, 425–7. See also

anatomy; physiologyMorrell, Jack, 105, 119n35, 410Morss, John R., 570n15Morton, Samuel George, 567Moscow University, 608Moulin, Anne-Marie, 481–2Moulton, Gary, 80n9mountains, and geological theories of

formation, 116, 174–8, 386, 387, 390Mountfield, David, 55n91Mueller, Johannes, 211, 212, 292, 507Muir, John, 602, 608Muller, Herman J., 261, 438–9Muller, Johannes, 342, 344, 419Muller, Otto Friedrich, 318Murchison, Roderick, 48, 81–2, 113, 172, 173,

185, 187, 188Musee d’Histoire Naturelle (France), 46, 60,

63, 69, 93, 206, 249, 271






652 Index

Musee Oceanographique (Monaco), 83Museo del Prado (Spain), 62Museo Publico de Buenos Aires (Argentina),

67museum(s): and biodiversity, 75; dioramas and

diversity from 1902–90, 73–5; and museummovement of 1860–1901, 67–73; andpaleontology, 201–4; Paris model for, 60,62–6; and popularization of science, 624;scientific importance of, 60; status of ineighteenth century, 61–2

Museum of Comparative Zoology (HarvardUniversity), 83

Museum fur Naturkunde (Germany), 64,69

Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, 65mycology, 98

Naegli von, Carl, 319Naess, Arne, 616Naples Zoological Station, 220, 222, 295Nares, George, 53Nasse, Hermann, 347National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA), 34National Association of Science Writers, 630–1National Cancer Institute, 494, 497, 498National Commission for the Protection of

Human Subjects of Biomedical andBehavioral Research (1974–8), 598

National Geographic Society, 632National Herbarium (Washington D.C.), 233National Institutes of Health, 536, 598nationalism, and exploration in nineteenth

century, 45–52National Museum of Victoria (Australia), 67National Radium Commission, 490National Research Act (1974), 598National Science Foundation (U.S.), 137National Trust (Britain), 609natural history: academicization of in

nineteenth century, 23–7; and developmentof alternatives to collecting, 30–2; andenvironmentalism, 609; and field stations,84–9; and surveys, 78–84; andtransformation into biology, 27–9, 32–3

natural selection: and comparative anatomy,273; Darwin’s theory of, 252–6; and geneticdeterminism, 580–1; and post-Darwinperiod, 257; and zoology, 217. See alsoevolution and evolutionary theory

natural theology: and culture of collecting, 22;and popular science, 625; and relationshipbetween religion and science, 547–50; and

surveys of natural history, 78–9; andzoology, 206–208

Nature Conservancy, 619“nature” vs. “nuture” controversy, 565Naturhistorische Hof-Museum (Austria), 69Naturhistorika Riksmuseum (Sweden), 64Naturphilosophie, 78–9, 208–11, 321Neanderthals, and human evolution, 573–5Needham, John, 287, 306Neisser, Albert, 592Nelson, Gareth, 75neo-catastrophism, 200neo-Darwinism, 199, 258neo-Lamarckism, 186Nernst, Hermann, 420Netherlands, and museums, 64network research, in ornithology, 31–2Neuberg, Carl, 98Neumayer, Georg Balthasar von, 51Neumayer, Melchior, 193neurochemistry, 522–3neurophysiology, 566, 567neuroscience, 428–9, 521–3Neuroscience Research Project (NRP), 522Newberry, John S., 110New Deal, 493Newell, Norman, 198Newman, Francis, 554Newman, John Henry, 561New Systematics, 32Newton, Isaac, 397, 506–7New York Botanical Garden, 233, 242New York State Natural History Survey, 115New Zealand, and voyages of exploration,

50n70Nicholson, Alexander, 424Nicholson, Charles, 50Nieuwenkamp, W., 411n59Nilsson-Ehle, Hermann, 99Nirenberg, Marshall W., 442n33, 527Nobel, Alfred, 54Noguchi, Hideyo, 591nomenclature: and taxonomy, 72–3; and

zoology, 209. See also classificationNordenskjold, Nils, 55Northwest Passage, 55, 56Norway: and pharmaceutical industry, 133, 137;

and scientific expeditions, 55Nossal, Gustav, 474, 480Novartis (pharmaceutical company), 140Nowotny, Helga, 526n8nuclear industry, 615Numbers, Ronald L., 557n36, 585Nuremberg trials, 594, 595






Index 653

Nusslein-Volhard, Christiane, 310Nyhart, Lynn, 107n35, 195–6, 266n1

Obermayer, Friedrich, 472oceanography, 83–4, 87–8, 392Ochs, Kathleen H., 124n54Odum, Eugene P., 451, 464, 614Odum, Howard Tresor, 451, 464Oepen, G., 521n42Office International d’Hygiene Publique

(OIHP), 157Offray de la Mettrie, Julien, 506, 546, 563oil industry, and development of geology,

120–1, 123Oken, Lorenz, 211, 246, 249, 250, 290Olby, Robert C., 104n28, 433n7Oldham, Richard, 403Oldroyd, David R., 112n13, 167n1, 173, 188,

396n2O’Leary, Hazel, 600Oliver, Jack, 394, 396n2Olson, Everett C., 198oncology, 491, 495. See also cancerOn The Origin of Species (Darwin 1859), 193,

252, 254, 256, 273, 433, 455, 555, 556, 625ontogeny, and zoology, 217Onuigbo, W. I. B., 375n25Opdyke, Neil, 391, 393Oreskes, Naomi, 385n1, 390n12, 391, 396n2organicism, and ecology, 458, 459–60Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD), 525Orla-Jensen, Sigurd, 336ornithology, 26, 29, 30–2Orocz, Joel J., 203Orsenigo, Luigi, 536n35Ortmann, Arnold, 201Orton, Edward, 121n41Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 71–2, 74, 195, 196,

202, 613Ospovat, Dov, 191Outram, Dorinda, 37n9, 188–9, 202Overfield, Richard, 98n17Oxford University, 93, 96, 100, 105–6, 353Owen, Edgar Wesley, 120n40Owen, Ray, 474Owen, Richard, 65, 68, 185, 187, 189, 191–3,

202, 204, 212–13, 221, 262, 272, 550, 556, 561,568

Paine, Tom, 548paleoanthropology, 564, 574–5, 577. See also

paleontologypaleobotany, 229

paleoclimatology, 390paleomagnetism, 391, 407–8paleontology: and biogeography, 200–1; and

concept of progress, 188–9; and concepts ofextinction and stratigraphy, 186–8; andcontinental drift, 390; and evolution, 190–7;and modern Darwinism, 197–200; andmuseums, 201–4; and religion, 552; anduniversities, 104. See also fossils;paleoanthropology

Paley, William, 207, 267, 548–9Palladino, Paolo, 425n24Pallas, Peter Simon, 175Pander, Christian, 291–2Pangea, 387pangenesis, Darwin’s hypothesis of, 258Papanicolaou, George, 494Papez, James, 518Pappworth, Maurice, 596Parascandola, John, 136n43, 534n29parasitology, 154Park, Thomas, 223Parke-Davis (pharmaceutical company),

136n43Parkinson, James, 189park management, 614Pasteur, Louis, 6, 104, 148, 278, 320–3, 324–5,

328, 355, 445, 468, 525, 529, 590Pasteur Institute (Paris), 153, 309, 329, 330patenting, of microorganisms, 524, 536pathology: and cellular pathology, 374–5; and

clinical pathology, 375–8, 380; diagnosticversus boundary-maintaining views of,380–1; evolution of as discipline, 367–9; andforensic pathology, 378–9; prehistory of,369–71; and tissue pathology, 371–4; andtranslational medicine, 379–80

patrons and patronage: and genetic research,446–7; and life sciences in universities,95–102

Patterson, Clair, 180Patterson, Colin, 75Pauli, Wolfgang, 472Pauling, Linus, 472, 473Pauly, Philip J., 103, 351n14, 354n21, 510n17Pauly, Robert, 86n25Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich, 342, 515Paykill, Gustaf, 64Peale, Charles Wilson, 62, 64, 65–6, 80n10, 203Pearl, Raymond, 99, 423, 461Pearson, Karl, 259, 422, 427–8, 580, 581Peary, Robert E., 55Pegg, Mark, 630n20Peitzman, Steven, 377






654 Index

Pellegrini, Claudio, 417n4Pelletier, Pierre-Joseph, 128Penck, Albrecht, 178penicillin, 135–6, 533–4. See also antibioticsPenman, Frank, 531n22Perkin, William Henry, 128Permo-Carboniferous ice cap, 387, 389Peron, Francois, 47Perrier, Edmond, 73Perry, Matthew, 52Perry, William, 48Perspectives in Biology and Medicine (journal),

480Pert, Candace, 523pesticides, and public health, 159, 160Petersen, C. G. J., 84petroleum geology, 121, 122–3petrology, 412–13Petrunkevitch, Alexander, 465Pettenkoffer, Max von, 148, 326Pettersson, Otto, 84Pfeffer, Wilhelm, 236Pfeiffer, Richard, 470pharmaceutical industry: alkaloids and

dyestuff industry, 127–30; beginnings ofmodern, 127; and biological medicines,130–1, 242; and biotechnology, 537–8; andcorporate histories, 126n1; and developmentof life sciences, 9; growth of and role ofresearch in, 136–7; mergers andconsolidation of, 139–40; political and legalinfluences on, 131–2; and professionalpharmacy, 132–3; regulation of, 137–9; warand development of, 133–6

Pharmaceutical Research and ManufacturersAssociation, 137n50

Philadelphia Museum, 62Phillips, John, 66, 119n35, 187, 459–60philosophy of science, 2–3. See also

Naturphilosophiephrenology, 508, 564, 565–7, 625phylogeny, and zoology, 217, 218physical anthropology, 269–70, 567. See also

forensicsphysics, relationship of to geology, 178–9physiology: development of in British

universities, 102–3; disappearance of intwentieth century, 358–66; establishment ofin Germany, 96–7; foundational narrativesof, 342–51; late nineteenth- and earlytwentieth-century narratives of, 351–8; andmathematical models, 419–21

phytogeography, 229–30phytosociology, 28, 238

Piaget, Jean, 570Pick, Ernst, 472Pickering, Charles, 81Pickstone, John V., 6n2, 93n7, 105n30, 286n2,

351n14, 352, 356, 369n8Piltdown hoax, 573Pinchot, Gifford, 607, 617Pinell, Patrice, 490Pirquet, Clemens von, 473, 478Pitman, Walter, 393Pitts, W. H., 428Pius IX, Pope, 297Pius XII, Pope, 595placebo effects, of drugs, 520plant ecology, 238, 453–4, 457–9plant geography, 227–31Platen, Hilmar von, 413plate tectonics, 183, 385–94, 407. See also

continental driftPlato, 458Ploucquet, Hermann, 70Podolsky, Scott, 473n14, 482Poivre, Pierre, 606polar regions, and scientific exploration, 47–8,

55–6politics: of atomic testing, 409; and behavioral

sciences, 510, 523; and biotechnology, 536–7;and embryo research, 315; andenvironmentalism, 619–21; and Humboldt’sexpeditions, 44; and pharmaceuticalindustry, 131–2

pollution, and public health, 156. See also airpollution

Pope, Alexander, 506Popper, Karl, 3popular science: “dominant view” of, 622–4,

631–3; expansion of in early twentiethcentury, 627–31; writers and writing of, 623,624–7

population ecology, 430, 461–2Porter, Dorothy, 152Porter, Rodney, 473Porter, Roy, 19, 110, 113Porter, Theodore, 618Portugal, and scientific exploration, 41positional information, and developmental

biology, 310positron emission technology (PET), 522Pouchet, Felix Archimede, 321, 322Powell, Baden, 554Powell, John Wesley, 117, 607, 620Power, Frederick B., 136Pratt, John, 399precision, and mathematical models, 417






Index 655

preformation, and epigenesis, 287–8, 290President’s Commission for the Study of

Ethical Problems in Medicine andBiomedical and Behavioral Research(1980–3), 598

primary health care (PHC), 159Princeton University, 72, 392Principles of Geology (Lyell 1830–3), 552–3Procter, William, Jr., 133Proctor, Robert, 494, 500professionals and professionalization: and

academicization of natural history, 23–7;and conservation movement, 33, 608; andenvironmentalism, 614; and exclusion ofwomen from positions of responsibility inscience, 226; and popular science, 623,624–7, 630–1; and preprofessional era inearly to mid-nineteenth century, 15–18. Seealso amateurs

progress, and Darwin’s theory of evolution,254

protozoa and protozoology, 331–2Provine, W. B., 419n6, 422n15, 423n17Prowazek, Stanislaus von, 332Prull, Cay-Rudiger, 368n2Przhevalsky, Nikolai, 51psychiatry, and behavioral sciences, 517–18psychoanalysis, 518psychology: and debate on human nature,

568–72; and mathematical models, 421public health: and cancer, 161–2, 491–4; and

environmentalism, 607; and nations in earlytwentieth century, 150–7; principles ofmodern, 141; and towns in twentiethcentury, 142–50; and world in late twentiethcentury, 157–62. See also medicine

Pumpelly, Raphael, 110punctuated equilibrium, and Darwinism, 199Purdy, Jean, 314Purkyne, Jan, 346, 354

Quastel, Judah, 336Quetelet, Adolphe-Lambert Jacques, 31, 144,

461quinarianism, and Naturphilosophie, 209

Rabbit, Mary C., 117n29rabies, 468Rabinow, Paul, 537n37race: and debate on human nature, 567, 575–6;

and human experimentation in U.S., 597–8;and language localization, 511

radiation, and human experimentation, 600–1radioactive fallout, and public health, 160

radiometric dating, 179radiotherapy, and cancer, 489–91, 493Radium Institute, 490Rae, Angus, 377n34Raff, Arthur, 408n45Rainger, Ronald, 194, 195, 196, 197, 201, 202,

204Raistrick, Harold, 336Ramsay, Andrew, 113Randall, Brad, 379n42Raspail, Francois-Vincent, 276Rassmussen, Nicolas, 338n53Rather, L. J., 375n25Rationalist Press Association, 625Raup, David, 199, 200Ray, John, 605Read, Harold Herbert, 413Real, Leslie A., 452n8realism, and mathematical models, 417recapitulationism: and debate on human

nature, 569–70; and embryology, 290–1,292, 295, 296

Red Lions Club (Britain), 18Redpath, Peter, 67reductionism, and physiology, 347–8Reed, Lowell J., 461Reed, Walter, 153, 590–1Rees, George Owen, 377Reese, Karl H., 366n48Regnault, Henri Victor, 348Rehbock, Philip, 191Reid, Robert, 479–80Reif, Wolf-Ernst, 198Reingold, Nathan, 18–19Reiset, Jules, 348Reiss, Timothy J., 505n3relative risk, of cancer, 500–1relativism, and approaches to history of

science, 2religion, and science: and clergymen-

naturalists in nineteenth century, 20–1; andcontinued debate in twentieth century,559–62; and evolution, 553–9; andfreethought movement, 545–7, 558; andgeology, 169–71, 550–3; and history ofscience, 542–5; and Library of Congresssubject headings, 541; and natural theology,547–50. See also Catholic Church; naturaltheology

Remak, Robert, 276, 279–80, 292Resch, John E., 355resource management, and conservation

movement, 608Reynolds, O. E., 351n13






656 Index

Richards, Robert J., 216, 217, 246n6, 516n32,569n12, 569n14, 570n15

Richards, Stewart, 358Richmond, Marsha L., 278n34Rickard, T. A., 124n53Riedel, Johann, 128Riehl, Wilhelm Heinrich, 607Riksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie

(Netherlands), 64Ringer, Fritz, 357risk factors, for cancer, 500–2Risse, Guenter, 343n2Rivers, Tom, 595Rivers, W. H. R., 54Roberts, K. D., 266n2Rock, John, 312Rockefeller Foundation, 9, 56, 88, 101, 155, 241,

338, 447Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research

(New York), 329, 330Roemer, Theodor, 100Roentgen, Wilhelm, 489Roger, Jacques, 216Rogers, Henry Darwin, 116, 175Rogers, William, 175Romanes, George John, 569, 570, 605Romanticism, and embryology, 290Romer, Alfred Sherwood, 195Rosa, Daniele, 75Rosenberg, Charles, 87n28, 98n18Rosenkrantz, Barbara Gutmann, 484Ross, John Clark, 48, 50Ross, Ronald, 153, 332Rossiter, Margaret, 97n16, 98n18Roth, Justus Ludwig, 411Rothamsted Experimental Station (England),

241Rothschuh, Karl E., 343, 344n3, 349, 350fRous, Francis Peyton, 496, 589Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 40Roux, Emile, 130, 330, 468Roux, Wilhelm, 262, 298–9Rowland, Henry, 119n38Royal Botanical Gardens (England), 23, 79,

232, 242Royal College of Surgeons, 63–4Royal Commission on Coal (Britain), 113–14Royal Geographical Society, 81Royal Institution (London), 624Royal Ontario Museum (Canada), 74Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to

Animals, 356, 586, 605Royer, Clemence, 556Rozemond, Marleen, 505n3

Rubner, Max, 348Rudwick, Martin J. S., 111n10, 118n32, 173,

176n6, 188, 251n10, 627Runcorn, S. K., 391, 396n2, 407Runge, Friedlieb Ferdinand, 128Rupke, Nicolaas A., 44, 111n10, 191, 193Ruse, Michael, 244n1, 248, 385n1Russell, E. S., 246n6Russia: colonialism and scientific exploration

by, 51; and environmentalism, 608–9; andpharmaceutical industry, 132–3, 134; andspace exploration, 57. See also Soviet Union

Rutgers University, 334Ruthven, Alexander Grant, 74Rutimeyer, Ludwig, 193Rutten, Martin, 407Ryder, Richard, 599Ryle, Gilbert, 505

Sabine, Edward, 48Sachs, Julius, 97, 232, 234, 235–6, 237Sadler, Thomas W., 280n37Sagan, Carl, 632Salmon Acts (Britain 1861 & 1865), 607Salomon-Bayer, Claire, 345n4Samter, Max, 482Sanderson, John Scott Brudon, 325, 353, 358Sandoz (pharmaceutical company), 129–30Sanger, Margaret, 161sanitary science, and public health, 145–6, 148,

149–50Sanofi-Aventis (pharmaceutical company), 537Saporta, Gaston de, 454Sapp, Jan, 106n33Sato, Vicki L., 482Saussure, H. B. de, 175Say, Thomas, 16Scharff, R. F., 201Schaudinn, Fritz, 332Schaxel, Julius, 305Schelling, F. W. J. von, 211Schiff, Mortiz, 586Schiller, Friedrich, 507Schiller, Joseph, 343n2, 347–8Schimper, A. F. W., 230Schindewolf, Otto, 198Schlegel, Hermann, 64, 68, 73Schleiden, Matthias, 235, 275–6, 374Schmidt, Karl P., 223Schmitt, Francis, 522Schneider, William H., 533n27Schonbein, Christian Friedrich, 410Schriefers, Herbert, 98n18Schrodinger, Erwin, 463






Index 657

Schuchert, Charles, 201, 389Schuster, Arthur, 406Schwann, Theodor, 212, 275–6, 278, 320, 374,

419, 487Schwartman, Simon, 526n8Schwarzback, Martin, 388n5science: ethics of in service of state, 560, 592–5;

environmentalism and roles or authority of,617–18; exploration and changes indefinition of “scientific problem,” 37–8;and importance of museums, 60; Linnaeansand “phenomenological” concept of, 207;and objectivity, 564. See also life sciences;history of science; philosophy of science;popular science; religion, and science;specific disciplines

science fiction, 306, 626–7Scientific American (journal), 486Sclater, Philip Lutley, 200Scopes trial (1925), 544, 559Scott, Peter, 526n8Scott, Robert Falcon, 55Scott, William Berryman, 195, 196Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 88, 392,

393seafloor spreading hypothesis, and plate

tectonics, 392–3Sears, Paul, 612Secord, James, 111n9, 112, 113, 173, 188, 644–5secularization, and debate on religion and

science, 560Sederholm, Jakob, 413Sedgwick, Adam, 172, 173, 187, 188, 189, 552sedimentary rocks, 172Segerstrale, Ullica, 581n34seismograph, 402–3seismology, 179, 180–1, 402–5Sela, Michael, 480self-experimentation, and history of medicine,

591Semper, Karl, 219, 461Sepkoski, J. J., 200Serotherapeutic Institute (Vienna), 329serotherapy, 468–9Serres, Michel, 483Serturner, Friedrich Wilhelm, 127Sessions, George, 616Seton, Ernest Thompson, 605sewage systems, and public health, 147Seward, William, 115Shackleton, Ernest, 55Shaler, Nathaniel, 86Shapin, Steven, 508n11, 566Sharpe, R. Bowdler, 70

Sharpey-Schafer, Edward, 349, 353Sheehan, John C., 135n41Sheets-Lyenson, Susan, 203Shelford, Victor Elmer, 459Shelley, Mary, 47–8, 528Sherrington, Charles, 342, 515–16, 567Shimkin, Michael, 595Shinn, Terry, 526n8Siebel, John Ewald, 529Siebold, Karl Theodore von, 319Sierra Club, 608Silent Spring (Carson 1962), 160, 494, 614–15Silliman, Benjamin, 552Silverman, Milton, 138–9Silverstein, Arthur M., 481Simms, Norman, 38n10Simpson, George Gaylord, 95n12, 101, 197–8,

389, 562Sims, J. Marion, 585–6Sinclair, Upton, 530n20Sindling, Christiane, 371Singer, Peter, 599single-cell protein, 534–5Slack, J. M. W., 311fslavery, and human experimentation, 585–6Sloan, Philip R., 253n14Sloane, Hans, 61Sloan Kettering Institute (New York City), 498Slossen, Edwin E., 630Slotten, Hugh R., 400n15, 405n36smallpox, 148, 153, 159, 467, 584–5Smith, Erwin F., 335Smith, George Winston, 134n34Smith, Grafton Elliot, 574Smith, James Edward, 62Smith, James Perrin, 194Smith, John Maynard, 243Smith, Michael L., 83n17Smith, Roger, 504n1, 512n19, 515n28, 565n3Smith, Theobald, 334Smith, William, 118–19, 172, 187Smithsonian Institution, 51, 81Smocovitis, Vassiliki Betty, 102n23smoking, and public health, 158, 161–2Smuts, Jan Christian, 460Sneader, Walter, 136n43Sneath, Peter, 75, 274Snow, C. P., 522, 633Snyder, Solomon, 523social Darwinism, 564, 568, 571–2, 581social relationships, and mathematical models,

418–19social sciences, and debate on human nature,

568–72. See also anthropology; sociology






658 Index

Societe des Observations de l’Homme, 45societies, scientific: and academicization of

natural history in nineteenth century, 26;and amateur scientists in late nineteenthcentury, 19–21; and culture of collecting,22

Society of American Bacteriologists, 331Society for Developmental Biology, 309Society of Economic Geologists, 123Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves,

609Society for the Protection of Birds (Britain),

29Society for Systematic Zoology, 223sociobiology, 582sociology, and concept of culture of risk, 501.

See also social sciencesSoderqvist, Thomas, 483Soemmerring, Samuel Thomas, 288Sokal, Michael M., 361n43Sokal, Robert, 274Solander, Daniel, 41, 62Solotorovsky, Morris, 317n1, 478Somerville, Mary, 44South Africa, and public health, 155Southam, Chester, 597Soviet Union: and ecology, 611; and

oceanographic research, 88; and politics ofreligion and science, 560. See also Russia

space exploration, 34, 56–7, 59. See alsoastronomy

Spain, colonialism and scientific exploration,41–2

Spallanzoni, Lazzaro, 62, 344Spemann, Hans, 306, 307fSpence, Clark C., 110n5, 124n51Spencer, Frank, 573n21Spencer, Herbert, 458, 558, 566, 568, 571, 572,

578Sperry, Roger, 511, 521spontaneous generation, 321–3Springer, Sally, 521n42Spruce, Richard, 22Spurzheim, J. G., 507n10Stadler, L. J., 439–40Stafford, Robert A., 124n52Stahl, Georg Ernst, 528–9Stanchinskii, V. V., 611Stanford University, 337Stanier, Roger, 337Stanley, Steven, 199Stanley, Wendell, 241Star, Susan Leigh, 202, 366, 508n12Starr, Paul, 149

state: environmentalism and emergence ofadministrative, 606–9; ethics of science inservice of, 592–5. See also politics

statistics: and genetic research, 449; andmathematical modeling, 427–8; and publichealth, 144; and synthesis of Darwinism andgenetics, 417

Stead, W. T., 627, 628Stefansson, Vilhjalmur, 55n92Stenhouse, John, 557n36Stephenson, Marjorie, 336–7Steptoe, Patrick, 314Stevenson, Peter, 228Stevenson, Robert Louis, 50Stewart, John A., 385n1Stillwell, Craig R., 476n20Stockholm Conference (1972), 613Stocking, George W., Jr., 571n18Stokes, Adrian, 591Stone, J. R., 431Stopes, Marie, 161Strachey, Lytton, 35Strasburger, Eduard, 236, 278stratigraphy: and geology, 171–4, 551; and

paleontology, 186–8Strick, James, 338n53Strickland, Hugh Edwin, 209Stroud, Elaine C., 139n59Sturt, Charles, 49Sturtevant, Alfred, 437Sue, Eugene, 586Suess, Eduard, 177, 386, 465Sukatchev, V. N., 460Sullivan, Walter, 385n1Sulloway, Frank, 570summer schools, and field stations, 86sunspot activity, 408surgical pathology, 378surveys: on bird migration, 31; biological, 84;

of cancer patients, 500–1; of embryology,285; of exploration, 41–6; geophysical,396–7; of scientific ecology, 451, 454;vegetational, 238. See also exploration;geological survey(s)

Sutton, Walter, 434Swainson, William, 17Swann, John P., 131n20, 135n39, 524n8Swazey, Judith P., 521n41Sweden: and museums, 64, 71; and scientific

expeditions, 55Swedish Museum of Natural History,

71Swetlitz, Marc, 197Swift, Jonathan, 48






Index 659

Switzerland, and pharmaceutical industry,129–30, 140

Sykes, Lynn R., 393syphilis, 591, 597systematics, and botany, 227–31Systematic Zoology (journal), 223

Takamine, Jokichi, 349Taleb, Nassim, 369n9Talmage, David, 475, 480Tansley, Arthur George, 451, 459, 460, 612Tarling, Donald, 407Tatum, Edward, 339–40Tauber, Alfred I., 473n14, 482taxidermy, and museums, 70–1taxonomy: and comparative anatomy, 273–4;

and museum movement, 72–3, 75; andzoology, 223, 224. See also classification;nomenclature

Taylor, Frank, 387Taylor, John, 118Taylor, Norman, 135n40Teall, J. J. H., 113, 114Technocratic Movement, 620technoscience, 526Teitelman, Robert, 536n35teleomechanical tradition, in physiology, 352television, and popularization of science, 378,

632–3. See also mediaTemkin, Owsei, 343n2Temminck, Coenraad Jacob, 64Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 587Termier, Pierre, 177thalidomide, 127, 139Thienemann, August, 460Thilenius, Georg, 54third world. See developing countriesThiselton-Dyer, William, 232, 236Thomas, Nicholas, 42Thompson, Charles Wyville, 83Thompson, D’Arcy Wentworth, 262, 425Thompson, William Robin, 425Thomson, J. Arthur, 628, 629Thoreau, Henry David, 602, 605, 617Thouin, Andre, 62–3Thurmann, Jules, 175Tiedemann, Friedrich, 347Tilling, Robert I., 395n1Tillyard, Robin John, 75tissue fractionation, 283tissue pathology, 371–4tobacco mosaic virus, 241Tobey, Ronald C., 98n17, 105n30, 452n8Toit, Alex du, 389, 390

Tomes, Nancy J., 328n30Tomlinson, J. D. W., 266n2Topley, W. W. C., 478Torrell, Otto, 178Torrens, Hugh, 119n33Tracey, Robert, 194transformism, and evolution, 247travel, and modern era of scientific

exploration, 37–8, 50Treub, Melchior, 233Tribondeau, Louis, 490Trohler, Ulrich, 357Trow, Martin, 95n12, 526n8Tschermak, Erich von, 99, 239, 435tuberculosis, 149, 327, 492Tuchman, Arlene, 93n7Turner, Frank, 543, 544, 626Turner, R. Steven, 93n7, 97n14Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 597–8, 600–1Tuttle, Orville, 413Tweedale, Geoffrey, 120n39Tylor, Edward B., 570Tyndall, John, 558, 567typhoid fever, 148, 152–3, 328typology, in zoology, 211–18

Uhlman, Marian, 126n2ultrastructure, of cell, 282–4Underwood, James, 368n6Unger, Franz, 276uniformitarianism-catastrophism debate, in

geology and paleontology, 176, 189Unio Itineraria, 22United Kingdom. See BritainUN’s Environment Programme (UNEP), 160United States: agriculture and patronage for

life sciences, 97–8, 99; and antiabortionmovement, 315; and antivivisectionmovement, 588–9, 598–9; and bacteriology,329; and biological field stations, 86–7; andcancer death rates, 486; and conservationmovement, 608; and development ofhistory of science, 7, 8, 9; and economicgeology, 120–3; and emergence of biology asacademic discipline, 24–5, 28; and eugenicsmovement, 151; and geological surveys,114–18, 119–20; and humanexperimentation, 596–7; and miningschools, 110; and museums, 69–70; andnational differences in genetic research, 448;nationalism and scientific expeditions, 47,51–2; and natural history surveys, 79–81,82–3; and pharmaceutical industry, 131, 133,134–7, 138; and public health, 153; and






660 Index

United States (cont.)religious fundamentalism, 559; and sciencein service of state, 593–4; and spaceexploration, 57; universities anddevelopment of life sciences in, 93–4, 101,103, 105, 107

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 82–3, 400U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 25,

97, 237, 238, 334U.S. Department of Energy, 600U.S. Exploring Expedition, 80–1U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA),

494U.S. Forest Service, 607, 615U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 117–18U.S. Library of Congress, 541, 543, 544U.S. Office for Scientific Research and

Development (OSRD), 498U.S. Public Health Service, 597universities: and consequences of institutional

location, 102–6; importance of to history ofbiology, 90; life sciences and German ineighteenth century, 91–2; life sciences andGerman in nineteenth century, 92–4; andmuseums, 202; and overview ofdevelopment of life sciences in twentiethcentury, 94–5, 106–7; patrons andpatronage, 95–102; and rise oflaboratory-based disciplines in nineteenthcentury, 24

University of Berlin, 234University of California at Berkeley, 99University College London, 353University of Illinois, 610University of Nebraska, 610University of Newcastle, 391University of Wisconsin, 99University of Wurzburg, 234, 235, 237d’Urville, Dumont, 47

vaccines, 153, 328, 468–9. See also diphtheria;smallpox

Van Helvoort, Ton, 327n27Van Hise, Charles, 117Van Niel, Cornelis, 337Van Slyke, Donald D., 377Vaughan, T. Wayland, 88Vauqueline, Nicholas, 410Vavilov, N. I., 240Venning Meinesz, Felix, 401–2Vereinigten kaiserlich und koniglich

Naturalien-Cabinet (Austria), 64Verhulst, Pierre-Francois, 461Vernadsky, George, 465

Vernadsky, Vladimir, 413–14, 465Verne, Jules, 626, 627Vernon, Keith, 98n18Verreaux, Jules, 70Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und

rzte, 345vertebrates, and archetype, 213Vicq d’Azyr, Felix, 187Victoria and Albert Museum (London), 68Viking space missions, 34Villerme, Louis Rene, 144Vincent, Benedicte, 490Vine, Frederick, 393, 408n45Vines, Sidney, 236Viola, Herman J., 80n11Virchow, Rudolf, 276, 357, 374–5, 487–8, 509,

626Virey, Jean-Jacques, 532viruses, and cancer, 497vitalism: and Naturphilosophen, 321; and

physiology, 347–8Vogel, Shawna, 396n2Vogt, William, 613Voit, Carl, 349Volta, Alessandro, 514Voltaire, 506Volterra, Vito, 424, 461Voyager space missions, 59

Waagen, Wilhelm, 193Wadati, Kiyoo, 404Waddington, C. H., 562Waddington, C. S., 628Wager, Lawrence, 413Wagner, Richard, 587Waksman, Byron, 476Waksman, Selman, 334Waldeyer, Heinrich, 278, 281Waldeyer, Wilhelm, 488Wallace, Alfred Russel, 22, 50, 69–70, 78,

200–1, 206, 215, 258, 516, 532, 557Wallis, Samuel, 41Walsh, Vivien, 126n1Warburg, Otto, 102, 495Ward, H. Marshall, 100, 236–7Ward, Henry Augustus, 71Ward, Lester Frank, 572Warming, Eugenius, 230Warner, John, 355, 374Warts, C. A., 625Washburn, Sherwood, 577Waterhouse, Benjamin, 585Water Pollution Research Board, 611Waterson, A. P., 327n27






Index 661

Watson, Hewett Cottrell, 23, 30Watson, James, 441, 577Watt, James, 549Weber, Bruce H., 244n1Weber, Ernst, 420Weber, Max, 55Weber, Wilhelm, 406Wedekind, Rudolf, 197Wegener, Alfred, 181, 201, 387–91, 402Wein, Wilhelm, 426Weindling, Paul, 102n23, 533n27, 594Weismann, August, 196, 243, 258, 278, 434–5Weiss, Paul A., 359–60, 366, 520Weizmann, Chaim, 335, 530–1Welch, Paul, 463Welch, William H., 377Weldon, W. F. R., 222, 259Wells, Alan, 34Wells, H. G., 357Werner, Abraham Gottlob, 81, 109, 172, 187Wernicke, Carl, 512–13, 520Werskey, Gary, 534n28Wertenbaker, William, 392n15West, G. B., 425Westbroek, Peter, 396n2Wettstein, Fritz von, 446Wheeler, George M., 117Wheeler, W. M., 98n17Whewell, William, 549–50White, Andrew Dickson, 542White, Gilbert, 602, 605, 617White, R. G., 479Whitehead, Alfred North, 506Whitley, Richard, 623n2Whitman, Charles Otis, 85n21, 103Whitney, Josiah D., 110Whitworth, Michael, 630Wiechert, Emil, 402–3Wieschaus, Eric, 310Wiesel, Torsten, 429, 520wildlife management, 611Wilkes, Charles, 51, 80Wilkinson, L., 327n27Wilkes, Charles, 51, 80Willdenow, Karl, 232Willey, Basil, 548Williams, Percy, 93n7Williamson, Harold F., 120n40, 124n50Willis, Bailey, 389Williston, Samuel Wendell, 195Willowbrook studies, 597Wilson, Adrian, 372–3Wilson, Duncan, 95n12Wilson, E. B., 86, 259

Wilson, E. O., 95n12, 562, 581Wilson, G. S., 478Wilson, J. Tuzo, 393, 408n45Winkler, Helmut, 413Winogradsky, Sergei, 333Winsor, Mary P., 202, 203Witherby, Harry Forbes, 31Wohler, Friedrich, 347Wolfe, Elin L., 351n14Wolff, Caspar Friedrich, 288Wollman, Elie, 340women: and antivivisectionist movement,

357–8; inclusion of in clinical studies inU.S., 598; and physiology in U.S., 352;professionalization of science and exclusionof from positions of responsibility, 226; andreaction against collecting on ethicalgrounds, 29; and women’s healthmovement, 596. See also feminism; gender

Wood, Robert Muir, 385n1, 409Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

(Massachusetts), 86, 88, 301Woolwine, D., 93n7Worboys, Michael, 99–100, 323n15, 328n30Worden, Frederic G., 521n41World Data Centres, 409World Health Organisation (WHO), 157–62World Medical Association, 595–8World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago

1893), 71worldview, and concept of geology, 169World War I: and biotechnology, 531; and

pharmaceutical industry, 134–5World War II: and pharmaceutical industry,

135–6; and relationship between science andstate, 560, 592–5

World-Wide Standardized SeismographNetwork, 409

Worster, Donald, 452Wright, A. H., 98n18Wright, Almroth, 470–1Wright, Sewall, 87, 259–60, 261, 418, 422,

439writers and writing, and popular science, 623,

624–7, 630Wundt, Wilhelm, 568Wysession, Michael, 408n46

X Club, 558

yellow fever, 154, 590–1Yersin, Alexandre, 468Yonge, C. M., 85n21Young, G. M., 542






662 Index

Young, Robert M., 255n15, 508n11, 516n32,565n3, 566n6, 571

Yudkin, John, 337Yule, George Udny, 418, 422, 423, 427–8

Zallen, Doris, 104n27, 445n39Zamecnik, Paul, 442Zeller, Suzanne, 48Zeneca (pharmaceutical company), 140Ziegler, Adolf & Friedrich, 303Zloczower, Avraham, 343n2, 345

Zoological Society of London, 65zoology, and evolution, 214–21; fragmentation

of in twentieth century, 206, 221–4; naturalsystem and natural theology, 206–8; andphilosophical naturalists, 208–11; asspecialization, 205; and typology, 211–18;and universities, 93–4

Zuckerman, Harriet, 361n42zymotechnology, 528–30zymotic theory, of disease, 145,

149






© in this web service cambridge university press · 352, 359, 360, 364, 366 american society of...

Documents