web view ... that tongue-stones were fossils in the modern sense of the word

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STENO Nicolaus Steno.JPG http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/steno.html http://www.nielsstensenstichting.nl/nl/wie-was-niels-stensen NIELS STENSEN: It was not until the middle of the 18th century that the concept of "fossil" entered the conceptual framework of science. The work on fossils of the Danish natural historian Niels Stensen (1638-1687), also known as Steno, near the end of the 17th century, and the posthumous publication in 1705 of physicist/biologist Robert Hooke's (1635-1703) convincing demonstration of the organic nature of fossils, were in part the deciding blows in the long evolution toward the modern meaning of fossils. Stensen's 1665 paper,"The Head of a Shark Dissected", which shows the head of a modern (white)shark with its many parallel rows of triangular teeth and two triangular tooth- like "tongue-stones", which were common constituents of certain rock layers in northern Italy. He carefully documented the similarities between the teeth of the shark and the tongue-stones, and showed that the teeth of modern sharks resembled lithified "tongue-stones" so closely that the only rational view was that tongue-stones were the teeth of large ancient sharks that lived when the sediments in which the tongue-stones are found were accumulating at the bottom of the sea - that tongue-stones were fossils in the modern sense of the word. In making this argument, Stensen provided a reasonable explanation of how the teeth of ancient sharks could be incorporated into rocks, and thus resolved the issue of how organic objects come to occur in rocks of the earth's crust. This was a big step forward Steno’s principle of superposition,

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Page 1: Web view    ... that tongue-stones were fossils in the modern sense of the word

STENO

Nicolaus Steno.JPG http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/steno.htmlhttp://www.nielsstensenstichting.nl/nl/wie-was-niels-stensen

NIELS STENSEN:

It was not until the middle of the 18th century that the concept of "fossil" entered the conceptual framework of science. The work on fossils of the Danish natural historian Niels Stensen (1638-1687), also known as Steno, near the end of the 17th century, and the posthumous publication in 1705 of physicist/biologist Robert Hooke's (1635-1703) convincing demonstration of the organic nature of fossils, were in part the deciding blows in the long evolution toward the modern meaning of fossils.

Stensen's 1665 paper,"The Head of a Shark Dissected", which shows the head of a modern (white)shark with its many parallel rows of triangular teeth and two triangular tooth-like "tongue-stones", which were common constituents of certain rock layers in northern Italy.

He carefully documented the similarities between the teeth of the shark and the tongue-stones, and showed that the teeth of modern sharks resembled lithified "tongue-stones" so closely that the only rational view was that tongue-stones were the teeth of large ancient sharks that lived when the sediments in which the tongue-stones are found were accumulating at the bottom of the sea - that tongue-stones were fossils in the modern sense of the word. In making this argument,

Stensen provided a reasonable explanation of how the teeth of ancient sharks could be incorporated into rocks, and thus resolved the issue of how organic objects come to occur in rocks of the earth's crust.

This was a big step forward

Steno’s principle of superposition,

which is the idea that, in any geological strata, the lower layers are older than the upper layers.

Furthermore, it shows fossils in the rocks –

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Steno

was the first person to clearly show that fossils were actually the remnants of long-dead animals.

Steno was not just the father of geology.

He was one of the most amazing thinkers who participated in the Scientific Revolution that took place in the 17th century. He also made lasting contributions to anatomy and physiology, and above all to our understanding of where we come from.

All in the space of about 12 years.

Between 1662 and 1667, in Amsterdam, Leiden, Paris and Florence:

He discovered the duct that takes saliva from the parotid gland to the mouth – this is still called ‘Steno’s duct’.

He made the first scientific dissection of the human brain. He showed how muscles work.

That would be enough for anyone. But Steno’s big breakthroughs came after his 1667 book on muscles (Elementorum Myologiae Specimen) had been approved by the Holy Office (the church censor).

Just before it went to press, Steno added two brief pieces to his book, both of which had the same origin: the dissection of a shark.

In October 1666, French fishermen landed a gigantic great white shark at the port of Livorno. They weighed it (1200 kg), took out its liver, hacked its head off and then rolled the rest into the sea. The head was then brought to Florence for Steno to dissect in front of the Duke Ferdinand’s court.

Steno noticed that the sharks’ teeth looked remarkably like glossopetrae(tongue-stones) which could be found on exposed rocks in the region, and which were thought to be vipers’ tongues. Like a number of previous thinkers, Steno suggested that glossopetrae looked like sharks’ teeth because that is what they were. His dramatic drawing (in fact of another shark) shows the teeth:

George Louis Leclerc de Buffon

http://www.natuurinformatie.nl/nnm.dossiers/natuurdatabase.nl/i004215.html

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lamarck. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck

http://www.natuurinformatie.nl/nnm.dossiers/natuurdatabase.nl/i004213.html

geoffroy-saint-hilaire Chevalier Etienne-geoffroy-saint-hilaire

http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilaire

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/hilaire.html

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/229590/Etienne-Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire

Hugo De Vries http://www.hugodevriesfonds.nl/Pages/HugodeVriesbiografie.htmlhttp://www.wetenschap24.nl/nieuws/artikelen/2009/september/Darwins-brieven.htmlhttp://www.hugodevriesfonds.nl/Pages/HugodeVriesbiografie.html

Species and Varieties, Their Origin by Mutation, by Hugo de Vries. Intracellular Pangenesis, by Hugo de Vries. The Hortus Botanicus Amsterdam: where de Vries used to work.

S J Gould http://skepp.be/artikels/skeptici/over-skeptici/memoriam-stephen-jay-gould

GOULD

Het was niet zijn veldwerk dat hem in wetenschappelijke middens bekend en berucht maakte, maar de theoretische teksten waarin hij bepaalde onderdelen betwistte van de evolutietheorie zoals die zich in de twintigste eeuw ontwikkelde.

Zo publiceerde hij, samen met de paleontoloog Niles Eldredge, in 1972 een artikel waarin ze de stelling naar voren brengen dat evolutie niet traag en gradueel verloopt, maar eerder “sprongsgewijs”.

Nieuwe soorten, aldus Gould en Eldredge, kunnen in een relatief korte tijdspanne ontstaan, waarop een lange periode van “evolutionaire rust” volgt. Deze visie op de vorming van nieuwe soorten staat bekend als “the theory of punctuated equilibrium”.

Er is heel wat debat over ontstaan; volgens vele wetenschappers is de theorie verkeerd, volgens anderen is het wachten op betere fossiele gegevens om de waarde ervan te kunnen inschatten.

Verder had Gould alternatieve visies op de werking van evolutionaire basismechanismen zoals natuurlijke en seksuele selectie, en de vorming van adaptaties.

Binnen de academische wereld is er slechts een minderheid die zijn ideeën hierover volgt. Sommige invloedrijke wetenschappers en filosofen - waaronder Richard Dawkins, John Maynard Smith, Steven Pinker en Daniel Dennett - zijn van mening dat Goulds werk eerder verwarring schept dan helderheid brengt.

In wat wellicht zijn belangrijkste werk zal blijken te zijn, het kort voor zijn dood gepubliceerde The Structure of Evolutionary Theory - een boek van 1433 pagina’s waaraan hij 20 jaar heeft gewerkt - tracht hij zijn critici van antwoord te dienen. Het is momenteel te vroeg om het belang van dit werk in te schatten

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In skeptische kringen werd hij sterk gewaardeerd voor zijn inspanningen om het creationisme te bestrijden. In Europa is het creationisme, wat aanhang en invloed betreft, (voorlopig?) een vrij marginale pseudo-wetenschap, maar in de Verenigde Staten is de toestand bijzonder zorgwekkend. In verschillende staten komt het onderwijs over evolutietheorie sterk in het gedrang.

De evolutietheorie, aldus hedendaagse creationisten, is “slechts een theorie”, en daarom is het “wetenschappelijk fair” om ook het scheppingsverhaal tijdens de les biologie te behandelen als “wetenschappelijk plausibel”.

Gould was een van de weinige evolutiebiologen die intensief het creationisme heeft bestreden in teksten, lezingen, radio- en televisie-interviews, enzovoort. Veel van zijn collega’s doen dit niet, om zeer uiteenlopende redenen. Sommigen denken dat men de creationisten ongewild een podium aanbiedt door met hen in debat te treden of door erover te schrijven en te spreken. Anderen lijken het probleem te onderschatten, en denken dat het wel vanzelf zal weggaan. Nog anderen komen liever niet in lange, frustrerende en zeer tijdrovende discussies terecht die, vanuit strikt wetenschappelijk oogpunt, volkomen onzinnig zijn.

Gould nam in elk geval de impact en kracht van het creationisme ernstig en heeft, goed beseffend dat hij bijzonder populair was bij een lekenpubliek, steeds zijn verantwoordelijkheid terzake opgenomen.

Of zijn centrale standpunt correct is, is evenwel betwistbaar. Hij was van mening dat godsdienst en wetenschap twee totaal van elkaar gescheiden “magisteria” (“leerautoriteiten”) zijn; godsdienst houdt zich bezig met de zoektocht naar “ethische waarden en de spirituele betekenis van ons leven”, en wetenschap gaat over “de empirische structuur van het universum” (geciteerd uit de tekst “Non-Overlapping Magisteria”, Skeptical Inquirer, vol. 23, 4, 1999).

De agnosticus Gould veronderstelde dat wetenschap en godsdienst perfect naast elkaar kunnen bestaan, zolang godsdienst geen empirische of wetenschappelijke uitspraken doet en wetenschap geen morele of ethische. Hij verwierp het creationisme omdat het overduidelijk tot het domein van de godsdienst behoort en tegelijkertijd claimt de wetenschappelijke waarheid in pacht te hebben.

Het hoeft niet te verwonderen dat ook hier Gould onder vuur is komen te liggen.

Lang niet iedereen volgt de stelling dat wetenschap en godsdienst twee verschillende “magisteria” zijn. Zo is het twijfelachtig dat godsdienst een “leerautoriteit” bezit wat waarden en normen betreft, en evenmin kan worden volgehouden dat een “goeie” godsdienst geen empirische uitspraken doet. In elk geval de westerse, monotheïstische godsdiensten hebben een natuur- en mensbeeld dat door het geloof in een god met bepaalde eigenschappen is gekleurd, waardoor sommige standpunten vatbaar worden voor wetenschappelijk onderzoek. Gould citeert bijvoorbeeld met instemming de huidige paus, die in 1996 stelde dat het katholicisme probleemloos de evolutietheorie kan aanvaarden, zolang men maar gelooft dat er een “ontologisch verschil” bestaat tussen de mens en andere levende wezens, aangezien de mens over een ziel beschikt en dieren niet. Gould beschouwt de “ziel” als een geloofsaspect, waarover empirisch niets kan worden gezegd.

Maar dit is wellicht niet wat JohannesPaulus II bedoelde, aangezien hij in datzelfde pauselijk schrijven stelt dat theorieën die veronderstellen dat de menselijke “geest” voortkomt uit de levende materie niet compatibel zijn met “de waarheid over de mens”. Een dergelijk standpunt is uiteraard wetenschappelijk, in de betekenis van empirisch verifieerbaar.

Goulds stelling dat wetenschap en godsdienst twee totaal verschillende “leerdomeinen” zijn kan in theorie misschien kloppen, maar in de praktijk blijken sommige leerstellingen van de huidige godsdiensten roet in het eten te gooien.

Het Noma principe (compromis) van Gould is uitgegroeid tot het grondmanifest van de Accomodationisten en vooral de theistische evolutionisten

Gould was een dialectisch marxist en was daarom onder meer een fel tegenstander van de sociobiologie ( en de latere evolutionaire psychologie ).... zoals bij alle (historische )marxisten ( en zoals bij Jean Jaques Rousseau ) wordt de rol van " nuture " ( althans wat de mens betreft )zwaar overtrokken ....

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The problem, of course, was how they got into rocks on the top of mountains.

Steno was a good Christian ( and a "creationist" avant la lettre )– at this stage he was still a Protestant – and he had a simple answer:

*the flood. Fish, like sharks, would have been stranded on the top of mountains when the waters receded.

*He also pointed out that during earthquakes, huge bits of land could move up or down, and that over time, this might also explain how the remains of marine organisms could be found at high altitudes.

Now Steno didn’t have any idea of deep time – if he thought about how old the world was, I assume he would have agreed with something like Bishop Ussher’s view that it was all in the Bible, and so around 6,000 years old. And he was also wily enough to know that his suggestion could be a problem for the Churh, so he used Galileo’s device of claiming that the view he had outlined was merely one possibility amongst many:

‘While I show that my opinion has the semblance of truth, I do not maintain that holders of contrary views are wrong. The same

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phenomenon can be explained in many ways; indeed Nature in her operations achieves the same end in various ways. Thus it would be imprudent to recognise only one method out of them all as true and condemn all the rest as erroneous.’

In the final part of Elementorum Myologiae Specimen, entitled Historia Dissecti Piscis ex Canum Genere (Study of the dissection of a dogfish) – which is a mere nine pages long – Steno described the dissection of a small female dogfish that gives birth to live young.

Most of this is is pretty unexceptional, and then in the final couple of pages, Steno used an a simple analogy and, in a few lines, made a huge break-through in humanity’s understanding of ‘generation’ – where animals come from, and in particular the role of the female ‘testicles’ (what we would now call ovaries).

First he noted that much of the internal anatomy of this shark was very similar to that of an egg-laying ray that he had previously dissected. Then he went on to muse about the nature of ‘generation’ in oviparous and viviparous animals, before coming to this amazing conclusion:

‘having seen that the testicles of viviparous animals contain eggs and having noticed that their uterus opened into the abdomen like an oviduct, I have no doubt that the testicles of women are analogous to the ovary, whatever the manner the eggs themselves, or the matter that they contain, pass from the testicles to the uterus.’

‘The testicles of women are analogous to the ovary’: in other words, women have eggs. This amazing statement – almost a throwaway comment in a brief section on sharks – was the start of our modern understanding of both human reproduction, and on the essential unity of the animal kingdom.

Over the next couple of years, Steno found ovaries in deer, guinea pigs, badgers, wolves, asses and mules, but he never published anything further on the question.

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Four years later, two of Steno’s old student friends, Jan Swammerdam and Reinier de Graaf, were slugging it out in public over who had been the first to discover that women have eggs – Swammerdam did some neat dissections, de Graaf did some neater experiments.

The Royal Society of London was called in to adjudicate the matter. It took them so long that by the time they issued their verdict, de Graaf was dead, and Swammerdam and Steno had both become obsessed with religion (Swammerdam went all mystic, Steno became a devout Catholic and ended up a bishop; both men abandoned science because of their beliefs).

And the Royal Society rightly gave the credit to Steno – the man who discovered that women have eggs.

Five years later, our understanding of what is going on in ‘generation’ became even more complex when Antoni Leeuwenhoek, an uneducated Dutch draper who had known de Graaf, discovered spermatozoa.

But for reasons that will have to be dealt with at another time, it would not be until 1827 until von Baer actually saw a human egg, and not until the 1850s that it was realised that egg and sperm were complementary halves of the future organism, and that both were necessary for life to arise.

Without Steno’s brilliant insight, we would not have discovered what we know in the same way, or at the same pace.

Matthew Cobb (2007) The Egg & Sperm Race (published in the US as Generation)

Alan Cutler (2003) The Seashell and the Mountaintop

.