The FamilyChapter 12

The Family in a cross-cultural perspective

Section 1

Review We’ve talked about social institution which is a

systems of statuses, roles, values, and norms organized to satisfy one or more of society’s basic needs.o The most universal social institution is the family

• Every society organizes its members into families• However, what constitutes a family varies widely from

culture to culture• Despite this variety, families throughout the world follow

similar organizational patterns and fulfill common features

Family Systems Family is a group of people who are related by

marriage, blood, or adoption and who often live together and share economic resources

What is a typical family?o Nuclear family: consists of one or both parents and their

children – is the family feature most recognizable to Americans

Family Systems During a lifetime, a person often is a member of

two different overlapping nuclear families An individual’s family of orientation is the

nuclear family into which the person is born or adoptedo Individual, their siblings, and parents

When an individual marries, a new nuclear family is formed and is known as a family of procreation consisting of the individual and their spouse and their children

Family Systems In many societies the nuclear family is embedded

in a larger family group Sociologist’s refer to this family unit as the

extended family: consisting of two or more generationso Grandparents, parents, children, aunts, uncles and

cousins may all live in one house or groups of houses or even in different countries

Family Systems Nuclear families and extended families are often part of a

much larger kinship system Kinship: network of people who are related by

marriage, birth, or adoption Kinships can be quite large (some close to 200 possible

relatives) Categories to divide groups

o Primary: individuals closet relatives• Members of an individual’s families of orientation and procreation• 7 possible categories: mother, father, sister, brother, spouse, daughter, son

o Secondary: primary relatives of an individual’s primary relatives• More than 30 additional categories of people • Grandparents, aunts, uncles, nephews, nieces, in-laws

o Tertiary: primary relatives of an individual’s secondary relatives• 150 categories of people added to kinship system• Great-grandparents, grand-grandchildren, great-aunts, great-uncles, and

cousins

Marriage and Kinship Patterns

Exact nature of the family varies from society to society and even within societies

Family organization is determined by how a society or group within society answer 4 questions:1) How many marriage partners may a person have?2) Who will live with whom?3) How will family membership be determined?4) Who will make the decisions in the family?

Marriage and Kinship Patterns

Marriage:o Sociologists use the term to refer NOT to the married

couple but to the set of norms that establishes and characterizes the relationship between married individuals

o Because marriage often marks the beginning of a family, this set of norms influences the ways in which societies answer the questions of family organization

Marriage Partners

No universal norm limits the number of marriage partners an individual may have

In most industrialized nations however, an individual is allowed to be married to only one person at a timeo Marriage of one person to another person is called

monogamy However, in the majority of pre-industrial societies

around the world individuals are permitted to have multiple marriage partnerso Marriage with multiple partners is called polygamy

Marriage Partners Polygamy can take two forms:

1) Polygyny: man is permitted to marry more than one woman at a time

1) Most common form2) Pre-Industrial Society: Large areas of land available for cultivation

– gain more workers the more wives you marry 3) Shows a man’s prestige and economic wealth

2) Polyandry: a woman is permitted to marry more than one man at a time

1) Rarer form2) Primarily found in parts of Asia and generally arise in response to

extreme poverty and a shortage of women3) Ex: Toda of India practiced female infanticide thus there were not

enough women to provide monogamous partners for all men in society.1) Here when a woman married a man, she became a wife to all of his

brothers

Polygamy More common marital system in the majority of

preindustrial societies around the world but most people in polygamous societies take only one spouse

2 reasons:1) Very expensive to have more than one marriage partner

1) Few people can support two or more wives and their children

2) Most societies tend to produce roughly equal numbers of men and women

1) If a substantial number of people took multiple spouses, there simply would not be enough eligible partners to enable everyone to marry

2) Situation would be very disruptive to the functioning of society

Residential Patterns Once married, must decide where to live Rules of residence vary from society to society Patrilocality: patri means father in Latin, locality

means location; married couple expected to live with or near the husband’s parents

Matrilocality: matri means mother; couple exptected to live with or near the wife’s parents

Bilocality: bi means two; allows the newly married couple to choose whether they live near the husband’s or wife’s parents

Neolocality: industrial societies; neo means new; newly married couple is free to set up a residence apart from both sets of parents

Descent Patterns Way kinship patterns are traced Patrilineal descent: trace kinship through the

father’s familyo Common in preindustrial societies in which men produce the

most value resourceso Property passed from father to son

Matrilineal descent: trace kinship through the mother’s familyo Less commono Property is passed from mother to daughter

Bilateral descent: kinship is traced through both parents and property can be inherited on either side of the familyo Most industrial societies practice

Descent Patterns Rules for descent are important for the smooth

operation of society because they establish who is going to inherit property from whom

However, the need to maintain the lines of descent can lead to interesting practiceso Ex:In some patrilineal societies a father can declare one

of his daughters “son” if he does not have male heirs

Authority Patterns 3 possible functions:1) A family may be patriarchy: the father holds

most of the authority1) Vast majority of societies around the world

2) A family may be matriarchy: the mother holds most of the authority

1) Rare

3) A family may be egalitarian: the mother and father share authority

1) many industrialized societies (US) moving towards this but patriarchal authority still the cultural norm for many

The Functions of Family

All families preform similar functions even though the ways these functions are fulfilled may differ from culture to culture.

Among the family’s most important functions are theo Regulation of sexual activityo Reproductiono Socializationo Provision of economic and emotional security

Function of Family: Regulation of Sexual Activity

All societies regulate sexual activities of their members to some degree

At very least, enforce some type of incest taboo: norm forbidding sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives

Incest taboo found universally but the relatives that are included in the taboo vary from society to societyo In US, a person cannot marry his/her parents, siblings,

grandparents, aunts, uncles, nieces, or nephewso However 26 states allow marriage between first cousins

Function of Family: Reproduction

To survive, societies must replace members who die or move away

In every society the family is the approved social unit for the performance of reproduction

Societies establish norms governing childbearing and child rearingo Norms determine who is eligible to marry and bear

children, the number of children considered appropriate, and the rights and responsibilities of parents

Functions of Family: Socialization

Children must be taught the ways of the society into which they were born

Family is the first agent of socialization that most children encounter

As a result, most kids learn about the values and norms of society from the family

Parents, siblings, and other relatives usually serve as the earliest role models for kids

Functions of Family: Economic and Emotional Security

Family acts as the basic economic unit in society In most societies, labor is divided on the basis of gender – some

tasks in the family fall to males while others fall to females Tasks are divided within the family depending on the ages of

the family memberso Through this division of labor, the family ensures that its members are

fed, clothed, and housedo However, not every family meets these needs

As the basic and most intimate primary group in society, the family is expected to guide the individual’s psychological development and to provide him/her with loving and caring environmento Doesn’t always work that way though

In some industrialized societies, many of the traditional functions of family have been taken over by other social institutions such as education system

The American FamilyChapter 12 Section 2

The American Family Traditionally the popular image of the “typical”

American family includes a working father, a stay-at-home mother, and two or three children.

However, American families are now much more diverse.

Since the 1970s the percentage of married women with children and careers has grown.

Courtship and Marriage

Majority of American adults marry at least once during their lifetimes

In 2000 56% of American men and 52% of American women over the age of 15 were married

However marriage rates are declining, particularly among younger Americanso About 28% of Americans over age of 15 have never

been marriedo Between ages 25-34 (the prime years for marriage) the

figure is about 35%

Courtship and Marriage

Why do people marry?o In the US romantic love is often the basis for marriageo People marry because they are emotionally and

physically attracted to one anothero Americans overwhelmingly marry individuals who have

social characteristics similar to their own.• This kind of marriage is homogamy: based on

characteristics such as age, socioeconomic status, religion, and race

Courtship and Marriage

In general, Americans marry individuals who are close to them in age, with the husband slightly older than the wife.

Americans also marry within their own socioeconomic class.o When differences do exist, it is most often the woman

who is of a lower socioeconomic class. In the case of religion: marriage between

individuals from different Protestant denominations are relatively common.o It is much less common for Protestants to marry non-

Protestants. Same is true for people of other faiths.

Courtship and Marriage

Homogamy is even stronger when it comes to raceo Only 2.4% of all marriages are between individuals who are

black and whiteo # of interracial marriages in the US has grown by almost 10

times since the late 1960so Before then, at least a dozen states had laws that made

interracial marriages illegal Although homogamy is still typical in the US an

increasing number of marriages are heterogamous

Courtship and Marriage

Heterogamy: marriage between individuals who have different social characteristicso This increase is a function of changing social conditionso As contact between people of differing social

backgrounds increases, the likelihood of heterogamous marriages also increases

o Contribute: higher college enrollments, more geographical mobility, and increased participation of women in the workforce

Family Disruption Most families experience disruption in one form or

another. Some disruptions are very serious – threatening

or destroying family stability Others are simply a part of the family life cycle

Family Disruption: Family Violence

Family violence is a serious problem among all social classes and racial/ethnic groups

At first thought only a problem of lower classes – this was due to the way stats were collected

1998: 1 million crimes of violence were committed against people by intimate partners – 85% of victims were women

11% of all murders committed in 1998 were the result of intimate-partner violence – 75% victims were women

3.2 million cases of neglect or physical abuse against kids reported 1999

Child abuse resulted in the deaths of almost 1,400 kids in 1999

Family Disruption: Divorce

1 out of every 2 marriages ends in divorce 19.8 million Americans over age of 19 who are divorced US divorce rate is the highest in the world Couple who marry during their teenage years have a

greater likelihood of divorce than couples who marry after the age of 20

Education influences rate of divorceo Couples with college education are less likely to divorce than

couples who have not attended collegeo However, women who have attended graduate school are more

likely to divorce than less-educated women

Family Disruption: Divorce

Divorce varies by race and ethnicity African American women are more likely than white

women to be separated or divorced Hispanic women are slightly less likely than white women

to experience divorce Higher rate of divorce among African American women is

partially explained by the fact that a higher percentage of African American women are young and have low income when they marry

Divorce has major consequences for former partners Economically, divorce has greater effects on women than

on men Women seem to make better emotional adjustments to

divorce

Family Disruption: Divorce

Kids also affected by divorce More than 1 million kids affected by divorce each

year Studies suggest that kids of divorced parents

have more emotional problems and are lower achievers than the kids of parents who have not divorced

40% of these kids are still struggling to adjust 10 years after their parents divorced

Family Disruption: Divorce

Sociologists suggest several reasons for the high divorce rate1) Laws governing the divorce process have become less

complicated and the cost of obtaining a divorce has decreased. Most states now have some form of no-fault divorce law in which neither party has to state a specific reason for seeking divorce

2) Increase in the # of dual-earner families: families in which both husband and wife have jobs. And the growth of day care facilities has decreased the economic dependence of women. It now is financially possible for more women to remove themselves from unhappy marriages.

3) Society in general has become more tolerant of divorce. It no longer carries the same social stigma it did 20 or 30 years ago.

4) Many people expect more of marriage and less ready to accept marital problems. When the problems become overwhelming, people often see divorce as an acceptable alternative to staying in an unsatisfactory marriage.

DiscussDivorce is too easy to obtain…

Go…. Agree or disagree?

Family Disruptions in Later Life

Empty nest stage for parents is being delayed for many families

Death of a spouseo Widowhood creates identity problems, particularly for

women who have defined themselves primarily in terms of being a wife

o Widowed women also face economic problemso Changes increase levels of loneliness

Trends in American Family Life

Over past few decades, the traditional family (father as the sole breadwinner and the mother as the homemaker) has become the exception rather than the rule in the U.S.

Dual earner families, one-parent families, childless couples, and stepfamilies are now common features of American life.

Sociologists are interested in these and other developments like delayed marriage and childbearing and remarriage

Delayed Marriage In 1890 the median age at first marriage in the US was 22 years old for

women and 26 for men By 1960 median age at first marriage dropped to 20.3 years for women

and 22.8 years for men In 2000 the median age at first marriage was 25.1 for women and 26.8

years for men Some sociologists see this tendency toward later marriage as an

indication that being single has once again become an acceptable alternative to being married

Most young people are delaying marriage in order to finish their education and to launch their careerso This trend is especially notable among women

Sociologists also note that the increase in the number of unmarried people may partially be the result of more couples living together outside of marriage – referred to as cohabitationo In 2000 there were more than 3.8 million cohabitating couples in the U.S.o Number is up from 523,000 couples in 1970o Estimated that 25% of unmarried women between 25 and 39 are currently

cohabitating and an additional 25% have cohabited at some point in the pasto Cohabitation now precedes more than half of all first marriages – delaying

marriage

Delayed Childbearing In 1960s the average length between marriage and the

birth of the first child was 15 months By 1970s, the interval increased to 27 months Today it is not at all uncommon for women to have their

first child after the age of 30 Reasons for delaying childbearing are similar to reasons

for delaying marriage – to allow more time to complete education and to establish a career

Some couple who delay having children until their 30’s are now facing a challenging situationo They have young children to raise and have aging parents who

need care and assistanceo Sandwich generation: couple caught between the needs

of their children and those of their parents

Childlessness Increase of married couples who never have children Some wait only to find out they waited too long Infertility Voluntary childlessness: consciously choose

never to have children In 2000, 22% of married women between the ages of

30 and 44 had no children Those who choose to remain childless often have

high levels of education and income – career success is their priority – so is their freedom, financial security, and opportunity to spend time together

Dual-Earner Marriages Increase in # of dual-earner marriages because of the increased #s of married

women entering labor force Married women work for the same basic reason married men work – economic

necessity Few families today can survive or live comfortably as they want on a single

salary With higher education for women they can pursue better paying jobs

o In 1/3 of dual earner marriages the women make more than the husbands Women’s participating in the labor force is influenced by the ages of their

children. In 1998, about 62% of married women with children under the age of 6 were

employed outside the home compared to 77% of married women with children between the ages of 6 and 17

1993 Congress passed the Family and Medical Leave Act to help parents care for their newborn children without having to drop out of the labor force. o Law requires companies with more than 50 workers to give up to 12 weeks of unpaid

leave to parents of newborns. o Law also covers workers who need to take time to arrange for the adoption of a child or to

take care for a sick spouse, child, or parent Some people concerned that increased participation of married women in the

workforce may have negative consequences for the kids. o Research has failed to establish any meaningful effect.

One-Parent Families Increase in one-parent families in US family life One-parent families formed through separation, divorce, death of a

spouse, births to unwed mothers, or adoption by unmarried individuals 25% of families in US with kids under 18 are one parent families Single parenthood effects kids too – studies suggest these kids are 2 to

3 times more likely to experience negative life outcomes (dropout, teen-pregnancy, and arrest rates are all higher for kids of single-parent families)

Women head 8 out of 10 of these one-parent families Single parent families are subject to a special set of stresses and

strains1) Responsibility overload – make all decisions alone and generally alone in

providing care needed2) Task overload – must handle all of the tasks usually divided between two people3) Emotional overload – must cope with emotional needs of their children by

themselves4) Lack of money = major source of stress

1) In 2000, families led by women accounted for more than half of all poor families

Remarriage 75% of people who get divorced eventually remarry Highest divorce and remarriage rates are in the United

States Led to a large increase in the number of stepfamilies (also

called blended families) Becoming part of stepfamily may involve a period of

adjustmento Marital partners take on parenting roles formerly held by biological

parentso Can cause a source of conflict in familieso Studies show that it takes approx 4 years for kids to accept a step-

parent in the same way they accept a biological parento Adjust to new siblings and parent’s affection

About 60% of all marriages eventually end in divorce due to the pressures of family life