© 2013 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. social psychology chapter 12
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© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Social PsychologySocial PsychologySocial PsychologySocial Psychology
Chapter 12Chapter 12
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.2
Attitudes and Social CognitionAttitudes and Social CognitionAttitudes and Social CognitionAttitudes and Social Cognition
• Learning Outcomes– Define persuasion– Explain social cognition
• Social psychology: the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others
• Learning Outcomes– Define persuasion– Explain social cognition
• Social psychology: the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others
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Persuasion: Changing AttitudesPersuasion: Changing AttitudesPersuasion: Changing AttitudesPersuasion: Changing Attitudes
• Attitudes: evaluations of a particular person, behavior, belief, or concept– Attitude change depends on factors:
• Message source• Characteristics of the message• Characteristics of the target
• Attitudes: evaluations of a particular person, behavior, belief, or concept– Attitude change depends on factors:
• Message source• Characteristics of the message• Characteristics of the target
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Persuasion: Changing AttitudesPersuasion: Changing AttitudesPersuasion: Changing AttitudesPersuasion: Changing Attitudes
• Central route processing: message interpretation characterized by thoughtful consideration of the issues and arguments used to persuade (content of the message)
• Peripheral route processing: message interpretation characterized by consideration of the source and related general information rather than of the message itself (how the message is provided)
• Central route processing: message interpretation characterized by thoughtful consideration of the issues and arguments used to persuade (content of the message)
• Peripheral route processing: message interpretation characterized by consideration of the source and related general information rather than of the message itself (how the message is provided)
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Persuasion: Changing AttitudesPersuasion: Changing AttitudesPersuasion: Changing AttitudesPersuasion: Changing Attitudes
• Cognitive dissonance: the conflict that occurs when a person holds two contradictory attitudes or thoughts (cognitions)
• Cognitive dissonance: the conflict that occurs when a person holds two contradictory attitudes or thoughts (cognitions)
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Social CognitionSocial CognitionSocial CognitionSocial Cognition
• Social cognition: the cognitive processes by which people understand and make sense of others and themselves– Schemas: sets of cognitions about people and
social experiences– Impression formation: how we organize
information about another person to form an overall impression of that person
• Central traits: the major traits considered in forming impressions of others
• Social cognition: the cognitive processes by which people understand and make sense of others and themselves– Schemas: sets of cognitions about people and
social experiences– Impression formation: how we organize
information about another person to form an overall impression of that person
• Central traits: the major traits considered in forming impressions of others
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Social CognitionSocial CognitionSocial CognitionSocial Cognition
• Attribution theory: seeks to explain how we decide, on the basis of samples of an individual’s behavior, what the specific causes of that person’s behavior are– Situational causes: perceived causes of behavior
that are based on environmental factors– Dispositional causes: perceived causes of
behavior that are based on internal traits or personality factors
• Attribution theory: seeks to explain how we decide, on the basis of samples of an individual’s behavior, what the specific causes of that person’s behavior are– Situational causes: perceived causes of behavior
that are based on environmental factors– Dispositional causes: perceived causes of
behavior that are based on internal traits or personality factors
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Attribution BiasesAttribution BiasesAttribution BiasesAttribution Biases
• The halo effect: an initial understanding that a person has positive traits is used to infer other uniformly positive characteristics
• Assumed-similarity bias: the tendency to think of people as being similar to oneself, even when meeting them for the first time
• The halo effect: an initial understanding that a person has positive traits is used to infer other uniformly positive characteristics
• Assumed-similarity bias: the tendency to think of people as being similar to oneself, even when meeting them for the first time
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Attribution BiasesAttribution BiasesAttribution BiasesAttribution Biases
• Self-serving bias: tendency to attribute personal success to personal factors (skill, ability, or effort), and to attribute failure to factors outside oneself
• Fundamental attribution error: a tendency to over-attribute others’ behavior to dispositional causes and the corresponding minimization of the importance of situational causes; prevalent in Western cultures
• Self-serving bias: tendency to attribute personal success to personal factors (skill, ability, or effort), and to attribute failure to factors outside oneself
• Fundamental attribution error: a tendency to over-attribute others’ behavior to dispositional causes and the corresponding minimization of the importance of situational causes; prevalent in Western cultures
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Social Influence and GroupsSocial Influence and GroupsSocial Influence and GroupsSocial Influence and Groups
• Learning Outcomes– Define conformity– Explain compliance– Discuss obedience
• Social influence: the process by which the actions of an individual or group affect the behavior of others
• Learning Outcomes– Define conformity– Explain compliance– Discuss obedience
• Social influence: the process by which the actions of an individual or group affect the behavior of others
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ConformityConformityConformityConformity
• Conformity: a change in behavior or attitudes brought about by a desire to follow the beliefs or standards of other people; comes from subtle, sometimes even unspoken, social pressure– Solomon Asch experiments: participants conformed
in about 1/3 of the trials; conformity higher when people must respond publicly, lower when at least one other person dissents from the group
• Conformity: a change in behavior or attitudes brought about by a desire to follow the beliefs or standards of other people; comes from subtle, sometimes even unspoken, social pressure– Solomon Asch experiments: participants conformed
in about 1/3 of the trials; conformity higher when people must respond publicly, lower when at least one other person dissents from the group
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ConformityConformityConformityConformity
• Social roles: the behaviors that are associated with people in a given position– Philip Zimbardo “prison” study: conforming to a
social role can have a powerful consequence on the behavior of anyone
• Social roles: the behaviors that are associated with people in a given position– Philip Zimbardo “prison” study: conforming to a
social role can have a powerful consequence on the behavior of anyone
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ComplianceComplianceComplianceCompliance
• Compliance: behavior that occurs in response to direct social pressure– Foot-in-the-door technique: people are more
likely to agree to a more important request if they have first agreed to a smaller one
– Door-in-the-face technique: making a large request, expecting it to be refused, then following with a smaller one, which is the targeted request
• Compliance: behavior that occurs in response to direct social pressure– Foot-in-the-door technique: people are more
likely to agree to a more important request if they have first agreed to a smaller one
– Door-in-the-face technique: making a large request, expecting it to be refused, then following with a smaller one, which is the targeted request
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ComplianceComplianceComplianceCompliance
– That’s-not-all technique: immediately after an initial offer at an inflated price, you are offered an incentive to clinch the deal
– Not-so-free sample: you feel the need to reciprocate when given a free sample, so you are more likely to buy the product (based on the norm of reciprocity)
• Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology: focuses on work and job-related issues, including worker motivation, satisfaction, safety, and productivity
– That’s-not-all technique: immediately after an initial offer at an inflated price, you are offered an incentive to clinch the deal
– Not-so-free sample: you feel the need to reciprocate when given a free sample, so you are more likely to buy the product (based on the norm of reciprocity)
• Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology: focuses on work and job-related issues, including worker motivation, satisfaction, safety, and productivity
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ObedienceObedienceObedienceObedience
• Obedience: a change in behavior in response to the commands of others (people in power/authority figures)– Stanley Milgram experiments: 65% of participants
eventually used the highest setting on the shock generator (450 volts)
• Participants said they obeyed mostly because they believed the experimenter would be responsible for any potential harm to the learner
• Obedience: a change in behavior in response to the commands of others (people in power/authority figures)– Stanley Milgram experiments: 65% of participants
eventually used the highest setting on the shock generator (450 volts)
• Participants said they obeyed mostly because they believed the experimenter would be responsible for any potential harm to the learner
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Prejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and Discrimination
• Learning Outcomes– Identify the origins of prejudice– Distinguish measuring practices for prejudice and
discrimination– Assess ways to reduce prejudice and
discrimination
• Learning Outcomes– Identify the origins of prejudice– Distinguish measuring practices for prejudice and
discrimination– Assess ways to reduce prejudice and
discrimination
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Prejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and Discrimination
• Stereotype: a set of generalized beliefs and expectations about a particular group and its members– Help in categorizing & organizing information– Can be negative or positive, but all stereotypes
oversimplify the world• Prejudice: a negative (or positive) evaluation
of a particular group and its members (attitudes)
• Stereotype: a set of generalized beliefs and expectations about a particular group and its members– Help in categorizing & organizing information– Can be negative or positive, but all stereotypes
oversimplify the world• Prejudice: a negative (or positive) evaluation
of a particular group and its members (attitudes)
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Prejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and Discrimination
• Discrimination: behavior directed toward individuals on the basis of their membership in a particular group
• Self-fulfilling prophecy: when expectations about a behavior act to increase the likelihood that the behavior will occur
• Discrimination: behavior directed toward individuals on the basis of their membership in a particular group
• Self-fulfilling prophecy: when expectations about a behavior act to increase the likelihood that the behavior will occur
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The Foundations of PrejudiceThe Foundations of PrejudiceThe Foundations of PrejudiceThe Foundations of Prejudice
• Prejudices are not innate; they are learned– Observational learning approaches: the behavior
of parents, other adults, and peers shapes children’s feelings about members of various groups; prejudice is learned through imitation and reward and punishment
– Social identity theory: people tend to be ethnocentric, viewing the world from their own perspective and judging others in terms of their group membership
• Prejudices are not innate; they are learned– Observational learning approaches: the behavior
of parents, other adults, and peers shapes children’s feelings about members of various groups; prejudice is learned through imitation and reward and punishment
– Social identity theory: people tend to be ethnocentric, viewing the world from their own perspective and judging others in terms of their group membership
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The Implicit Personality TestThe Implicit Personality TestThe Implicit Personality TestThe Implicit Personality Test
• Implicit Association Test (IAT): allows for measurement of subconscious attitudes, and attitudes that people do not want to be shown, toward members of specific groups– Go to https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit to take
the test
• Implicit Association Test (IAT): allows for measurement of subconscious attitudes, and attitudes that people do not want to be shown, toward members of specific groups– Go to https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit to take
the test
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Reducing Prejudice and DiscriminationReducing Prejudice and DiscriminationReducing Prejudice and DiscriminationReducing Prejudice and Discrimination
• Increasing contact between the target of stereotyping and the holder of the stereotype– Contact is relatively intimate– Individuals are of equal status– Participants must cooperate with one another
• Making values and norms against prejudice more conspicuous
• Providing information about the targets of stereotyping
• Increasing contact between the target of stereotyping and the holder of the stereotype– Contact is relatively intimate– Individuals are of equal status– Participants must cooperate with one another
• Making values and norms against prejudice more conspicuous
• Providing information about the targets of stereotyping
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Positive and Negative Social BehaviorPositive and Negative Social BehaviorPositive and Negative Social BehaviorPositive and Negative Social Behavior
• Learning Outcomes– Compare and contrast the concepts of “like” and
love– Explain aggression and prosocial behavior
• Learning Outcomes– Compare and contrast the concepts of “like” and
love– Explain aggression and prosocial behavior
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Liking and LovingLiking and LovingLiking and LovingLiking and Loving
• Interpersonal attraction (close relationships): positive feelings for others; liking and loving
• Factors in attraction (liking):– Proximity: geographic closeness leads to liking– Mere exposure: repeated exposure to any
stimulus usually makes you like it more; if negative initial interaction, dislike will intensify
• Interpersonal attraction (close relationships): positive feelings for others; liking and loving
• Factors in attraction (liking):– Proximity: geographic closeness leads to liking– Mere exposure: repeated exposure to any
stimulus usually makes you like it more; if negative initial interaction, dislike will intensify
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Liking and LovingLiking and LovingLiking and LovingLiking and Loving
• Factors in attraction (liking) (cont’d):– Similarity: increases liking because we assume
that people with similar attitudes will evaluate us positively, which promotes our attraction to that person because of the reciprocity-of-liking effect
– Physical attractiveness: all else being equal, physically attractive people are more popular than physically unattractive ones (beautiful = good)
• Factors in attraction (liking) (cont’d):– Similarity: increases liking because we assume
that people with similar attitudes will evaluate us positively, which promotes our attraction to that person because of the reciprocity-of-liking effect
– Physical attractiveness: all else being equal, physically attractive people are more popular than physically unattractive ones (beautiful = good)
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Liking and LovingLiking and LovingLiking and LovingLiking and Loving
• Passionate (romantic) love: a state of intense absorption in someone that includes intense physiological arousal, psychological interest, and caring for the needs of another
• Companionate love: the strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved– Sternberg says love consists of
decision/commitment, an intimacy component, and a passion component
• Passionate (romantic) love: a state of intense absorption in someone that includes intense physiological arousal, psychological interest, and caring for the needs of another
• Companionate love: the strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved– Sternberg says love consists of
decision/commitment, an intimacy component, and a passion component
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Aggression and Prosocial BehaviorAggression and Prosocial BehaviorAggression and Prosocial BehaviorAggression and Prosocial Behavior
• Aggression: the intentional injury of, or harm to, another person– Instinct approaches: aggression is the outcome of
innate urges• Catharsis: the process of discharging built-up
aggressive energy• Little evidence to support the need for catharsis
– Frustration-aggression approaches: frustration produces anger, which leads to a readiness to act aggressively
• Aggression: the intentional injury of, or harm to, another person– Instinct approaches: aggression is the outcome of
innate urges• Catharsis: the process of discharging built-up
aggressive energy• Little evidence to support the need for catharsis
– Frustration-aggression approaches: frustration produces anger, which leads to a readiness to act aggressively
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Aggression and Prosocial BehaviorAggression and Prosocial BehaviorAggression and Prosocial BehaviorAggression and Prosocial Behavior
– Observational learning approaches: social and environmental conditions can teach individuals to be aggressive
• Rewards and punishment given to both the individual and models whose behavior is imitated
• Research shows much support
• Prosocial behavior: helping behavior– Diffusion of responsibility: tendency for people to
feel that responsibility for acting is shared, or diffused, among those present
– Observational learning approaches: social and environmental conditions can teach individuals to be aggressive
• Rewards and punishment given to both the individual and models whose behavior is imitated
• Research shows much support
• Prosocial behavior: helping behavior– Diffusion of responsibility: tendency for people to
feel that responsibility for acting is shared, or diffused, among those present
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Prosocial BehaviorProsocial BehaviorProsocial BehaviorProsocial Behavior
• Four basic steps in deciding to help– Noticing a person, event, or situation that may
require help– Interpreting the event as one that requires help– Assuming responsibility for helping– Deciding on and implementing the help
• Altruism: helping behavior that is beneficial to others but clearly requires self-sacrifice
• Four basic steps in deciding to help– Noticing a person, event, or situation that may
require help– Interpreting the event as one that requires help– Assuming responsibility for helping– Deciding on and implementing the help
• Altruism: helping behavior that is beneficial to others but clearly requires self-sacrifice
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Stress and CopingStress and CopingStress and CopingStress and Coping
• Learning Outcomes– Define stress and discuss how it affects us– Explain the nature of stressors– Describe how we people cope with stress
• Learning Outcomes– Define stress and discuss how it affects us– Explain the nature of stressors– Describe how we people cope with stress
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StressStressStressStress
• Stress: a person’s response to events that are threatening or challenging– Stressors: circumstances or events that produce
threats to our well-being– Both positive and negative events can produce
stress
• Stress: a person’s response to events that are threatening or challenging– Stressors: circumstances or events that produce
threats to our well-being– Both positive and negative events can produce
stress
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The Nature of StressorsThe Nature of StressorsThe Nature of StressorsThe Nature of Stressors
• Categories of stressors– Cataclysmic events: strong stressors that occur
suddenly, affecting many people at once (ex.: natural disasters)
– Personal stressors: major life events, such as the death of a family member, that have immediate negative consequences that generally fade with time
• Categories of stressors– Cataclysmic events: strong stressors that occur
suddenly, affecting many people at once (ex.: natural disasters)
– Personal stressors: major life events, such as the death of a family member, that have immediate negative consequences that generally fade with time
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The Nature of StressorsThe Nature of StressorsThe Nature of StressorsThe Nature of Stressors
• Categories of stressors (cont’d)– Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): victims of
major catastrophes or strong personal stressors feel long-lasting effects that may include re-experiencing the event in vivid flashbacks or dreams
– Background stressors (daily hassles): everyday annoyances that cause minor irritations and may have long-term ill effects if they continue or are compounded by other stressful events
• Categories of stressors (cont’d)– Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): victims of
major catastrophes or strong personal stressors feel long-lasting effects that may include re-experiencing the event in vivid flashbacks or dreams
– Background stressors (daily hassles): everyday annoyances that cause minor irritations and may have long-term ill effects if they continue or are compounded by other stressful events
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The Nature of StressorsThe Nature of StressorsThe Nature of StressorsThe Nature of Stressors
• High cost of stress– Continued exposure to stress can result in decline
in overall functioning because of constant secretion of stress-related hormones
– Psychophysiological disorders (formerly known as psychosomatic disorders): medical problems influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties
• High cost of stress– Continued exposure to stress can result in decline
in overall functioning because of constant secretion of stress-related hormones
– Psychophysiological disorders (formerly known as psychosomatic disorders): medical problems influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties
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The Nature of StressorsThe Nature of StressorsThe Nature of StressorsThe Nature of Stressors
• Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI): the study of the relationship among psychological factors, the immune system, and the brain– Consequences of stress
• Direct physiological effects• Engaging in behaviors harmful to one’s health• Indirect health-related behaviors
• Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI): the study of the relationship among psychological factors, the immune system, and the brain– Consequences of stress
• Direct physiological effects• Engaging in behaviors harmful to one’s health• Indirect health-related behaviors
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Coping with StressCoping with StressCoping with StressCoping with Stress
• Coping: efforts to control, reduce, or learn to tolerate the threats that lead to stress– Emotion-focused coping: trying to manage your
emotions in the face of stress– Problem-focused coping: trying to modify the
stressful problem or source of stress– Avoidant coping: trying to use escape routes, such
as wishful thinking, drug or alcohol use, or overeating; is often ineffective and can make the problem worse
• Coping: efforts to control, reduce, or learn to tolerate the threats that lead to stress– Emotion-focused coping: trying to manage your
emotions in the face of stress– Problem-focused coping: trying to modify the
stressful problem or source of stress– Avoidant coping: trying to use escape routes, such
as wishful thinking, drug or alcohol use, or overeating; is often ineffective and can make the problem worse
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Coping with StressCoping with StressCoping with StressCoping with Stress
• Learned helplessness: a state in which people conclude that unpleasant or aversive stimuli cannot be controlled – a view of the world that becomes so ingrained that they cease trying to remedy the aversive circumstances, even if they can actually exert some influence; correlated with depression
• Social support: a mutual network of caring, interested others– Helps in coping with stress
• Learned helplessness: a state in which people conclude that unpleasant or aversive stimuli cannot be controlled – a view of the world that becomes so ingrained that they cease trying to remedy the aversive circumstances, even if they can actually exert some influence; correlated with depression
• Social support: a mutual network of caring, interested others– Helps in coping with stress
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Effective Coping StrategiesEffective Coping StrategiesEffective Coping StrategiesEffective Coping Strategies
• Turn threat into a challenge, focusing on ways to control it
• Make a threatening situation less threatening; if situation is uncontrollable, change your appraisal and modify your attitude
• Change your goals• Take physical action (ex.: exercise)• Prepare for stress before it happens (proactive
coping)
• Turn threat into a challenge, focusing on ways to control it
• Make a threatening situation less threatening; if situation is uncontrollable, change your appraisal and modify your attitude
• Change your goals• Take physical action (ex.: exercise)• Prepare for stress before it happens (proactive
coping)