© 2011 pearson education, inc. chapter 12 black and yellow chapter 13 white energy from fossil...

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

CHAPTER 12 Black and Yellow

CHAPTER 13 White

Energy fromFossil Fuels


Introduction to fossil fuels• Term 3 new seats!• Homework – Read Energy from Fossil Fuels

Chapter• Answer Questions #1-7 for Monday (1/9/12)• Answer Questions #8-15 for Friday (1/13/12)• **To be collected…• How are fossil fuels related to topics we have

covered so far this year?• Video


Introduction to fossil fuels• The existence of fossil fuels is dependent on

ecosystem structure and function (Chapters 3 and 4). Dramatic environmental change produced the correct conditions for fossil fuel formation, and this can be linked to the dramatic changes observed in species diversity (Chapter 6). Disruption of terrestrial ecosystems (Chapters 5 and 7), including soil (Chapter 11), and aquatic (Chapter 7) ecosystems, can occur during the production, transport, and use of fossil fuels.


Introduction to fossil fuels• The rate of fossil fuel consumption can be linked to

human population growth (Chapter 8) and consumption rates per person. Demographic transition (Chapter 8), as observed in developed countries, included increases in individual rates of fuel consumption. Alternative views of how to reach a stable population size (Chapter 9) do not include increases in individual rates of fuel consumption. Humans are very dependent on fossil fuels, especially in developed nations, for the production of food (Chapter 12), fertilizers, and pesticides (Chapter 13).


Sources of Electricity in the US


Energy Conversion Efficiency or Inefficiency? • How efficient do you think energy conversion is?

Can you list any energy inefficient conversions?• For instance, the majority of our electricity is derived

from burning coal. • The energy efficiency of a coal burning power plant

is 33-50%. So, for every pound of coal burned, only 33-50% of it is turned into electricity, which leaves over 50% lost to waste heat loss).

• How efficient do you think renewable energy resources are?


Energy Conversion Efficiency


The White Mountains


Introduction to fossil fuels• Tourists and climbers visit the White Mountains in

New Hampshire • The White Mountain National Forest has 777 acres

• Mining is allowed in national forests• Huge machines and dynamite are used

• Trees, topsoil, and mountaintops are removed

• Valleys are filled in and streams are obliterated

• Small towns are wiped out

• No area is safe from mountaintop removal mining due to the U.S.’s insatiable thirst for coal


Mountaintop removal mining• An economical way of reaching coal seams• It has devastated parts of West Virginia, Kentucky,

Tennessee, and Virginia• 470 mountains have been affected

• 1,500 miles of streams have been buried or degraded

• Residents who refuse to move have been threatened

• In 2002, the law prohibiting dumping of waste into stream valleys was changed to allow this “fill” to be dumped

• Grassroots organizations face formidable politicians and industrialists who say this mining is necessary


Oil spills and drills• With millions of gallons of oil in constant transit, it is

inevitable that spills will occur• In 1989, the Exxon Valdez spilled 11 million gallons

• In 2008, two ships collided, spilling 420,000 gallons

• Drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) is a political firefight• President Bush wanted to open it to drilling

• At present, with a Democratic Congress and President, it will probably remain closed for the moment


Caribou in ANWR


ANWR


ANWR

• The question of whether to drill for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) has been an ongoing political controversy in the United States since 1977. The issue has been used by both Democrats and Republicans as a political device, especially through contentious election cycles, and has been the subject of much debate in the National media.


ANWR

• ANWR comprises 19,000,000 acres (77,000 km2) of the north Alaskan coast. The land is situated between the Beaufort Sea to the north, Brooks Range to the south, and Prudhoe Bay to the west. It is the largest protected wilderness in the United States and was created by Congress under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980. Section 1002 of that act deferred a decision on the management of oil and gas exploration and development of 1,500,000 acres (6.1×109 m2) in the coastal plain, known as the "1002 area."


Energy sources and uses• Advancing technological civilization has been tied to

energy• In early times human muscle and livestock provided

energy• Slaves, servants, minimally paid workers

• Domestic animals were used in agriculture and transportation

• Water, wind, and sun power also provided power

• Inventors in the early 1700s designed machines• The steam engine provided power for ships, shovels,

tractors, trains, sawmills, textile mills, etc.


Coal• Coal was substituted for fuel

• Firewood for steam engines became scarce

• It was used for steam engines, heating, cooking, and industrial processes

• By 1920, coal provided 80% of all U.S. energy

• Drawbacks of coal• Smoke and fumes polluted cities

• It is hazardous to mine and dirty to handle

• Steam engines are bulky and hard to operate


Steam engine


Oil rules• By the late 1800s oil provided an alternative to coal

• Due to the internal combustion engine, drilling, and refinement of oil into fuels

• Benefits of oil• It was more convenient and burned more cleanly

• The internal combustion engine is much lighter than a steam engine

• Oil is now the major energy source for the world• Coal still predominates in eastern Europe and China


Global primary energy supply


Gas, naturally• Natural gas: found in association with oil or drilling

for oil• Natural gas consists mainly of methane, which

produces carbon dioxide and water when burned• It burns more cleanly than coal or oil

• Pipelines now allow it to be transported, instead of venting it to the atmosphere• It is used for heating, cooking, industry

• It is clean, convenient, and inexpensive

• Gas satisfies 24% (U.S.) and 21% (world) of energy demand


Energy consumption in the United States


Electrical power production• Monday – Go to the Library (not classroom)

Reminder – Questions #1-7 due on Monday

• Agenda • 1. Electrical Power Production• 2. Fossil Fuel Extraction• 3. How a power plant works.• 4. Fossil Fuel without the Fossils.


Electrical power production• Electrical power: the amount of work done by an

electric current over a given time• Most energy we use comes from fossil fuels

• Energy carrier: the electricity itself that transfers energy from a primary energy source (coal, water power) to the point of use

• Electricity enables modern technological society• Computers, appliances, lights, the Internet

• More than 33% of fossil fuel production is used to generate electricity in the U.S.


Generators• Electric generators were invented in 1831 by

Michael Faraday• An electric generator: a coil of wire that rotates in a

magnetic field• Or a stationary wire within a rotating magnetic field

• It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

• Energy is lost through resistance and heat• Energy is also lost through transmission through wires

• Three units of primary energy make one unit of electricity• But electricity is so useful and indispensible


Turbogenerators• Generating electricity requires a primary energy

source• Coal, oil, nuclear, refuse, solar, geothermal energy

• Which boils water to produce steam

• Which drives a turbine (a sophisticated paddle wheel)

• Which is coupled to a generator

• Turbogenerator: the turbine and generator

• Other generators = gas-, water-, and wind-driven turbines• Burning gas drives the turbine directly

• A hydroturbogenerator uses water from a dam or pipe


Electrical power generation


Fluctuations in demand• Most utility companies are linked into pools

• They balance electricity supply and demand

• Regardless of daily or seasonal fluctuations

• Pools must accommodate daily and weekly demand

• Generating capacity is measured in megawatts (MW)• 1 MW is enough electricity to power 800 homes

• The demand cycle: shows the typical pattern of U.S. electrical demand• The baseload: the constant supply of power provided

by large coal-burning and nuclear power plants


The electrical demand cycle• As demand increases above the baseload, the utility

draws on power plants (intermediate and peak-load power sources) that can be turned on and off• These power sources are gas, diesel, and

hydroelectric plants

• Brownouts: result from a deficiency in available power• Cause a reduction in voltage

• Blackout: a total loss of power• These events occur during peak demand


Weekly electrical demand cycle


Electricity demand vs. supply• In the U.S., demand is rising faster than supply

• Reserve capacity has declined to 15%

• Summer heat waves are the greatest cause of sudden increased demand

• Utilities are being pushed to the edge of their ability to provide electricity on demand

• Another serious problem: antiquated systems controlling the power transmission grid, which connects power sources to users


Blackout• Brownouts and blackouts threaten the economy• In 2008 the largest blackout in U.S. history left 50

million people in eight states and two Canadian provinces without power• It started when power lines brushed against tree

branches• It cost the economies of the two countries $30 billion

• A “self-healing smart grid” can prevent major blackouts• It monitors problems, reacts to trouble, and isolates

troubled areas to prevent cascading failures• The U.S. Department of Homeland Security rates this

as one of its highest priorities


Clean energy?• Electric power is clean and nonpolluting only at the

point of use• Electricity is an expensive way to heat homes

• It is generated mainly from fossil fuels and nuclear energy

• Coal-burning plants: the major source of U.S. electricity• Implicated in acid deposition and climate change

• Nuclear energy is distrusted• Potential for accidents, disposal of waste, and mining

of uranium ore


Transferring pollution• Energy from fossil fuels transfers pollution

• Only renewable sources are nonpolluting

• Producing electricity from fossil fuels is 30–35% efficient

• Energy is lost in several ways• Heat energy goes up the firebox and out the chimney

• Heat energy remains in the spent steam

• Transmission of electricity through wires

• Conversion losses: an unavoidable loss of energy• A consequence of keeping high temperature

differences between incoming steam and the receiving turbine


Cooling towers


Dealing with heat energy• Heat energy cannot be recycled in the turbine

• A condenser turns steam into water in the air

• Cooling towers are on coal-burning and nuclear plants

• An alternative to cooling towers?• Waste heat is transferred into water from a river, lake,

or ocean

• Kills planktonic organisms and impacts the ecosystem

• Thermal pollution: waste heat discharged into natural water


Matching sources to uses• We must consider more than the energy source to

determine current and future energy supplies• Some forms of energy do well in some uses but not

others• Transportation (cars, trucks, tractors, planes, trains)

depends on liquid oil

• Nuclear and coal will not reduce the demand for oil

• Energy use is divided into transportation, industrial processes, commercial and residential use (heating, cooling, lighting, appliances), and electrical power


Energy flow• Transportation: 29% of U.S. energy use

• Depends on petroleum• Nuclear, coal, water power are used to produce

electricity• Natural gas and oil are more versatile sources

• Too much consumed energy goes to waste heat• Some waste is inevitable (Second Law of

Thermodynamics)• But efficiency can be doubled for cars, appliances, etc.

• Saving energy is equivalent to increasing energy supplies• Conservation, efficiency, and management decrease

use


Pathways: energy sources to uses in the U.S.


Exploiting crude oil• U.S. coal, natural gas, or nuclear power supplies are

adequate• But we must import 66% of our crude oil

• Increasing dependence on imported oil causes trade imbalances, military actions, economic disruptions, coastal oil spills

• Fossil fuels (crude oil, coal, natural gas) were formed 100–500 million years ago in swamps and shallow seas• Anaerobic conditions slowed decomposition• Pressure and heat converted vegetation to fossil fuels• It takes 1,000 years to obtain 1 day’s worth of fossil

fuel use


Energy flow through fossil fuels


Crude oil reserves vs. production• Estimated reserves: geologists guess where and

how much oil exists• Drilling is required to determine if reserves exist

• Drilling determines the extent and depth of the oil field

• Proved reserves: an accurate estimate of how much oil can be economically obtained from a field• 1 barrel = 42 gallons

• The content of each field is given in probabilities• P05 = a 5% probability the field contains a given

number of barrels of oil


Estimates of oil reserves• Oil produces prefer to use a P05 or P10 instead of a

P90• To give the impression of a large reserve

• For political or economic reasons

• Proved reserves depend on economics of extraction• Reserves may be higher or lower depending on the

price of oil

• Higher oil prices justify exploiting more expensive reserves

• Production: withdrawal of oil or gas from the field• But it’s really extraction from Earth


Recovery• Production from a field does not proceed at a steady

rate• Oil is trapped in pore spaces of sedimentary rock

• At first, pressurized oil may gush from a well• But only 25% of oil can be removed using

conventional pumping (primary recovery)

• Secondary recovery can remove up to 50% of oil• By injecting steam or brine into the wells

• Enhanced recovery injects carbon dioxide to break up oil• Allows even more oil to be obtained


Economics determines exploitation• The price of a barrel of oil determines the extent to

which reserves are exploited• At $10/barrel (late 1990s) only 25–35% of oil was

extracted

• Higher prices (1970s, 1980s) justified reopening old fields in Texas and Louisiana

• In 2008, oil peaked at $145/barrel but declined sharply • Demand dropped due to the global economic crisis

• Low prices are good for consumers• But bad for companies, because they need stable

markets


Declining U.S. reserves• Up to 1970, the U.S. was oil independent

• In 1970, production decreased but consumption increased

• The Hubbert peak: M. King Hubbert proposed that oil production followed a bell-shaped curve • It would peak between 1965 and 1970

• Half of available oil would have been withdrawn

• Production would then decline

• The U.S., Europe, and Japan increased imports from the Middle East• Cheap, available oil seemed to present few problems


Oil production and consumption in the U.S.


The oil crisis of the 1970s• The U.S. and other industrialized countries

increased their dependence on imported oil• The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

(OPEC)• Mostly Arab countries• Restrained production and initiated an embargo to

increase prices• Resulted in shortages, panic, and long lines at gas

stations• The U.S. willingly paid four times the previous price

• Devastating results: inflation, unemployment, and recessions• We buy more from others than we sell as exports


The cost of fossil fuel imports


Adjusting to higher prices• In response to higher prices, the U.S. and other

nations• Increased domestic production, e.g., the Alaskan

pipeline, re-opening old fields

• Increased fuel efficiency standards, e.g., lowered speed limits (to 55 mph)

• Promoted appliance and building efficiencies

• Developed alternative energy sources

• Created a strategic oil reserve in Louisiana to store 702 million barrels of oil (33 days of oil at 21 million barrels/day use)


Recovery• 1980s: consumption declined and production

increased• Discoveries in Mexico, Africa, and the North Sea

reduced OPEC’s influence• More production than consumption caused an oil glut

• Prices crashed

• Lower prices undercut efficiency and alternate energies• Exploration declined and older fields were closed

• Conservation efforts and incentives were stopped

• Tax incentives and subsidies for alternate energy were stopped


U.S. imports are up and rising• U.S. oil production is down• U.S. oil consumption is up

• More cars are driven more miles each year

• Large, fuel-inefficient cars are driven (e.g., SUVs)

• U.S. dependence on foreign oil has increased• We import 66% of our oil

• Imports are still increasing


U.S. oil consumption, production and imports


Back to the future• Oil prices in the 1990s were low but started rising in

1998• OPEC cut production

• Just as East Asia came out of a recession

• Demand exceeded supply

• Prices rose to over $140/barrel in 2008• People reduced driving and bought hybrid cars

• Oil companies had record profits

• Food prices soared

• Congress raised efficiency standards and called for increased renewable fuels


Recession• In September 2008, the stock market collapsed

• Overpriced housing, mortgage excesses, uncontrolled stock market speculation

• A global economic meltdown caused job losses

• Major financial institutions failed

• Credit became unavailable

• Countries fell into the worst recession in 75 years• Oil imports declined and prices dropped

• OPEC cut production to stabilize prices

• Countries still depend on a few oil-rich nations


The consequences of U.S. dependency• U.S. dependency on foreign oil has three costs:

• Costs of buying oil

• Risk of supply disruptions (e.g., political instability in the Middle East)

• Ultimate resource limitations

• In 2000, the U.S. paid $300 billion in oil imports• Since 2000, imports increased 24% and oil’s price

rose fivefold


Persian Gulf oil• First oil crisis (1973): the unexpected Arab boycott• The U.S. keeps a military capability in the region

• Recognizes the political instability

• Ensures access to Persian Gulf oil

• Saddam Hussein of Iraq invaded Kuwait (1990)• U.S.-led Persian Gulf War threw Hussein out

• The U.S.’s ongoing presence angered radical Islamic Al Qaeda

• Led to the September 11, 2001 attack on the U.S.


Two more wars• In 2001, U.S. and British forces invaded Afghanistan

• To capture bin Laden, destroy Al Qaeda training camps, and overthrow the ruling Taliban

• The Afghan war was a consequence of U.S. presence

• The war is still in progress• bin Laden still hasn’t been caught

• In 2003, Britain and U.S. troops invaded Iraq• To overthrow Hussein and eliminate suspected

weapons of mass destruction

• Was the motivation to gain access to Iraq’s oil?


The U.S-Iraqi war and oil


The U.S. still relies on oil exports• U.S. troops protected Iraqi oil fields but not the

National Museum• The U.S. and Britain have spent billions to restore

Iraqi oil• Military costs represent a significant government

subsidy• Costing money and human lives

• The U.S. is now importing 44% of oil from other nations• Canada, Mexico, Colombia, Russia, Nigeria• These are politically stable and close• But production is decreasing

• OPEC and Persian Gulf oil continue to be vital to the U.S.


Oil resource limitations and peak oil• U.S. oil production is decreasing

• There is little hope for major new finds

• The U.S. is the most intensively explored landmass• The last major find: Alaskan oil field (1968)

• Discoveries now come from isolated pockets in old fields

• How much oil is still available?• 1,050 billion barrels (BBs) have been used

• World use = 31 BBs/yr, increasing to 40 BBs/yr by 2020


Hubbert’s Peak• Recent estimates of proved reserves = 850 BBs

• Oil industry reports of 1,238 BBs are inflated for political reasons

• Peak oil production will occur during this decade• Production will decline

• Prices will rise

• Even if the oil industry is right, the peak will be delayed only by a decade

• After the peak, production will decline, never to rise again


Hubbert curves of oil production


U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)• USGS 2000 estimates of world oil and gas

• 732 BBs from undiscovered reserves (fields that have not yet been found)

• 688 BBs in known fields unaccounted for by conventional analyses

• USGS estimates are overly optimistic• Estimates are based on undiscovered fields

• Peak production will be moved back only a few years


Downward trajectory• At current use, proved reserves can supply 40 years

of oil• New discoveries provide only a fraction of new oil

• The National Petroleum Council (2007) reported that oil production will not keep up with demand• Energy Watch Group: global production peaked in

2006

• The Middle East has 61% of proved reserves• The U.S. and others will depend on this area for oil

• To reduce dependency on foreign oil• Increase fuel efficiency, use other fossil fuels, develop

alternatives


Other fossil fuels: natural gas• The U.S. imports 16.5% of natural gas used

• Most comes from Canada

• Gas is used in industry, residential, and electrical power generation

• Costs fluctuate with supply and demand and season• U.S. proved reserves = 9 years

• New deposits and drilling: supplies = 50 years

• Worldwide = four times as much as oil

• Natural gas is piped or liquefied (liquid natural gas [LNG])• New LNG facilities are seen as security and safety

hazards


Natural-gas-run cars• Cars can run on natural gas with installation of a gas

tank and engine modifications• Natural gas is a clean-burning fuel

• Releases carbon dioxide and water

• But not hydrocarbons or sulfur oxides

• Used in buses and car fleets in the U.S. • But there are limited service stations

• Detroit automakers no longer sell these cars

• The fleet is growing in Europe• The U.S. needs stronger public-policy support


Synthetic oil• The Fischer-Tropsch process turns natural gas into

synthetic oil• It is only 10% more expensive than oil

• Natural gas can be turned into diesel and home-heating fuels

• A 3,600-mile gas pipe is needed to bring gas from Alaska and Canada• Costing $25 billion and causing enormous

environmental harm

• Drilling in the lower 48 states occurs in sensitive areas• Environmental damage from roads, wells, and pipelines

• Federal lands are being drilled


Gas-to-liquid fuel plant


Coal• China is the world’s leading coal producer

• Builds two plants/week for electricity

• 49% of U.S. electricity comes from coal-fired power plants• U.S. coal supplies = 230 years (2007 rates of use)

• The U.S. exports 5% of coal production/year

• Mining is hazardous• 33 people died in 2007 from mining

• Over 700 died from pneumoconiosis (CWP)—black lung disease


Underground mining• Underground mines cause land subsidence and fires• Centralia, Pennsylvania’s fire started 40 years ago

• It could burn another 100 years

• The federal government bought the town

• Worldwide fires release as much carbon dioxide as all cars and trucks in the U.S.

• At least 50% of the coal must be left in mines to support the roof of the mine


Coal fire


Strip mining• Dynamite breaks overlying areas

• Giant power shovels remove overlying rocks and coal• Deforestation and burying streams destroy

ecosystems• Federal regulations require reclamation (grading,

replanting)• It takes decades for some areas to recover• Arid areas may never recover

• Erosion, acid leaching, and mine wastes affect surface and ground water

• Massey Energy violated the Clean Water Act 4,500 times!• It paid $30 million to the EPA


Coal power• 91% of U.S. coal use generates electricity• A large (1,000 MW) power plant burns 8,000 tons/day

• Releases 20,000 tons of CO2, 800 tons of SO2, and 1,600 tons of ash/day

• The Clean Coal Power Initiative (CCPI) seeks to remove pollutants before and after burning• Along with obtaining higher efficiencies

• The integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plant• Burning the synthetic gas (syngas) produces electricity

• Capturing carbon to reduce emissions is very expensive


Oil shale• Found in Colorado, Utah, Wyoming• Oil shale: a fine sedimentary rock containing kerogen

• Kerogen: a solid, waxlike hydrocarbon

• Refining can produce gasoline and other petroleum products

• One ton of shale produces ½ barrel of oil• Mining, transportation, and waste disposal are

prohibitive• Deposits contain 800 BBs of oil

• Oil companies consider developing oil from deposits• They face stiff opposition due to damaged air and water• Development must get local and state approval


Oil sand• Oil sand: a sedimentary material containing bitumen

• Bitumen: a hydrocarbon that can be refined like oil

• Alberta, Canada has the largest deposits (152 BBs)• The cost is competitive with oil

• U.S. imports = 10% of our imported oil

• Mining oil sand causes significant environmental damage• 82,000 acres of boreal forest and wetlands have

already been heavily disturbed

• Developing oil shale and sand will occur with high oil prices


Energy policy• Public policy can cause major improvements in

energy use• 1973 to 1995: 18% less energy growth with $150

billion in savings

• The Energy Policy Act of 2005 intended to establish U.S. energy policies• Changed Congressional leadership led to the Energy

Independence and Security Act of 2007

• What are the U.S. government’s latest energy policies?• In light of present problems and future needs


Security threats: oil dependence• In 2007, the U.S. imported $300 billion of oil

• 35% of our balance-of-trade deficit• The global oil market is beyond our control• We invest heavily in stabilizing the Persian Gulf

region• The U.S. (and global) economy is sensitive to price

shocks• A 5% decrease in supplies causes increased prices,

inflation, decreased gross national product, a recession

• Prices peaked in 2006–2008• Relying on oil from OPEC and the Persian Gulf is

asking for economic and political trouble


Security threats: terrorism• Nuclear power plants, dams, oil and gas pipelines,

refineries, tankers, infrastructure are targets for terrorists

• U.S. involvement in the Middle East angers, frustrates, and motivates terrorists

• Nuclear power plants are very vulnerable to attacks• It is easy to disrupt energy flow to major areas by

attacking oil, gas, and electrical infrastructures• A hunter shot the Trans-Alaska pipeline

• Shutting it down for three days


Hunter bags pipeline


Security threats: global climate change• Using fossil fuels threatens economic, environmental,

and national security• Burning fossil fuels releases CO2

• Coal produces the most greenhouse gas emissions• Natural gas produces the least

• Increasing carbon dioxide increases global temperatures• Melting ice caps and raising sea levels• Causing more severe storms, droughts, and heat

waves

• The U.S. is a leading producer of greenhouse gases• It also consumes the most fossil fuels


Annual carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels


Energy policies• Both supply-side and demand-side policy options

exist• Vice President Cheney’s National Energy Policy

Report (2001) (CR) estimated increases over the next 20 years of:• Oil consumption: 30%

• Natural gas consumption: 50%

• Electricity (coal) consumption: 45%

• His solution? Use more fossil fuels• The Energy Policy Act (PA) addresses the supply side

• The Energy Independence and Security Act (EI) addresses the demand side


Supply-side policies• Explore and develop domestic oil and gas resources

• CR: open ANWR and offshore areas

• PA: inventory offshore resources; don’t open ANWR

• Increase coal use• CR: add 1,300–1,900 new power plants within 20

years

• PA: use clean coal technologies, loan guarantees, research incentives

• Subsidize the oil and nuclear industries• CR and PA: give billions in tax incentives and loans

• EI: a limited repeal of tax incentives


More supply-side policies• Remove environmental and legal obstacles to

development• CR: streamline permitting for drilling, use eminent

domain for transmission lines

• PA: tax credits for hydropower, streamline permits to drill

• Provide access to remote sources of natural gas• CR: construct a pipeline from Alaska to the lower 48

states

• PA: require reporting of progress in pipeline construction, give federal control over LNG terminal sites and building


Business as usual• Supply-side policies are “business as usual”

• They do not reduce vulnerability to disruptions, terrorism, or climate change

• Demand-side policies reduce energy needs• Move to renewable energies

• Reduce vulnerability to terrorism and market disruptions

• They save money and reduce pollution


Demand-side policies• Stop thinking in terms of getting more fossil fuels

• Think about how we can satisfy demands with less energy and environmental impact

• Increasing mileage standards of vehicles• CR: increase Corporate Average Fuel Economy

(CAFE) standards while avoiding negative impacts

• PA: study CAFE standards, grant tax credits for efficient and hybrid vehicles

• EI: raise CAFE standards to 35 mpg by 2020 (the Obama administration mandates 39 mpg for cars by 2016)


More demand-side policies• Increase efficiency of lighting, appliances, and

buildings• CR: higher efficiency standards when possible

• PA: tax breaks for manufacturers of efficient appliances; continue the EPA’s Energy Star Program

• EI: 30% efficiency increases for lighting; compact fluorescent lightbulbs will become the new standard

• Encourage combined heat and power (CHP) technologies• CR: tax credits and permitting flexibility

• PA: require utilities to buy power from CHP plants

• EI: CHP is eligible for efficiency grants and proposals


Energy-efficient lightbulbs


Energy-saving technologies• CHP facilities install a small power plant to produce

electricity• Heats the building with “waste” heat

• Achieves an 80% efficiency

• The combined-cycle natural-gas unit generates electricity• One turbine burns natural gas

• A second turbine runs on excess steam from the other turbine

• Achieves 50% efficiency at half the cost and less pollution


Another demand-side policy• Promote more non-fossil-fuel energy

• CR: build more nuclear power plants, increase and subsidize alternative energy sources

• PA: $13 billion in incentives to stimulate nuclear energy (tax credits, insurance against delays, loan guarantees); $4.5 billion to support renewable energy

• EI: established a renewable fuel standard

• The EI no longer requires electric utilities to obtain 15% of energy from renewable energy• Withdrawn due to Republican opposition in the

Senate


Final thoughts• Reducing fossil fuel use does not eliminate that use• Two pathways can develop non-fossil-fuel energies

• Nuclear power: needs technological solutions and public acceptance

• Renewable energy: needs pressure and government support


CHAPTER 14

Energy fromFossil Fuels

Active Lecture Questions


True or False: Coal produces only carbon dioxide and water as it combusts, so it burns more cleanly than oil or natural gas.

a. True

b. False

Review Question-1


True or False: Coal produces only carbon dioxide and water as it combusts, so it burns more cleanly than oil or natural gas.

a. True

b. False

Review Question-1 Answer


The production of electricity from burning fossil fuels has an efficiency of about

a. 10%.

b. 30%.

c. 80%.

d. 100%.

Review Question-2


The production of electricity from burning fossil fuels has an efficiency of about

a. 10%.

b. 30%.

c. 80%.

d. 100%.



All of the following are responses that the United States made to increasing oil prices during the 1970s except

a. increasing domestic production.b. Congress setting new standards for fuel

efficiency.c. creating a strategic oil reserve in Louisiana.d. Congress terminating tax incentives for the

development of alternate energy sources.

Review Question-3


All of the following are responses that the United States made to increasing oil prices during the 1970s except

a. increasing domestic production.b. Congress setting new standards for fuel

efficiency.c. creating a strategic oil reserve in Louisiana.d. Congress terminating tax incentives for the

development of alternate energy sources.



The organization that was developed in the 1970s to restrain the production of oil and increase its price was

a. the Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries.

b. the Hubbert Peak Organization.

c. the Organization of Fossil Fuel Resources.

d. all of the above.

Review Question-4


The organization that was developed in the 1970s to restrain the production of oil and increase its price was

a. the Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries.

b. the Hubbert Peak Organization.

c. the Organization of Fossil Fuel Resources.

d. all of the above.



True or False: A single energy source can be put to use to produce both electrical and heat energy.

a. True

b. False

Review Question-5


True or False: A single energy source can be put to use to produce both electrical and heat energy.

a. True

b. False



According to Fig. 14-4, approximately what percentage of global primary energy is supplied by fossil fuels?

a. 10%

b. 40%

c. 60%

d. 80%

Interpreting Graphs and Data-1


According to Fig. 14-4, approximately what percentage of global primary energy is supplied by fossil fuels?

a. 10%

b. 40%

c. 60%

d. 80%

Interpreting Graphs and Data-1 Answer


According to Fig. 14-9, predominantly what type of primary energy is used to generate electricity in the United States?

a. oil

b. natural gas

c. coal

d. nuclear power

Interpreting Graphs and Data-2


According to Fig. 14-9, predominantly what type of primary energy is used to generate electricity in the United States?

a. oil

b. natural gas

c. coal

d. nuclear power

Interpreting Graphs and Data-2 Answer


The number one primary energy source used in the United States is ______; it comprises about ______ of our energy.

a. oil; 99%

b. oil; 40%

c. coal; 85%

d. nuclear power; 30%

Thinking Environmentally-1


The number one primary energy source used in the United States is ______; it comprises about ______ of our energy.

a. oil; 99%

b. oil; 40%

c. coal; 85%

d. nuclear power; 30%

Thinking Environmentally-1 Answer


Which of the following are ways to conserve energy?

a. increase mileage standards for motor vehicles

b. increase the efficiency of lighting

c. increase the efficiency of appliances

d. all of the above

Thinking Environmentally-2


Which of the following are ways to conserve energy?

a. increase mileage standards for motor vehicles

b. increase the efficiency of lighting

c. increase the efficiency of appliances

d. all of the above

Thinking Environmentally-2 Answer

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