20% of the world’s population lives in highly developed countries in 2000, these people used 60% of the commercial energy consumed worldwide.

That means…

Each person in highly developed countries uses approximately eight times as much energy as each person in developing countries.

DEVELOPING◦ Farmers rely on their own physical energy or animal

energy.◦ Goal of Developing Countries: improve the standard

of living.◦ Boost economic development?◦ Will be followed by a rise in per-capita energy

consumption.

DEVELOPED◦High-energy input

Fertilizers, machinery, pesticides, etc.◦Makes the agricultural productivity higher!◦Developed nations have a more stable

population, so per-capita energy consumption may be close to saturation.

Must increase energy Must increase energy efficiency!!!efficiency!!!

HOW DO WE MAKE ENERGY???

Partially decayed remnants of organisms formed millions of years ago.

NONRENEWABLE!!! Formation:

◦ COAL: Swamp plants died and fell into the water, which

slowed their decay (little O2) Layers of sediment piled on top Pressure formed carbon-rich coal between layers of

sedimentary rock.

◦ OIL: Microscopic aquatic organisms died & settled to

bottom. Their decay lowered the O2, further slowing decay. Formed hydrocarbon mixture called Oil.

◦ NATURAL GAS: Same way as Oil, only at higher temperatures.

4 types:◦ Lignite, Sub-Bituminous, Bituminous,

Anthracite◦ How do the following change:

Color? Water content? Sulfur Content? Carbon Content? Avg. Heat Value (BTU/Pound)? Cost?

Coal Reserves Worldwide

Surface mines can have substantial effects on the environment◦ Large open pits or trenches◦ Acid and toxic mineral drainage◦ Dangerous landslides

Restorations were half hearted

SMCRA requires coal companies to restore areas. Reclamation begins during the mining process, not after mining ends

Brainstorm!!!

Safety issues:◦ Mine collapses, disease

(Black Lung)

Environmental Issues:◦ Land disruption (open pit mines, mountain top

removal), acid mine drainage, increased erosion, sediment pollution in streams, landslides

◦ Air emissions (CO2, Sulfur&Nitrogen oxides, acid deposition – and acidification of lakes/streams)

SCRUBBERS◦ Recall: uses mist of water to remove precipitates◦ Can sell the sludge to manufacturers:

Sludge can make: Wallboard, soil conditioner Fly Ash an make: lightweight concrete

CLEAN COAL TECHNOLOGIES◦ 1 – Fluidized-Bed Combustion

Mix crushed coal w/ limestone & O2 at low temps. Produces fewer nitrogen oxides Produces NO sulfur oxides (sulfur mixes with the

limestone)◦ 2 – Coal Gasification

Mix crushed coal w/ steam & air to produce CH4 & CO2! Sulfur is naturally removed, so no scrubbers are

needed.NOTE: “Clean Coal” isn’t perfect –

still have CO2 released!

Petroleum / Crude Oil ◦ Hundreds of hydrocarbon

compounds

◦ How is it created??? Microscopic aquatic organisms

don’t decay much. Sediment piles on top, and they become oil!

◦ How are they separated? Based on boiling points! Fractional Distillation

How Oil & Natural gas form… They migrate upward (low density) and are

trapped by impermeable rock layers.

OIL: mostly in the Persian Gulf

NATURAL GAS: mostly in Russia & Iran

ALSO: Much

may be found in the cont.

shelf!

Difficult to say…◦ Oil production will peak between 2010 & 2020.

◦ Improving tech will allow us to extract more & produce oil from natural gas, coal & synfuels.

Then the oil peak will move to 2050 – 2100

Dependence of the United States and other countries on Middle Eastern oil has potential international security

implications as well as economic impacts.

Burning (combustion), obtaining fuels (production & transport)◦ Increased carbon dioxide emissions

Every gallon of gas releases 20lb. of carbon dioxide

◦ Acid deposition (Nox)

Natural Gas does not pollute as much as oil◦ Relatively clean, efficient source with almost no S◦ Produces less CO2, fewer hydrocarbons and few

particulate matter

Supertanker hit Bligh Reef Spilled 10.9 million gallons of crude into Prince

William Sound, Alaska Killed a LOT of wildlife

◦ 30,000 birds (ducks, loons, cormorants, eagles)◦ 3,500- 5,000 sea otters◦ Killer whale & harbor seal population disrupted◦ Salmon migration disrupted◦ No fishing for the year in the area

Cleaned the area using mechanized steam cleaning and rinsing (killed shoreline organisms)

Cost estimated at 10 billion OIL POLLUTION ACT (1990)

Established liability for damages to natural resources resulting from spills

Requires double hulls on all oil tankers that enter US waters.

250 mill gallons of crude were dumped into the Persian Gulf (6x that of Exxon).

Oil wells were set on fire & lakes of oil spilled into the desert

Initial cleanup efforts hampered by the war.

The Facts4.9 million: Barrels of oil (205.8 million gallons) leaked

from the Deepwater Horizon well, about half the amount of crude oil the U.S. imports per day

19: Times more oil leaked from Deepwater Horizon than spilled from the Exxon Valdez in 1989 (10.8 million gallons)

62,000: Barrels leaking per day when the wellhead first broke, roughly the amount of oil consumed in Delaware each day

53,000: Barrels leaking per day when the well was capped on July 15, roughly the amount of oil consumed in Rhode Island each day

397.7 million: Dollars' worth of the oil spilled at current market prices ($81.17 per barrel)

665: Miles of coastline contaminated by oil

Popular Mechanics

The Cleanup16.5 million: Gallons of oil chemically dispersed by National Incident Command32.9 million: Gallons of oil naturally dispersed, which means it has broken into droplets smaller than the diameter of a human hair51.5 million: Gallons of oil evaporated or dissolved. This differs from natural dispersion because instead of breaking down into small droplets, the oil breaks apart molecularly and dissolves into the water.6.2 million: Gallons of oil skimmed off the Gulf by the more than 830 skimming vessels used in the response35 million: Gallons directly recovered from the wellhead into ships through the riser pipe and top-hat systems11.4 million: Gallons of oil has been removed by a series of 411 controlled burns53.5 million: Gallons of oil still remaining in the water or washed ashore95.6 million: Potential gallons of gasoline leaked from the wellhead (approximately 19.5 gallons of gas can be derived from one barrel of oil). That's about one-fourth of daily consumption in the United States. 10.4 million: Feet of sorbent boon (8.7 million) and containment boom (2.7 million) currently deployed to contain the oil1.8 million: Gallons of both surface and subsea dispersant used by Unified Incident Command28,900: Total number of personnel currently deployed in response to the spill. On July 8, 47,000 people had been deployed.57,539: Square miles of Gulf waters that remain closed to fishing

In Perspective

184,181: Times you could drive a Toyota Prius (48 mpg highway) around the Earth at the equator using the lost oil

69,068: Times you could drive a Hummer H3 (18 mpg highway) around the Earth

311: Olympic-size swimming pools that could be filled with the oil that leaked from Deepwater Horizon

13,208: Homes that could have been heated for one year (approximately 2 gallons of heating oil are produced from one barrel, with an average American household using 742 gallons per year)

1980 NE Alaska declared wilderness area. ~7.7 B barrels of oil within the refuge Bush supports opening refuge to drilling.

◦ Senate voted against development 2002.◦ Continues to be debated today in congress.

Conservationists believe that oil exploration posed permanent threats to the delicate balance of nature in the Alaskan wilderness.

“Synthetic Fuels” Derived from coal & other natural sources

◦ Liquid or gaseous◦ Include:

Tar sands Oil shales Gas hydrates Liquefied coal Coal gas

Remember: They’re alternatives, but they’re not perfect!!!

…Lots of CO2 emissions!

aka “Oil Sands” Sand deposits permeated with thick oil called

bitumen. Must be heated underground to make it fluid

enough to pump. Must be refined like crude oil Lots of it!

◦ (1/2 again as much fuel as world oil reserves) Reserves in Venezuela & Canada

Rocks containing a mixture of hydrocarbons called kerogen.

Must be crushed & heated, and kerogen must be refined.

Not yet cost efficient, although there’s lot of it! Reserves in Australia, Estonia, Brazil, Sweden,

USA, China

aka “Methane Hydrates” Ice-encrusted natural gas Deposits in

◦ Arctic Tundra (deep below permafrost)◦ Deep ocean sediments

Expensive to mine Reserves in Russia

Coal Liquefaction◦ Nonalcoholic liquid (similar

to oil)◦ Produced from coal◦ Less polluting than solid

coal◦ Too expensive now

Coal Gasification◦ Produce combustible

methane◦ C + H2O CH4 + CO2

◦ Burns almost as cleanly as natural gas

KEYSTONE PROJECT

The Keystone Pipeline System is a pipeline system to transport petroleum products from Canada and the northern United States "primarily to refineries in

the Gulf Coast" of Texas. The products to be shipped include:

1. Synthetic Crude (syncrude) 2. Dilbit (diluted Bitumen)

3. Bakken synthetic crude oiland light crude oil

1. Increase energy efficiency & conservation Low $ encourages high consumption… should we

increase the price?? Gov’t Subsidies reduce the price to stimulate the economy Gov’t Taxes increase the price to generate revenue

Which is better???

2. Secure future fossil fuel energy supplies Only a temporary strategy…

3. Develop alternative energy sources Gasoline tax may help this…

4. Accomplish the first three objectives without further damaging the Environment Duh!!

Remember… Policies change every 4-8 yearsJon Stewart: An Energy-Independent Future 6/16/10

Means of natural gas extraction employed in deep natural gas well drilling. Once a well is drilled, millions of gallons of water, sand

and proprietary chemicals are injected, under high pressure, into a well.

The pressure fractures the shale and props open fissures that enable natural gas to flow more freely out of the well.For each frack, 80-300 tons of chemicals may be used.

Presently, the natural gas industry does not have to disclose the chemicals used, but scientists have identified volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene.

The average well is up to 8,000 feet deep. The depth of drinking water aquifers is about 1,000 feet. The problems typically stem from poor cement well casings that leak natural gas as well as fracking fluid into water wells.

The gas comes up wet in produced water and has to be separated from the wastewater on the surface. Only 30-50% of the water is typically recovered from a well. This wastewater can be highly toxic.

Generally 1-8 million gallons of water may be used to frack a well. A well may be fracked up to 18 times.

POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:◦ Contamination of ground water◦ Risks to air quality◦ The migration of gases and hydraulic fracturing

chemicals to the surface◦ Surface contamination from spills and flowback and the

health effects of these◦ As the VOCs are evaporated and come into contact with

diesel exhaust from trucks and generators at the well site, ground level ozone is produced. Ozone plumes can travel up to 250 miles.

As of 2010, it was estimated that 60% of all new oil and gas wells worldwide were being

hydraulically fractured.

Bush/ Cheney Energy Bill exempted natural gas drilling from the Safe Drinking Water Act. It exempts companies from disclosing the chemicals used during hydraulic fracturing. Essentially, the provision took the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) off the job. It is now commonly referred to as the Halliburton Loophole.

The FRAC Act (Fracturing Responsibility and Awareness to Chemical Act) is a House bill intended to repeal the Halliburton Loophole and to require the natural gas industry to disclose the chemicals they use.

Energy released in combustion reactions comes from changes in the chemical bonds that hold the atom together.

Nuclear Energy involves changes within the nuclei of the atom. Small amounts of matter from the nucleus are converted into large amounts of energy

Fission: Larger atoms of certain elements are split into smaller atoms of certain elements. Power Plants.

Fusion: 2 smaller atoms are combined to make 1 large atom of a different element. Mass of the end product is less than the mass of the starting materials released as energy. The Sun.

Neutron

Proton

Electron

Atomic Number: # of protons

Atomic Mass: # of protons + # of neutrons

Nucleus

Isotope: forms of a given element with different numbers of neutrons therefore different atomic masses.

ex) Hydrogen has 1 P and no N

Deuterium has 1 P and 1 N

Tritium has 1 P and 2 N

As a radioactive element emits radiation, its nucleus changes into the nucleus of a different element that is more stable…. Radioactive decay.

Each radioisotope has its own characteristic rate of decay.◦ Half-Life: the period of time required for one half

of the total amount of a radioactive substance to change into a different material. Iodine- 131 0.02 years ( 8.1 days) Krypton-85 10.4 years Plutonium- 239 24,400 years

Uranium ◦ U-235: produces a fission chain reaction

Critical mass: amount of U-235 required to start a chain reaction

Less than 1% of all uranium is U-235 Known as enriched uranium

◦ U-235: produces a fission chain reaction Critical mass: amount of U-235 required to start a

chain reaction Less than 1% of all uranium is U-235 Known as enriched uranium Half life: 700 million years

◦ U-238 Most common (99.3%) Half life of 4.5 billion years When hit by a neutron it decays into PU-239

◦ PU-239 Produced in breeder reactors from U-238 Half life of 24,000 years Regulated by international inspections because it

can be used in nuclear weapons.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle

1. Mining2. Enrichment

(refining process)

3. Fuel rods4. Fuel assemblies

(200 rods) 5. Reactor

(~ 250 fuel assemblies)

6. Fuel is used7. Fuel is reprocessed8. Fuel is disposed of or

sent for enrichment.

1. Reactor core- heat produced by nuclear fission is used to produce steam from liquid water.

2. Steam generator- uses steam turn a turbine3. Turbine- generates electricity from steam4. Condenser- cools the steam converting it back to a

liquid.

Above each reactor core is a control rod made of metal alloy capable of absorbing neutrons.

The plant will move this up and down depending on the energy needs throughout the day.

SAFETY…The reactor is surrounded by a huge steel pot like structure called a reactor vessel. Reactor vessel & steam generator are placed in a containment building.

1. Primary water circuit (orange in fig 11.5)◦ Heats water using energy produced by the fission rxn.◦ Circulates water under high pressure through the core◦ Superheated water cannot expand stays liquid.

2. Secondary Water Circuit (blue in fig 11.5)◦ Convert the water to steam

3. Tertiary Water Circuit (green in fig 11.5)◦ Provides cool water to the condenser cooling off spent

steam in the secondary water circuit.◦ Water moves to a cooling tower or lake.

Supporters say nuclear energy is better than alternatives because it is less polluting and more economical and its fuel is plentiful.◦ Spent fuel & wastes are the only major concerns.

Opponents refute these arguments.◦ We should look at clean coal options◦ Nuclear does not significantly lessen GW b/c only

15% of greenhouse gasses are produced by plant.◦ Uranium mining requires the combustion of fossil

fuels.

104 nuclear power plants supply about 23% of US electricity.

The US has not ordered a nuclear power plant since 1976. ◦ High cost◦ Take years to plan & build◦ Nuclear regulatory process is cumbersome & expensive.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission must oversee all steps in planning and building each site.

MELTDOWN = at high temperatures, the metal that encases the uranium fuel melts, releasing radiation.◦ Also, the water used in a nuclear reactor can boil away,

releasing radiation into the atmosphere.

THREE case studies:◦ THREE MILE ISLAND (Eastern Pennsylvania)◦ CHORNOBYL (Former USSR – now Ukraine)◦ FUKUSHIMA (Japan- 2011 Earthquake/Tsunami)

Result of human error after cooling system failed. 50% meltdown Containment building kept almost all

radioactivity from escaping No substantial environmental damages and no

immediate human casualties◦ After 10 years, the only human health problem was

increased stress. Increased public wariness, and caused new

safety regulations to be enacted.

1 or 2 explosions destroyed the nuclear reactor Only 100% meltdown in world history Radiation quickly spread across Europe Human effects:

◦ Many firefighters containing the fire later died◦ 170,000 people had to permanently abandon their

homes◦ Death toll (as of 1999) was almost 170,000◦ Nearly 400,000 adults and over 1 million children

currently receive government aid for health problems Thyroid Cancer, leukemia, immune problems, birth

defects…◦ Soil/farmland was severely damaged

What happened??◦ Design of the reactor was flawed

no containment unit & unstable at low power This type of reactor (RBMK) is not used in North America or

Western Europe (too unsafe) Adjacent countries still use it!

◦ Human error Many plant operators had no training!

How was it fixed??◦ Entombed the destroyed reactor in a “sarcophagus”

Recent inspections have revealed safety hazards◦ Numerous cracks in the sarcophagus◦ $$$ to fix it – international donors are helping out.

The plant suffered major damage from the earthquake and tsunami that hit Japan on 3/11/11

The incident permanently damaged several reactors making them impossible to restart. ◦ The disaster disabled the reactor cooling systems,

leading to releases of radioactivity and triggering a 30 km evacuation zone surrounding the plant

◦ On April 20, 2011, the Japanese authorities declared the 20 km evacuation zone a no-go area which may only be entered under government supervision.

Spent Fuel Rods from nuclear energy reactors can be used to make bombs

Storing it is a nightmare (security issue)◦ Only a few kilograms are needed to make a bomb as

strong as the Nagasaki/Hiroshima bombs Russian Political instability makes us nervous…

◦ Former USSR has enough highly enriched uranium and plutonium to make 40,000 nuclear bombs.

◦ Big push in the international community to help Russia maintain nuclear security.

IRAN- Do you watch the news?!?! US plans to get rid of over 50 tons of surplus

plutonium from dismantling our warheads.◦ Will be converted to MOX (mixed oxide), then burned as

fuel in commercial power reactors.

The United States will not employ nuclear weapons against non-nuclear nations that are Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) signatories in

good standing.

IRAN: The U.S. and other nations contend that Iran has violated the treaty's terms by pursuing

atomic weapons, an accusation Iran denies.

RUSSIA: What has happened to their arsenal of weapons from the cold war??

OUTCOME OF THE SUMMIT TO BE DETERMINED…

Low-Level radioactive wastes◦ Give off small amounts of ionizing radiation◦ Produced by nuclear power plants, research labs,

hospitals, and industries.◦ Low Level Radioactive Policy Act (1980)

All states are responsible for the waste they generate. High-Level radioactive wastes

◦ Initially give off large amounts of ionizing radiation◦ Produced by reactor metals (fuel rods and assemblies),

coolant fluids, and gases in the reactor.◦ FUEL RODS:

Absorb neutrons and form radioisotopes Only used for ~3years Storage nightmare…………………

Best bet is stable, underground rock formations. Vitrification:

◦ solidifying liquid waste into solid glass or ceramic logs.

◦ Stored underground. SC (Savannah River) & NY (West Valley)

YUCCA MOUNTAIN◦ Nuclear Waste Policy Act (1982)

Waste disposal is gov’t responsibility.◦ Yucca Mountain (Nevada) was chosen as

the only candidate for perm. disposal. Problems:

◦ Near a volcano & many earthquakes◦ Could contaminate groundwater

-NIMBY and NIMTOO

◦ Take millions of years to form◦ Form from ancient decaying

organic/living material◦ three types:

coal (hydrocarbon rock) oil/petroleum (mixture of liquid

hydrocarbons) natural gas (mixture of gaseous

hydrocarbons)◦ We’re currently using them up at a

record pace.◦ Oil spills are a big problem.

BP SPILL GULF OF MEXICO 2010EXXON SPILL PRINCE WILLIAM

SOUND, ALASKA 1989

◦ Heavy nuclei (uranium-238) are bombarded with neutrons, causing the atom to split, releasing energy.

◦ Nuclear Power Plants are very safe if they’re built properly. They are designed to contain any radioactive leaks within the “containment building”… but sometimes mistakes happen, causing massive amounts of harmful radiation to leak out.

CHERNOBYL

3 MILE ISLAND

Chapter 12

HOW DO WE MAKE ENERGY???

◦ Light energy harnessed from the sun

◦ Photovoltaic Cells (solar panels) are very expensive to build and install… but once you’ve got them, you have free energy! (Last time I checked, sunlight was free!)

◦ Using wind to turn aerogenerators or wind turbines to generate electricity.

◦ Drawback: it’s not very windy everywhere… the most wind is usually on the tops of tall mountains or in very flat areas.

◦ Running water in rivers turns turbines inside dams to generate electricity.

◦ Building a dam creates great recreation area, and prevents flooding during heavy rains.

◦ Building a dam destroys the habitat of the organisms that live upstream and downstream from the dam.

◦ Fish cannot swim past most dams, so spawning is difficult or impossible.

Tidal dams are built across bays…

When the tides come in and go out,

The water pushes air that turns turbines

To generate electricity.

How many places on earth can take advantage of tidal energy?

◦ Hot water from deep underground creates steam

◦ The steam turns turbines which generate electricity

◦ How does digging the wells for this type of energy affect the environment?

Biomass energy, or "bioenergy"—the energy from plants and plant-derived materials

Advantages: ◦ CO2 production = CO2 intake, so no

excess greenhouse gases are created

◦ Can be found worldwide◦ Lower landfill use

Disadvantages: ◦ crops take up a lot of land and water; ◦ planting and harvesting take lots of energy; ◦ crops are not available year round

Biomass can be converteddirectly into liquid fuels, called "biofuels,” to be used for transportation

◦Ethanol is an alcohol created from biomass (usually corn)

◦Biodiesel is made by combining alcohol (usually methanol) with vegetable oil, animal fat, or recycled cooking grease.

◦Blended with gasoline, both increase vehicle performance and cut down carbon monoxide and other smog-causing emissions.